Editing Chang'an

{{Short description|Ancient capital of China}}
{{Other uses|Chang'an (disambiguation)}}
{{Coord|34|18|30|N|108|51|30|E|type:city_region:CN-SN-01|display=title}}
[[File:Prince Yide's tomb, towers.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[que (tower)|Que]]'' towers along the walls of [[Tang dynasty|Tang]]-era Chang'an, as depicted in this eighth-century mural from [[Li Chongrun]]'s (682–701) tomb at the [[Qianling Mausoleum]] in [[Shaanxi]]]]
{{Location map
| China Northern Plain
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| lat_min = 18 
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| lon_deg = 108 
| lon_min = 51
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| label = Chang'an
| caption = Chang'an within north-central China
| position = right
| background = #FFFFDD
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{{Infobox Chinese
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| s = 长安
| l = "Perpetual Peace"
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| tl = {{Zhwb|Tn̂g-an|Tiông-an}}
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'''Chang'an''' ({{IPAc-cmn|AUD|zh-Changan.ogg|ch|ang|2|.|an|1}}; {{lang-zh|t=長安|s=长安|p=Cháng'ān|first=t}}) is the traditional name of the city now named [[Xi'an]] and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since [[Neolithic]] times, during which the [[Yangshao culture]] was established in [[Banpo]], in what is now the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, [[Qin Shi Huang]] of the [[Qin dynasty]], China's first emperor, held his imperial court and constructed his massive mausoleum guarded by the [[Terracotta Army]].

From its capital at [[Xianyang]], the Qin dynasty ruled a larger area than either of the preceding dynasties. The imperial city of Chang'an during the [[Han dynasty]] was located northwest of today's Xi'an. During the [[Tang dynasty]], the area that came to be known as Chang'an included the area inside the Ming Xi'an fortification, plus some small areas to its east and west, and a substantial part of its southern suburbs. Thus, Tang Chang'an was eight times the size of the Ming Xi'an, which was reconstructed upon the site of the former imperial quarters of the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] and Tang city. During its zenith, Chang'an was one of the largest and most populous [[City|cities]] in the world. Around AD 750, Chang'an was called a "million-man city" in Chinese records, with modern estimates putting it at around 800,000–1,000,000 within city walls.<ref name=population>(a) Tertius Chandler, ''Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census'', Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1987. {{ISBN|0-88946-207-0}}. (b) [[George Modelski]], ''World Cities: –3000 to 2000'', Washington, D.C.: FAROS 2000, 2003. {{ISBN|0-9676230-1-4}}.</ref><!--<ref>However, Charles Benn (Benn, 46), Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James Palais (Ebrey, 93) assert that Chang'an and the surrounding jurisdictions of the suburban countryside (the [[metropolitan area]] of Chang'an) had a potential population size of around 2,000,000 people.</ref>---><ref>{{cite book |last1=Haywood |first1=John |last2=Jotischky |first2=Andrew |last3=McGlynn |first3=Sean |title=Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600–1492 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQMUNgAACAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Barnes & Noble |isbn=978-0-7607-1976-3 |pages=3.20, 3.31 |access-date=2015-12-31 |archive-date=2016-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414153922/https://books.google.com/books?id=YQMUNgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the census in 742 recorded in the ''[[New Book of Tang]]'', 362,921 families with 1,960,188 persons were counted in [[Jingzhao]] [[Fu (administrative division)|Fu]] ({{lang|zh|京兆府}}), the [[metropolitan area]] including small cities in the vicinity.<ref>''New Book of Tang'', vol. 41 (Zhi vol. 27) Geography 1.</ref>

== Peoples and ethnicities ==
Two of the largest ethnic groups in Chang'an were Han Chinese and Sogdians (people from [[Sogdia]]). Their cultures and traditions at times overlapped and combined. For instance, there were tombs within the city in Chinese style, had Chinese writing, led to an underground compartment, and had descriptions of the deceased. They also had Sogdian elements such as a miniature stone house and a stone bedlike platform. Funeral beds tend to also depict a Sogdian swirl as well. There were also many motifs that involved things like bird priests, winged, crowned horsed, winged musicians, and crowned human figures with streamers behind them. These motifs are not fully known as not much is known of the Sogdian religion.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Valerie |title=The Silk Road: A New History with Documents |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-0208929 |edition=1st |location=Oxford |publication-date=2017 |pages=239–284 |language=English}}</ref>

Ease of travel from the [[Yellow River]] and [[Yangtze]] River also made it easier for other travelers to go to Chang'an and sell goods to the people of the city. Some of these people even stayed and lived in the city as well. Chang'an would be an overlap for travelers going to other parts of the region. People from India, the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[Iranian plateau]], and Eastern African Coast would have people traveling to there and people from there traveling and residing in Chang'an.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Did You Know? The Cosmopolitan city of Chang’an at the Eastern End of the Silk Roads {{!}} Silk Roads Programme |url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/did-you-know-cosmopolitan-city-changan-eastern-end-silk-roads |access-date=2025-02-24 |website=en.unesco.org}}</ref>

Not every government official took a liking to foreigners coming and staying into Chang'an. For instance, [[Yuan Zhen]] wrote about how non-Chinese people were "barbaric" and how their cultures and practices would degrade the Chinese way of life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Follett |first=Chelsea |date=2020-08-27 |title=Centers of Progress, Pt. 10: Chang'an (Trade) |url=https://humanprogress.org/centers-of-progress-pt-10/ |access-date=2025-02-24 |website=Human Progress |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Religious institutions ==
Immigrants brought the ideas of new religions into the capital. The hub-status of the city caused these religions to stick and grow over time. Evidence suggests at least five or six Zoroastrian temples existed inside of the city while four temples existed around the Western Market. Christianity was around at this time as well. It was brought by a man named Aluoben who was sent by a church official in [[Seleucia-Ctesiphon]] [Modern day [[Iran]]]. The [[Church of the East in China|Church of the East]] first settlement was in China circa 635. Several hundred stone tablets and an artifact related to the Church of the East were discovered, which pointed to the existence of an affiliated single Christian church. The Church of the East is a Christian organization which sponsored the creation of churches in multiple Chinese cities, like Chang'an. Members of the Church of the East had received support from the [[Tang dynasty]] and yet during this same dynasty, the emperor placed a ban on [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]], and only Buddhism survived. In 843 the Tang emperor also banned the religion of [[Manichaeism]]. A few years later the emperor banned [[Zoroastrianism]] and reinstated the ban on Buddhism. This ban on Buddhism was lifted a short while later when the current emperor passed away.<ref name=":0" />

=== Suburban sacrifices ===
High level sacrifices would be orchestrated and performed by the high ruling family near the suburbs of Chang'an. Typically, these sacrifices worshipped the Earth and Heaven. These would sometimes entail human sacrifices of imprisoned individuals or enslaved peoples but would also entail sacrifices of parts of the earth and animals. There were several alters constructed for worship to several deities. The most significant came from the Han [[Emperor Wu of Han|Wudi]], who emphasized alters to [[Taiyi Zhenren|Taiyi]] (The Grand Unity), [[Ganquan County|Ganquan]] (Sweet Springs), and [[Houtu]] (Sovereign Earth).<ref name=":3" />

There were groups that were against these sacrifices. Kuang Heng had enacted reforms as emperor, limiting the sacrifices. One prominent figure on this topic was [[Liu Xiang (scholar)|Liu Xiang]], who formed a group to get rid of Heng's reforms. During the reign of Chengdi, there were many natural disasters that occurred. Liu Xiang argued that his research as a scholar showcases that the sacrifices were a part of an old cult, but they were proven to work. The idea was that if these sacrifices occurred, there would be balance between heaven and earth. When these sacrifices stopped, this gave the idea that the balance was broken. Chengdi would eventually restore this sacrificial system in 14 BC. By 4 BC, all of the old Gods that were banned were restored and more temples were enacted. Chengdi did try to keep the sacrifices away from Chang'an to keep the practice separate from the capital.<ref name=":2" />

== City structure ==
The overall form of the city was an irregular rectangle. The ideal square of the city had been twisted into the form of the [[Big Dipper]] for astrological reasons, and also to follow the bank of the Wei River. The eight avenues divided the city into nine districts. These nine main districts were subdivided into 160 walled 1×1&nbsp;''li'' wards.<ref name="Schinz, 1996">Schinz, 1996</ref> About 50–100 families lived in each ward. Historically, Chang'an grew in four phases: the first from 200 to 195&nbsp;BC when the palaces were built; the second 195–180&nbsp;BC when the outer city walls were built; the third between 141 and 87&nbsp;BC with a peak at 100&nbsp;BC; and the fourth from 1&nbsp;BC–24&nbsp;AD when it was destroyed.

The Xuanpingmen gate was the main gate between the city and the suburbs. The district north of the [[Weiyang Palace]] was the most exclusive. The main market, called the Nine Markets, was the eastern economic terminus of the Silk Road. Access to the market was from the Northeast and Northwest gates, which were the most heavily used by the common people. The former connect with a bridge over the Wei River to the northern suburbs and the latter connected with the rest of China to the east. An intricate network of underground passages connected the imperial harem with other palaces and the city.<ref>Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 2003</ref> These passages were controlled by underground gatehouses and their existence was unknown. The city tended to be broken up into three districts: the palace city (''gongcheng'' 宮城), the imperial city (''huangcheng'' 皇城), and the outer city (''waiguo cheng'' 外郭城).<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Wen |first=Xin |date=2024 |title=The Song Rediscovery of Chang'an |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sys.2024.a946876 |journal=Journal of Song-Yuan Studies |volume=53 |pages=127–190 |via=Project MUSE}}</ref>

=== How to acquire land ===
There were five different ways that land could be held in Chang'an during medieval China. One was for them to be held as public lands which required an order from the emperor. The second was to have the land registered, which was typically registered in a single individuals name. The third was to get a land grant bestowed upon you for showcasing great honor. The fourth was to purchase land, which was possible due to Shang Yang's reforms of 350 BC. The last way was to reclaim land under your family name.<ref name=":3" />

=== The Palace City (G''ongcheng'' 宮城) ===
The palace city was reserved for the emperor and his entourage only. The palace city also had a vast royal garden, which was referred to as the "forbidden garden", as it was not accessible to the general public or even many government employees.<ref name=":1" /> The idea behind giving the Emperor this space was to give him space to think and make decisions. This area was also to signify the importance of the emperor. Because In ancient China the emperor was seen as ordained, having a secluded area for him was a right of his ordainment.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Loewe, Vankeerberghen, and Nylan |first=Michael, Griet, and Michael |title=Chang'an 26 BCE: An Augustan Age in China |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-295-99405-5 |edition=1st |location=Seattle |publication-date=2015 |pages=}}</ref>

=== The Imperial City (H''uangcheng'' 皇城) ===
The imperial city was delegated for government workers and administrators. This is where the bureaucrats who kept the administrative processes in the country worked and lived.<ref name=":1" /> The reason for this was to keep the administrators focused on their work. The bureaucrats were too vital to the operations of the country that the high court wanted their attention solely on the bureaucracy of the empire.<ref name=":2" />

=== The Outer City (W''aiguo'' ''Cheng'' 外郭城) ===
The outer city is where many of the common civilians would live. There were about 110 walled words, two markets, suburbs, villas for lower-level government officials, and religious institutions.<ref name=":1" /> This is the area where many travelers would stay and trade with the nation, where typically it was bartering that would occur. There would be some coinage used, but typically silk was one of the main types of currency people used to exchange for goods and services.<ref name=":0" /> This part of the city housed millions of peoples, saw the mixing of different cultures and religions, and was a main focus for government officials, as any architectural or structural problems could bring imbalance within the empire.<ref name=":2" />

The West Market (and East Market) would open at noon, announced by the 300 strikes on a loud drum, while the markets would close one hour and three quarters before dusk, the curfew signaled by the sound of 300 beats to a loud gong.<ref name="Benn 55">Benn, 55.</ref> After the official markets were closed for the night, small night markets in residential areas would then thrive with plenty of customers, despite government efforts in the year 841 to shut them down.<ref name="Benn 55" />

The West Market ({{lang|zh|西市}}); its surface area covered the size of two regular city wards, and was divided into 9 different [[city block]]s. It sported a [[Persian people|Persian]] [[bazaar]] that catered to tastes and styles popular then in medieval [[Iran]]. It had numerous [[wine]]shops, [[tavern]]s, and [[vendor]]s of [[beverage]]s ([[tea]] being the most popular), gruel, pastries, and cooked [[cereal]]s. There was a [[Deposit insurance|safety deposit firm]] located here as well, along with government offices in the central city block that monitored [[Commerce|commercial]] actions.<ref name=":0" />

The East Market ({{lang|zh-Hant|東市}}); like the West Market, was a walled and gated marketplace that had nine city blocks and a central block reserved for government offices that regulated trade and monitored the transactions of goods and services. There was a street with the [[street name|name]] "[[Ironmonger]]s' Lane", plenty of pastry shops, taverns, and a seller of foreign [[musical instrument]]s.<ref name="Benn 55" />

===Layout of the city===
[[File:Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Giant Wild Goose Pagoda]], built in 652 AD, located in the [[#Southeastern Chang'an|southeast sector]] of Chang'an.]]
During Tang, the main exterior walls of Chang'an rose {{cvt|18|ft|m}} high, were {{cvt|5|mi|km}} by six miles in length, and formed a city in a rectangular shape, with an inner surface area of {{cvt|30|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name="Benn 47">Benn, 47.</ref> The areas to the north that jutted out like appendages from the main wall were the West Park, the smaller East Park, and the [[Daming Palace]], while the southeasternmost extremity of the main wall was built around the Serpentine River Park that jutted out as well. The West Park walled off and connected to the West Palace (guarded behind the main exterior wall) by three gates in the north, the walled-off enclosure of the Daming Palace connected by three gates in the northeast, the walled-off East Park led in by one gate in the northeast, and the Serpentine River Park in the southeast was simply walled off by the main exterior wall, and open without gated enclosures facing the southeasternmost city blocks. There was a Forbidden Park to the northwest outside of the city, where there was a [[cherry]] [[orchard]], a [[Pear Garden]], a [[vineyard]], and fields for playing popular sports such as horse [[polo]] and ''[[cuju]]'' (ancient Chinese [[football]]).<ref name="benn xiv">Benn, xiv.</ref> On the northwest section of the main outer wall there were three gates leading out to the Forbidden Park, three gates along the western section of the main outer wall, three gates along the southern section of the main outer wall, and three gates along the eastern section of the main outer wall.<ref name="benn xiii">Benn, xiii.</ref>

Although the city had many different streets and roads passing between the wards, city blocks, and buildings, there were distinct major roads (lined up with the nine gates of the western, southern, and eastern walls of the city) that were much wider avenues than the others.<ref name="benn xviii">Benn, xviii</ref> There were six of these major roads that divided the city into nine distinct gridded sectors ([[#Locations and events|listed below]] by [[cardinal direction]]). The narrowest of these streets were {{cvt|82|ft|m}} wide, those terminating at the gates of the outer walls being {{cvt|328|ft|m}} wide, and the largest of all, the Imperial Way that stretched from the central southern gate all the way to the Administrative City and West Palace in the north, was {{cvt|492|ft|m}} wide.<ref name="benn 48">Benn, 48.</ref> Streets and roads of these widths allowed for efficient fire breaks in the city of Chang'an. For example, in 843, a large fire consumed 4,000 homes, [[warehouse]]s, and other buildings in the East Market, yet the rest of the city was at a safe distance from the blaze (which was largely [[quarantine]]d in East Central Chang'an).<ref name="benn 48" /> The citizens of Chang'an were also pleased with the government once the imperial court ordered the planting of [[fruit tree]]s along all of the avenues of the city in 740.<ref name="benn 49">Benn, 49.</ref>

===City walls===
[[File:History of Xi'an.jpg|thumb|300px|Map showing the history of city walls of Xi'an from Zhou dynasty to Qing dynasty.]]

The 25.7&nbsp;km long city wall was initially 3.5&nbsp;m wide at the base tapering upward 8&nbsp;m for a top width of 2&nbsp;m.<ref name="Culture, P.R 2003">Ministry of Culture, P.R. Chin (2003)</ref> Beyond this wall, a 6.13&nbsp;m wide moat with a depth of 4.62&nbsp;m was spanned by 13.86&nbsp;m long stone bridges. The wall was later expanded to 12–16&nbsp;m at base and 12&nbsp;m high. The moat was expanded to 8&nbsp;m wide and 3&nbsp;m deep. The expansion of the wall was likely a solution to flooding from the [[Wei River]]. The entire city was sited below the 400&nbsp;m [[contour line]] which the Tang dynasty used to mark the edge of the floodplain.<ref name="Schinz, 1996" />

Twelve gates with three gateways each, according with the ritual formulas of [[Ancient Chinese urban planning|Zhou dynasty urban planning]], pierced the wall. These gates were distributed three 
a side and from them eight 45&nbsp;m wide main avenues extended into the city.<ref name="Culture, P.R 2003" /> These avenues were also divided into three lanes aligned with the three gateways of each gate. The lanes were separated by median strips planted with pine, elm, and [[scholar tree]]s. Bachengmen Avenue was an exception with a width of 82&nbsp;m and no medians.<ref name="Schinz, 1996" /> Four of the gates opened directly into the palaces.

The northern, western and southern ends of the walls were zig-zagged and the eastern part of the walls were straight. There were military garrisons at each side of the wall. However, on the southern end, the garrison was on the outside part of the city. The northern camp was also close to the royal entrance of [[Weiyang, Xi'an|Weiyang.]] The walls on the northern side also divided the military's armory perimeter in half, dividing the arms on each side.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Libin |first=Xie |date=2024 |title=A Study of Military Defense in the Ancient Chinese City of Chang’an During the Han Dynasty |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/23354213.pdf?casa_token=Crd8xxogB7UAAAAA:Kg4_gCqQN-8o9KR3EuwHk8O_DxilmaJ2P0kZcT9mnOQ2pMyp5AsE4zqcp7v4NoKUTBExLQ2oclEL9EPD3CgY0j94zoJm6H68kTuTqdRotornVfuYIBc |journal=Minden Journal of History and Archaeology |volume=1 |issue=1 |jstor=23354213}}</ref>

===Water systems===
[[File:Xi'anwildgoosepagoda2.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The [[Small Wild Goose Pagoda]], built in 709 AD, damaged by an [[earthquake]] in 1556 but still standing, in the [[#Central Chang'an|central sector]] of Chang'an.]]
Within the West Park was a running stream and within the walled enclosure of the West Palace were two running streams, one connecting three ponds and another connecting two ponds. The small East Park had a pond the size of those in the West Palace. The [[Daming Palace]] and the Xingqing Palace (along the eastern wall of the city) had small lakes to boast. The Serpentine River Park had a large lake within its bounds that was bigger than the latter two lakes combined, connected at the southern end by a river that ran under the main walls and out of the city.<ref name="benn xiii" />

There were five transport and sanitation [[canal]]s running throughout the city, which had several water sources, and delivered water to city parks, gardens of the rich, and the grounds of the imperial palaces.<ref name="benn 49" /> The sources of water came from a stream running through the Forbidden Park and under the northern city wall, two running streams from outside the city in the south, a stream that fed into the pond of the walled East Park, which in turn fed into a canal that led to the inner city. These canal waterways in turn streamed water into the ponds of the West Palace; the lake in the Xingqing Palace connected two canals running through the city. The canals were also used to transport crucial goods throughout the city, such as [[charcoal]] and firewood in the winter.<ref name="benn 49" />
[[File:Chang'an Canal.jpg|thumb|Canal found in Xian, which is modern Chang'an]]
The Stone Dike, located around the [[Kunming Lake|Kunming Pond]], was designed as one of the primary regulators for water flow and regulation. The Kunming Pond also had the Raise-River Slope, which was a man made contraption to divide the water into two streams. The purpose of both the Stone Dike and Raise-River Slope was to get the water flowing northward and some water into water store houses. In order to make it into the royal parts of the city, water flow would have to be increased several times a year, as the pond was about 1500 meters from the royal areas.<ref name=":2" />

The Jiao River was a man-made river which ran east to west and linked the Jue River to the Feng River. This river helped with outflow, and ensured that rivers near the capital flowed farther before emptying out into the [[Wei River]].<ref name=":2" />

=== Food supply ===
Those living in Chang'an relied a lot on farming goods for sustenance. Many ate pancakes, greens, wheat, soybeans, rice, millet, barley, and sweet bean stew which grew from local farmers. Most of the grain products were grown in the greater metropolitan regions of Chang'an. Each person was also given a monthly food allowance of 3 bushes of grain a month. There were five granaries in which these monthly allowance grains were held. These were the Great Grainery, Capital Grainery, Jiahe Grainery, Sweet Springs Grainery, and the Pier Grainery. These granaries relied on the water transportation systems from the canals which were built to transport food among other materials.<ref name=":2" />

===Palaces===
*'''Changle Palace''' ({{zhi|c=长乐宫}}; {{zhi|c=長樂宮|p=Chánglègōng}}) Also called the East Palace. It was built atop the ruins of Qin dynasty Apex Temple ({{zhi|c=Xingōng}}). After Liu Bang it was used as the residence of the Empress Regent. The 10,000&nbsp;m wall surrounded a square 6&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> complex. Important halls of the palace included: Linhua Hall, Changxin Hall, Changqiu Hall, Yongshou Hall, Shenxian Hall, Yongchang Hall, and the Bell Room.
*'''Weiyang Palace''' ({{zhi|c=未央宮}}; [[Weiyang Palace|Wèiyāng Gōng]]) Also known as the West Palace. The official center of government from Emperor Huidi onwards. The palace was a walled rectangle 2250×2150&nbsp;m enclosing a 5&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> building complex of 40 halls. There were four gates in the wall facing a cardinal direction. The east gate was used only by nobility and the north one only by commoners. The palace was sited along the highest portion of the [[ridgeline]] on which Chang'an was built. In, fact the Front Hall at the center of the palace was built atop the exact highest point of the ridge. The foundation terrace of this massive building is 350×200×15&nbsp;m. Other important halls are: Xuanshi Hall, Wenshi Hall, Qingliang Hall, Qilin Hall, Jinhua Hall, and Chengming Hall. Used by seven dynasties this palace has become the most famous in [[Chinese history]].
*'''Gui Palace''' ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=桂宫|p=Guigōng}}) Built as an extension of the harem built in 100&nbsp;BC
*'''North Palace''' ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=北宮|p=Běigōng}}) A ceremonial center built in 100&nbsp;BC
*'''Mingguang Palace''' ({{lang|zh|明光宫}}) Built as a guesthouse in 100&nbsp;BC
*'''Epang Palace''' ({{zhi|c=阿房宮|p=Ēpánggōng}})
*'''Jianzhang Palace''' ({{lang|zh|建章宫}}) Built in 104&nbsp;BC in Shanglin Park. It was a rectangle 20×30 ''li'' with a tower 46&nbsp;m high. The name means palace of establishing eternal rules.

==Han period==
[[File:HanHorse.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[terracotta]] horse head from the Han dynasty]]

The Han capital was located 3&nbsp;km northwest of modern [[Xi'an]]. As the capital of the Western Han, it was the political, economic and cultural center of China. It was also the eastern terminus of the [[Silk Road]], and a cosmopolitan metropolis. It was a consumer city, a city whose existence was not primarily predicated upon manufacturing and trade, but rather boasted such a large population because of its role as the political and military center of China. By 2&nbsp;AD, the population was 246,200 in 80,000 households.<ref name="Schinz, 1996" /> This population consisted mostly of the scholar gentry class whose education was being sponsored by their wealthy aristocratic families. In addition to these civil servants there was a larger underclass to serve them.

Initially, Emperor [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Liu Bang]] decided to build his capital at the area south of Luo River, which according to Chinese geography was in modern [[Luoyang]]. This location was the site of the holy city [[Chengzhou]], capital of [[Eastern Zhou]]. However, the strategic military value of a capital located in the Wei Valley became the deciding factor for locating the new capital. To this end, it is recorded c&nbsp;200&nbsp;BC he forcibly relocated thousands of clans in the military aristocracy to this region.<ref name="Schinz, 1996" /> The purpose was twofold. First, it kept all potential rivals close to the new Emperor, and second, it allowed him to redirect their energy toward defending the capital from invasion by the nearby [[Xiongnu]]. His adviser Liu Jing described this plan as weakening the root while strengthening the branch.

After the necessary political structure was set up, the area of the capital was divided into three prefectures and construction began. At its founding in 195&nbsp;BC, the population of Changan was 146,000.<ref name="Schinz, 1996" /> During the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han]], the diplomat [[Zhang Qian]] was dispatched westward into [[Central Asia]]. Subsequently, Chang'an city became the Asian gateway to Europe as the point of departure of the [[Silk Road]]. On 4 October 23 AD, Chang'an was captured and sacked during a [[Lülin|peasant rebellion]]. The emperor, [[Wang Mang]] was killed and decapitated by the rebels two days later.<ref name="Hymes">{{cite book |author=[[Robert Hymes]] |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john |title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-231-11004-4 |editor=John Stewart Bowman |page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john/page/13 13] |url-access=registration}}</ref> After the Western Han period, the Eastern Han government settled on [[Luoyang]] as the new capital. Chang'an was therefore also sometimes referred to as the Western Capital or Xijing ({{lang|zh|西京}}) in some Han dynasty texts. In 190&nbsp;AD during late Eastern Han, the court was seized and relocated back to Chang'an by the notorious Prime Minister [[Dong Zhuo]], as it was a strategically superior site against the mounting insurgency formed against him. After Dong's death (192) the capital was moved back to Luoyang in August 196, and to [[Xuchang]] in autumn 196.<ref name="2006dict36">{{Cite book |last=de Crespigny |first=Rafe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |date=2006 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9047411840 |location=Leiden |pages=35–39 |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214153441/https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |archive-date=14 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> By this time, Chang'an was already regarded as the symbolic site of supreme power and governance.

=== First phase ===
In 200&nbsp;BC after marking the boundaries of the three prefectures, which comprised the metropolitan region of [[Xianyang]], [[Liu Bang]] appointed Xiao He to design and build the new capital. He chose to site the city on ruins of the [[Qin dynasty]] Apex Temple (formerly, Xin Palace). This old Qin palace was meant to be the earthly mirror of Polaris, the apex star, where the heavenly emperor resided. This site thus represented the center of the earth lying under the center of heaven with an [[axis mundi]] running upward from the imperial throne to its heavenly counterpart. The ruins were greatly expanded to 7×7 ''li'' in size and renamed [[Changle Palace]] ({{zhi|c=长乐宫}}; {{zhi|c=長樂宮|p=Chánglègōng}}). Two years later, a new palace called [[Weiyang Palace]] ({{zhi|c=未央宮|p=Wèiyānggōng}}) was constructed 5×7 ''li''.<ref name="Schinz, 1996" /> Prime minister [[Xiao He]] convinced Liu Bang that both the excessive size and multiplicity of palaces was necessary to secure his rule by creating a spectacle of power.

=== Second phase ===
[[File:Chang Le Gong and Wei Yang Gong by Bi Yuan.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|[[Qing-era]] map of Weiyang and Chang'an Palace]]In 195 BC, his son, [[Emperor Hui of Han]] began the construction of the walls of Chang'an and finished them in September 191 BC. The grid north of the palaces was built at this time with a 2° difference in alignment to the grid of the palaces.<ref name="Schinz, 1996" /> The city remained quite static after this expansion.

=== Third phase ===
[[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] began a third phase of construction which peaked on 100&nbsp;BC with the construction of many new palaces. He also added the nine temples complex south of the city, and built the park. In 120&nbsp;BC, Shanglin Park, which had been used for agriculture by the common people since Liu Bang was sealed off, was turned into an imperial park again. In the center of the park was a recreation of the [[three fairy islands]] in [[Kunming Lake]].

==Jin, Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern Dynasties period==
Chang'an was briefly the capital of the [[Western Jin dynasty]] from 312 to 316. It was also the capital of [[Former Zhao]] (318–329), [[Former Qin]] (351–385) and [[Later Qin]] (384–417). In 417, a century after the Western Jin lost Chang'an, the city was reconquered by [[Emperor Wu of Liu Song|Liu Yu]] of [[Eastern Jin]], who founded the [[Liu Song dynasty]] in 420. The city was lost to [[Northern Wei]] by 439. When Northern Wei split in two, Chang'an became the capital of [[Western Wei]] (535–557), and also of its successor state [[Northern Zhou]] (557–581).

===The Tang Dynasty===
The Sui and Tang empires occupied the same location. In 582, [[Emperor Wen of Sui|Emperor Wen]] of the [[Sui dynasty]] sited a new region southeast of the much ruined Han dynasty Chang'an to build his new capital, which he called Daxing ({{zhi|c=大興|l=Great prosperity}}). Daxing was renamed Chang'an in the year 618 when the Duke of Tang, Li Yuan, proclaimed himself the [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang]]. Chang'an during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) was, along with [[Constantinople]] ([[Istanbul]]) and [[Baghdad]], one of the largest cities in the world.<ref name="benn 50">Benn, 50.</ref>

The Tang Dynasty was the last dynasty to have control of Chang'an before its downfall. The Tang had a preference for entertainment, writers, poets, singers, and dancer. There was an entertainment ward established in this dynasty that was considered to have the finest singers in the city, and another with the finest dancers. During the Tang Dynasty, this institution was called "Jiaofang (教坊)" and hired singing courtesans and dancing courtesans to provide performances. The institution also hired male musicians to perform music.<ref name="beverly bossler pp. 71-99 (29 pages)">Beverly Bossler, pp. 71-99 (29 pages).</ref>

There was also a crackdown on religions by the Tang government. For example, The Xingqing Palace, once a Buddhist monastery,  was converted to an Imperial palace in the early eighth century when the emperor believed the monks were untrustworthy, and wanted to use the palace for military training.<ref name="beverly bossler pp. 71-99 (29 pages)" /> However, most of the religious crackdowns were focused on Sogdian or Kuchan religions such as Islam or of the Church of the East.<ref name=":0" /> However, Buddhist monasteries and structures were not immune. In 713, [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]] liquidated the highly lucrative Inexhaustible Treasury, which was run by a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang'an. This monastery collected vast amounts of money, silk, and treasures through multitudes of anonymous rich people's repentances, leaving the donations on the premises without providing their name. Although the monastery was generous in donations, Emperor Xuanzong issued a decree abolishing their treasury on grounds that their banking practices were fraudulent, collected their riches, and distributed the wealth to various other Buddhist monasteries, Taoist abbeys, and to repair statues, halls, and bridges in the city.<ref name="Benn 55" />

There were many rebellions and assassinations during this dynasty as well, in part due to the authoritarian and aggressive nature of the emperors and government officials. The government was more forceful in taking payments and tribute from citizens, and citizens were being divided up into more and more groups and selected for specific roles.<ref name=":1" />  People were afraid of the government taking their property whenever it felt like it. In 613 where a family threw their gold into the [[Water well|well]] of their mansion because they feared the city government would confiscate it.<ref name="Benn 149" />  There were more forceful actions being taken by rebel groups during this dynasty. For example, in 815  [[assassination|assassin]]s murdered [[Chancellor of the Tang dynasty|Chancellor]] Wu as he was leaving the eastern gate of the northeastern most ward in southern Chang'an. This does not mean all citizens were on board with the rebels, as people were afraid of the rebels actions as much as the governments, if not more so. In the ninth century three [[maidservant]]s committed suicide by leaping into a well and drowning once they heard the rebel [[Huang Chao]] was [[ransack]]ing their mistress's mansion.<ref name="Benn 152" /> The government wanted to have a clear message though, and brutality was often used against the rebels.<ref name=":0" /> There was an instance where and individual had his stomach cut open in order to defend [[Emperor Ruizong of Tang]] against charges of [[treason]].<ref name="Benn 157" /> The markets and regular shops would be a site where people would gather to discuss rebellions in the region as well. Many rebel leaders would go to these areas to recruit people, as they knew many people were just barely making enough to get by.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |title=Chang'an 26 BCE: an Augustan Age in China |date=2015 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-99405-5 |editor-last=Nylan |editor-first=Michael |location=Seattle |editor-last2=Vankeerberghen |editor-first2=Griet |editor-last3=Loewe |editor-first3=Michael}}</ref> In 835 palace troops captured rebel leaders in a tea shop that were planning a palace [[coup d'état]] against the chief court eunuchs.<ref name="Benn 47" />

== Citywide events ==
Sources:<ref name="Benn 149">Benn, 149.</ref><ref name="Benn 150">Benn, 150.</ref><ref name="Benn 151">Benn, 151.</ref><ref name="Benn 152">Benn, 152.</ref><ref name="Benn 153">Benn, 153.</ref>

=== [[Chinese New Year|New Year]] ===
The grandest of all festivals, and a seven-day holiday period for government officials. Civil officials, military officers, and foreign emissaries gathered first in the early hours of the morning to attend a [[Levee (event)|levee]], an occasion where omens, disasters, and blessings of the previous year would be reviewed, along with tribute of regional prefectures and foreign countries presented. It was also an opportunity for provincial governors to present their recommended candidates for the [[imperial examination]]. Although festival ceremonies in Chang'an were lavish, rural people in the countryside celebrated privately at home with their families in age old traditions, such as drinking a special wine, Killing Ghosts and Reviving Souls wine, that was believed to cure illnesses in the following year.

=== [[Lantern Festival]] ===
A three-day festival held on the 14th, 15th, and 16th days of the first [[full moon]]. This was the only holiday where the government lifted its nightly curfew all across the city so that people could freely exit their wards and stroll about the main city streets to celebrate. Citizens attempted to outdo one another each year in the amount of lamps and the size of lamps they could erect in a grand display. By far the most prominent was the one in the year 713 erected at a gate in Chang'an by the recently abdicated [[Emperor Ruizong of Tang]]. His lantern wheel had a recorded height of {{cvt|200|ft|m}}, the frame of which was draped in [[brocade]]s and [[silk]] [[gauze]], adorned with [[gold]] and [[jade]] jewelry, and when it had its total of some 50,000 oil cups lit the radiance of it could be seen for miles.

=== Lustration ===
This one-day festival took place on the third day of the third moon (dubbed the "double-three"), and traditionally was meant to dispel evil and wash away defilement in a river with scented aromatic [[orchis]] plants. By the Tang era it had become a time of bawdy celebration, feasting, wine drinking, and writing poetry. The Tang court annually served up a special batch of [[deep fried]] pastries as dessert for the occasion, most likely served in the Serpentine River Park.

=== [[Cold Food Festival]] ===
This solar-based holiday on April 5 (concurrent with the [[Qingming Festival]]) was named so because no fires were allowed to be lit for three days, hence no warmed or hot food. It was a time to respect one's ancestors by maintaining their tombs and offering sacrifices, while a [[picnic]] would be held later in the day. It was also a time for fun in outdoor activities, with amusement on [[swing set]]s, playing cuju football, horse polo, and [[tug of war]]. In the year 710, [[Emperor Zhongzong of Tang]] had his chief ministers, sons-in-law, and military officers engage in a game of tug of war, and purportedly laughed when the oldest ministers fell over. The imperial throne also presented porridge to officials, and even dyed chicken and duck eggs, similar to the practice on [[Easter]] in the [[Western world]].

=== Fifth Day of the Fifth Moon ===
This one-day holiday dubbed the [[Dragon Boat Festival]] was held in honor of an ancient Chinese statesman [[Qu Yuan]] ({{circa|340}}-278 BC) from the [[Chu (state)|State of Chu]]. Ashamed that he could not save the dire affairs of his state or his king by offering good council, Qu Yuan leaped into a river and committed [[suicide]]; it was said that soon after many went out on the river in boats in a desperate attempt to rescue him if still alive. This act turned into a festive tradition of boarding a [[dragon boat]] to race against other [[oar]]smen, and also to call out Qu's name, still in search of him. The type of food commonly eaten during the Tang period for this festival was either glutinous millet or rice wrapped in leaves and boiled.

=== Seventh Night of the Seventh Moon ===
This was a one-day festival that was held in honor of the [[Heaven|celestial]] [[affair|love affair]] with deities associated with the star [[Altair]] (the male cow-herd deity) in the [[constellation]] [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] and the star [[Vega]] (the female weaver maid deity) in the constellation [[Lyra]]. For this holiday, women prayed for the enhancement of their skills at sewing and weaving. In the early eighth century Tang servitors had erected a {{cvt|100|ft|m}} tall hall by knotting [[brocade]]s to a bamboo frame and laid out fruits, ale, and roasts as offerings to the two stellar lovers. It was during this holiday that the emperor's [[concubine]]s threaded [[polychrome]] thread into needles with nine eyes, while facing the Moon themselves (in a ritual called "praying for skill [in sewing and weaving]").

=== Fifteenth Day of the Seventh Moon ===
This holiday was called All Saints' Feast, developing from the legend [[Mulian Rescues His Mother]]. in which the [[bodhisattva]] savior Mulian who had discovered his mother paying for her sinful ways while in [[purgatory]] filled with hungry ghosts. According to the tale, she starved there because any food that she put into her mouth would turn into charcoal. Then it was said that she told the Buddha to make an offering with his clergy on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, a virtuous act that would free seven generations of people from being hungry ghosts in Hell as well as people reborn as lower animals. After Mulian was able to save his own mother by offerings, Mulian convinced the Buddha to make the day into a permanent holiday. This holiday was an opportunity of Buddhist monasteries to flaunt their collected wealth and attract donors, especially by methods of drawing crowds with dramatic spectacles and performances.

=== Fifteenth Day of the Eighth Moon ===
This festival (today simply called the Moon Festival or [[Mid-Autumn Festival]]), took place in mid autumn, and was designated as a three-day [[annual leave|vacation]] for government officials. Unlike the previous holiday's association with Buddhism, this holiday was associated with Taoism, specifically Taoist [[alchemy]]. There was a tale about a [[hare]] on the moon who worked hard grinding [[ingredient]]s for an [[elixir]] by using a [[mortar and pestle]]. In [[folklore]], a [[Magic (illusion)|magician]] escorted Emperor [[Li Longji|Illustrious August]] to the palace of the moon goddess across a silver bridge that was conjured up by him tossing his staff into the air. In the tale, on the fifteenth day of the eighth moon, the emperor viewed the performance of "Air of the Rainbow Robe and Feathered Skirt" by immortal maids. He memorized the music, and on his return to earth taught it to his performers. For people in Chang'an (and elsewhere), this holiday was a means for many to simply feast and drink for the night.

=== Ninth Day of the Ninth Moon ===
This was a three-day holiday associated with the promotion of longevity (with [[chrysanthemum]] as the main symbol). It was a holiday where many sought to have picnics out in the country, especially in higher elevated areas such as mountain sides. Without the ability to travel away to far off mountains, inhabitants of Chang'an simply held their feasts at the tops of pagodas or in the Serpentine River Park. Stems and leaves of chrysanthemum were added to [[fermentation (food)|ferment]]ed grains and were brewed for a year straight. On the same festival the following year, it was believed that drinking this ale would prolong one's life.

=== The Last Day of the Twelfth Moon ===
On this holiday ale and fruit were provided as offerings to the god of the stove, after having Buddhist or Taoist priests recite scripture at one's own home (if one had the wealth and means). Offerings were made to the stove god because it was his responsibility to make annual reports to heaven on the good deeds or sins committed by the family in question. A family would do everything to charm the god, including hanging a newly painted portrait of the god on a piece of paper above their stove on New Years, which hung in the same position for an entire year. It was a common practice to rub in some [[alcoholic beverage]] across the picture of the deities mouth, so that he would become drunk and far too [[inebriated]] to make any sort of reasonably bad or negative report about the family to heaven.

=== Grand Carnivals ===
[[Carnival]]s during the Tang period were lively events, with great quantities of eating, drinking, street [[parade]]s, and sideshow acts in tents. Carnivals had no fixed dates or customs, but were merely celebrations bestowed by the emperor in the case of his generosity or special circumstances such as great military victories, abundant [[harvest]]s after a long drought or famine, sacrifices to gods, or the granting of grand [[amnesty|amnesties]].<ref name="Benn 155" /> This type of carnival as a nationwide tradition was established long before the Tang by [[Qin Shihuang]] in the third century BC, upon his unification of China in 221.<ref name="Benn 154">Benn, 154.</ref> Between 628 and 758, the imperial throne bestowed a total of sixty nine different carnivals, seventeen of which were held under [[Wu Zetian|Empress Wu]].<ref name="Benn 155">Benn, 155.</ref>

These carnivals generally lasted 3 days, and sometimes five, seven, or nine days (using odd numbers due so that the number of days could correspond with beliefs in the cosmos). The carnival grounds were usually staged in the wide avenues of the city, and smaller parties in attendance in the open plazas of Buddhist monasteries. However, in 713, a carnival was held in the large avenue running east to west between the West Palace walls and the government compounds of the administrative city, an open space that was {{cvt|0.75|mi|km}} long and {{cvt|1447|ft|m}} wide, and was more secure since the guard units of the city were placed nearby and could handle crowd control of trouble arose.<ref name="Benn 156">Benn, 156.</ref>

Carnivals of the Tang dynasty featured large passing wagons with high poles were acrobats would climb and perform stunts for crowds. Large floats during the Tang, on great four-wheeled wagons, rose as high as five stories, called 'mountain carts' or 'drought boats'.<ref name="Benn 157">Benn, 157.</ref> These superstructure vehicles were draped in silken flags and cloths, with bamboo and other wooden type frames, foreign musicians dressed in rich fabrics sitting on the top playing music, and the whole cart drawn by [[ox]]en that were covered in [[tiger]] skins and outfitted to look like [[rhinoceros]]es and [[elephant]]s. An official in charge of the [[Music Bureau]] in the early seventh century set to the task of composing the official music that was to be played in the grand carnival of the year. On some occasions the emperor granted prizes to those carnival performers he deemed to outshine the rest with their talents.[[File:XiAn qujiang.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A theme park of Tang Chang'an in Xi'an today]]
[[File:Shaanxi History Museum.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Shaanxi History Museum]]

==Decline==

In 682, a culmination of major droughts, floods, [[locust]] plagues, and [[epidemic]]s, a widespread famine broke out in the dual Chinese capital cities of Chang'an and Luoyang. The scarcity of food drove the price of grain to unprecedented heights of [[inflation]], while a once prosperous era under emperors Taizong and Gaozong ended on a sad note.<ref name="Benn 4">Benn, 4.</ref>

Much of Chang'an was destroyed during its repeated sacking during the [[An Lushan Rebellion]] and several subsequent events. Chang'an was occupied by the forces of [[An Lushan]] and [[Shi Siming]], in 756; then taken back by the Tang government and allied troops in 757. In 763, Chang'an, modern-day Xian,  was briefly occupied by the [[Tibetan Empire]]. In 765, Chang'an was besieged by an alliance of the Tibetan Empire and the [[Uyghur Khaganate]]. Several laws enforcing segregation of foreigners from [[Han Chinese]] were passed during the [[Tang dynasty]]. In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced [[Uyghur people|Uighurs]] in the capital, Chang'an, to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&pg=PA22 |title=The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics |author=Edward H. Schafer |year=1963 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-05462-8 |page=22 |access-date=2010-06-28 |archive-date=2013-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616133428/http://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&pg=PA22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 783 and 784, Chang'an was again occupied by rebels during the [[Jingyuan mutiny|Jingyuan Rebellion]].

In 881, Chang'an was occupied by the rebel [[Huang Chao]], who made it the seat of his Qi Dynasty. In 882, the Tang dynasty briefly regained control of Chang'an. However, the Tang forces, although welcomed by the inhabitants, looted Chang'an before being driven back by the forces of Huang Chao. In revenge, Huang Chao conducted a systematic slaughter of the inhabitants after retaking the city. Chang'an was finally retaken by the Tang government in 883. In 904, the warlord [[Zhu Quanzhong]] ordered the city's buildings demolished and the construction materials moved to [[Luoyang]], which became the new capital. The residents, together with the emperor [[Emperor Zhaozong of Tang|Zhaozong]], were also forced to move to Luoyang. Chang'an never recovered after the apex of the Tang dynasty, but there are some monuments from the Tang era still standing.

After Zhu Quanzhong moved the capital to Luoyang, the Youguo Governorate ({{lang|zh-Hant|佑國軍}}) was established in Chang'an, with [[Han Jian (Zhenguo warlord)|Han Jian]] being the [[jiedushi]] ({{lang|zh-Hant|佑國軍節度使}}). Han Jian rebuilt Chang'an on the basis of the old Imperial City. Much of Chang'an was abandoned and the rebuilt Chang'an, called "Xincheng (lit. new city)" by the contemporary people, was less than 1/16 the size of the old Chang'an in area.<ref name="薛平拴(Xue, Pingshuan), 五代宋元时期古都长安商业的兴衰演变">薛平拴(Xue, Pingshuan), 五代宋元时期古都长安商业的兴衰演变</ref> The rest of the city was overrun by nature and was used for agriculture. Then the northern and eastern city wall was expanded a little and the official name of the city was changed from [[Jingzhao]], which means capital city, to Xi'an in [[Ming dynasty]].<ref name="www.worldhistory.org">{{Cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Chang%27an/ |title=worldhistory.org |access-date=2022-06-05 |archive-date=2021-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123034405/https://www.worldhistory.org/Chang%27an/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Influence on other Asian cities==
[[File:Chang'an of Tang.jpg|350px|thumb|Map of Chang'an during the [[Tang dynasty]]]]

Chang'an's layout influenced the city planning of several other Asian capitals for many years to come. Chang'an's walled and gated wards were much larger than conventional city blocks seen in modern cities, as the smallest ward had a surface area of 68 acres, and the largest ward had a surface area of {{cvt|233|acre|km2}}.<ref name="benn 50" /> The height of the walls enclosing each ward were on average 9 to {{cvt|10|ft|m}} in height.<ref name="benn 50" /> The Japanese built their ancient capitals, [[Heijō-kyō]] (today's [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]) and later [[Heian-kyō]] or [[Kyoto]], modeled after Chang'an in a more modest scale and without the same level of fortifications.<ref name="ebrey 92">Ebrey, 92.</ref> The modern Kyoto still retains some characteristics of Sui-Tang Chang'an. Similarly, the Korean [[Silla]] dynasty modeled their capital of [[Gyeongju]] after the Chinese capital. [[Shangjing Longquanfu|Sanggyeong]], one of the five capitals of the state of [[Balhae]], was also laid out like Chang'an.

== Archaeological finds ==
Two Sogdian tombs were discovered in the early 2000s near Chang'an (modern day [[Xi'an]]). They were the first Sogdian tombs discovered which had never been opened before their discovery by archaeologists, which meant that the artifacts inside the tombs were well preserved.<ref name=":0" /> The tombs are evidence of the cultural interconnections between immigrants and Chinese cultural practices which they adopted when they moved to large population centers like Chang'an.<ref name=":0" />

=== An Jia Tomb ===
The tomb of [[Tomb of An Jia|An Jia]] was discovered in 2001 and had mixed elements of Chinese and Sogdian burial practices. An Jia's remains were buried in an uncommon manner as his bones were discovered strewn throughout the tomb which was uncommon to both the Confucian and Zoroastrian customs at the time.<ref name=":0" /> Archaeologists also uncovered an epitaph to An Jia written in the Chinese language which retells his life, career, and achievements as a "Sabao of the Tong Prefecture and Commander General of the Great Zhou Dynasty".<ref name=":0" />

=== Shi Wirkak Tomb ===
The tomb [[Tomb of Wirkak|of Shi Wirkak]] was discovered in 2003-2004 slightly over 1 mile East of An Jia's tomb.<ref name=":0" /> Similarly to An Jia's tomb it also had the mix of both the Chinese and Sogdian burial practices. However, unlike An Jia the there were two versions of Shi Wirkak epitaph in Chinese and Sogdian, though they were not the direct translations of each other which in quality of text could mean that the scribe who wrote the epitaphs had little understanding of either language.<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
*[[Ancient Chinese urban planning]]
*[[Historical capitals of China]]
*[[List of cities in the People's Republic of China|List of cities in China]]
*[[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]]
*[[Xi Ming Temple]]
*[[Xi'an]]
*[[History of Xi'an]]

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
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*Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
*Ma, Dezhi. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929105638/http://203.72.198.245/web/Content.asp?ID=69443&Query=1 "Sui Daxing Tang Chang'an Cheng Yizhi" ("Archeological Site of Sui's Daxing and Tang's Chang'an"]. ''[[Encyclopedia of China]]'' (Archeology Edition), 1st ed.
*Rockhill (1899): ''The Land of the Lamas: Notes of a Journey Through China, Mongolia and Tibet''. William Woodville Rockhill. Longmans, Green and Co., London. Reprint: Winsome Books, Delhi, 2005. {{ISBN|81-88043-34-6}}.
*Xue, Pingshuan. 五代宋元时期古都长安商业的兴衰演变.
*Wang, Chongshu. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929100100/http://203.72.198.245/web/Content.asp?ID=68928&Query=1 "Han Chang'an Cheng Yizhi" ("Archeological Site of Han's Chang'an")]. ''[[Encyclopedia of China]]'' (Archeology Edition), 1st ed.
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*{{cite book |last=Schinz |first=Alfred |title=The magic square: cities in ancient China |publisher=Edition Axel Menges |year=1996 |pages=428 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhcRYkz-I3YC |isbn=3-930698-02-1}}
*{{Citation |author=[[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (IA CASS) |title=Underground Passages Reveal Power Struggle in Ancient Han Capital |year=2003 |url=http://www.kaogu.cn/en/detail.asp?ProductID=957 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928042416/http://www.kaogu.cn/en/detail.asp?ProductID=957 |archive-date=2011-09-28}}
*Lara Caroline Williams Blanchard (2001). ''Visualizing Love and Longing in Song Dynasty Paintings of Women''. Oxford: University of Michigan. {{ISBN|9780493415574}}.
*Beverly Bossler (June 2012). ''Vocabularies of Pleasure: Categorizing Female Entertainers in the Late Tang Dynasty''. Oxford: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Vol. 72, No. 1, Harvard-Yenching Institute.

==Further reading==
*Thilo, Thomas (2016), "Chang'an: China's Gateway to the Silk Road", in: Lieu, Samuel N.C., & Mikkelsen, Gunner B., ''Between Rome and China: History, Religions and Material Culture of the Silk Road'' (Silk Road Studies, XVIII), Turnhout, 2016, p.&nbsp;91–112
*Cotterell, Arthur (2007). ''The Imperial Capitals of China: An Inside View of the Celestial Empire''. Pimlico. {{ISBN|978-1-84595-009-5}}. 304 pages.
*Schafer, Edward H. "The Last Years of Ch'ang'an". ''Oriens Extremus'' X (1963):133–179.
*Sirén, O. "Tch'angngan au temps des Souei et des T'ang". ''Revue des Arts Asiatiques'' 4 (1927):46–104.
*Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1999). ''Chinese Imperial City Planning''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
*Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000). ''Sui-Tang Chang'an: A Study in the Urban History of Medieval China''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies.

==External links==
*[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/china/xian/xian.html Introduction of Xi'an/Chang'an] by the [[University of Washington]]
{{Wiktionary|Chang'an|Ch'ang-an}}

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{{s-ttl|title=[[Historical capitals of China|Capital of China]]
|years=206 BCE – 25 CE|row=1}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Changan}}
[[Category:Ancient Chinese capitals]]
[[Category:Han dynasty]]
[[Category:History of Xi'an]]
[[Category:Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Shaanxi]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Sites along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Sui dynasty]]
[[Category:Tang dynasty]]
[[Category:Xin dynasty]]