Editing Cheyenne language

{{Short description|Algonquian language}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Cheyenne
| nativename       = {{lang|chy|Tsėhesenėstsestȯtse}}
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = [[Montana]] and [[Oklahoma]]
| ethnicity        = [[Cheyenne people|Cheyenne]]
| speakers         = 380
| date             = 2020
| ref              = e21
| speakers2        = 
| familycolor      = Algic
| fam1             = [[Algic languages|Algic]]
| fam2             = [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]
| sign             = [[Hand Talk]]
| iso2             = chy
| iso3             = chy
| glotto           = chey1247
| glottorefname    = Cheyenne
| notice           = IPA
| map              = Cheyenne USC2000 PHS.svg
| map2             = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|Cheyenne is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|[tse̥hésene̥stsesto̥tse]}}
}}
The '''Cheyenne language''' ('''{{lang|chy|Tsėhesenėstsestȯtse}}''', {{IPA|chy|tse̥hésene̥stsesto̥tse|}}, informal spelling {{lang|chy|Tsisinstsistots}}) is the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] language spoken by the [[Cheyenne people]], predominantly in present-day [[Montana]] and [[Oklahoma]], in the [[United States]]. It is part of the [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian language]] family. Like all other Algonquian languages, it has complex [[agglutinative]] [[polysynthetic]] [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. This language is considered endangered, at different levels, in both states.

==Classification==
Cheyenne is one of the [[Algonquian languages]], which is a sub-category of the [[Algic languages]]. Specifically, it is a [[Plains Algonquian languages|Plains Algonquian language]]. However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes [[Arapaho language|Arapaho]] and [[Blackfoot language|Blackfoot]], is an [[Sprachbund|areal]] rather than genetic subgrouping.

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Tipi parts Cheyenne.JPG|thumb|Tipi parts in Cheyenne]]
Cheyenne is spoken on the [[Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation]] in [[Montana]] and in [[Oklahoma]]. On the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in March 2013 there were approximately 10,050 enrolled tribal members, of which about 4,939 resided on the reservation; slightly more than a quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English.<ref name ="Cheyenne Tribe website">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cheyennenation.com/ |title=Northern Cheyenne Tribe website |access-date=2020-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202173827/http://cheyennenation.com/ |archive-date=2011-02-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Current status ===
The Cheyenne language is considered "definitely [[Endangered language|endangered]]" in Montana and "critically endangered" in Oklahoma by the [[UNESCO]]. In Montana the number of speakers were about 1700 in 2012 according to the UNESCO. In 2021 there were approximately 300 elderly speakers. In 2021 in Oklahoma there were fewer than 20 elderly speakers. There is no current information on any other state in the United States regarding the Cheyenne language.<ref>
{{Cite web
| title = UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger
| access-date = 2012-09-29
| url = http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php
}}</ref>

The 2017 film ''[[Hostiles (film)|Hostiles]]'' features extensive dialogue in Northern Cheyenne. The film's producers hired experts in the language and culture to ensure authenticity.<ref>{{cite news | last =Schilling | first =Vincent | title ='Hostiles' Movie Starring Wes Studi, Christian Bale Will Screen in DC: National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), applauds Hostiles for 'authentic representation of Native peoples' and accurate speaking of Native languages | newspaper =[[Indian Country Today]] | date =January 8, 2018 | url =https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/culture/arts-entertainment/hostiles-movie-starring-wes-studi-christian-bale-will-screen-dc/ | access-date =February 3, 2018 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20180122071739/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/culture/arts-entertainment/hostiles-movie-starring-wes-studi-christian-bale-will-screen-dc/ | archive-date =January 22, 2018 | url-status =dead }}</ref>

== Revitalization efforts and education ==
In 1997, the Cultural Affairs Department of [[Chief Dull Knife College]] applied to the Administration for Native Americans for an approximately $50,000 language preservation planning [[Grant (money)|grant]]. The department wanted to use this money to assess the degree to which Cheyenne was being spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation. Following this, the department wanted to use the compiled data to establish long-term community language goals, and to prepare Chief Dull Knife College to implement a Cheyenne Language Center and [[curriculum]] guide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/default/files/421_2003_7_littlebear.pdf|title=Chief Dull Knife Community is Strengthening the Northern Cheyenne Language and Culture|last=Littlebear|first=Richard|date=2003|website=Arizona State University}}</ref> In 2015, the Chief Dull Knife College sponsored the 18th Annual [[Language Immersion]] Camp. This event was organized into two weeklong sessions, and its aim was to educate the younger generation on their ancestral language. The first session focused on educating 5–10-year-olds, while the second session focused on 11- to 18-year-olds. Certified Cheyenne language instructors taught daily classes. Ultimately, the camp provided approximately ten temporary jobs for fluent speakers on the impoverished reservation. The state of Montana has passed a law that guarantees support for tribal language preservation for Montana tribes.<ref>{{Cite journal |issn=1548-4939|volume=29|issue=8|pages=19|title=Keeping the Cheyenne language alive|last=Caufield|first=Clara|newspaper=News from Indian Country|date=2015}}</ref> Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at [[Chief Dull Knife College]] in [[Lame Deer, Montana]], at [[Southwestern Oklahoma State University]], and at Watonga High School in [[Watonga, Oklahoma]].
There are also holistic approaches to language revitalization taken upon by the Cheyenne people to try and keep their language vital. This is done by recognizing the integrated nature of the Cheyenne language with games, crafts, and ceremony which are integrated in youth and community programs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Stiers |first1=Catherine |title=A Holistic Revitalization Approach from the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes |url=https://nmnh.typepad.com/recoveringvoices/2015/12/a-holistic-revitalization-approach-from-the-cheyenne-and-arapaho-tribes.html |website=Recovering Voices}}</ref> The language is very often not being taught in the home so instead of just teaching grammar as a revitalization effort, holistic approaches attract more attention from new speakers and educate the new generation and counter language and culture loss.

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
Cheyenne has three basic [[vowels|vowel qualities]] {{IPA|/e a o/}}. The phoneme called {{IPA|/e/}} here is usually pronounced as a phonetic {{IPA|[ɪ]}}, and sometimes varies to {{IPA|[ɛ]}}. 

These vowel qualities take four [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]s: [[high tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|á}}''' {{IPA|[á]}}); [[low tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|a}}''' {{IPA|[à]}}; [[mid tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|ā}}''' {{IPA|[ā]}}; and [[rising tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|ô}}''' {{IPA|[ǒ]}}. Tones are often not represented in the orthography. Vowels can also be [[voicelessness|voiceless]] (e.g. '''{{lang|chy|ė}}''' {{IPA|[e̥]}}).<ref>Linguist Wayne Leman included one more variant in his 1981 article on Cheyenne pitch rules, a lowered-high pitch (e.g. à), but has since recognized that this posited pitch is the same as a low tone.</ref> The high and low tones are [[phonemic]], while voiceless vowels' occurrence is determined by the [[phonetic environment|phonetic context]], making them [[allophone]]s of the voiced vowels.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Vowels
|-
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Vowel height|Mid]]
| {{IPAlink|e}}
|
| {{IPAlink|o}}
|-
![[Vowel height|Low]]
|
| {{IPAlink|a}}
|
|}

===Consonants===
* The [[phoneme]] {{IPA|/h/}} is realized as {{IPA|[s]}} in the environment between {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} (h > s / e _ t). {{IPA|/h/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ʃ]}} between {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} (h > ʃ / e _ k) i.e.  {{IPA|/nahtóna/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nȧhtona}} – 'alien', {{IPA|/nehtóna/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nėstona}} – 'your daughter', {{IPA|/hehke/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|heške}} – 'his mother'.
* The digraph {{Grapheme|ts}} represents assibilated {{IPA|/t/}}; a phonological rule of Cheyenne is that [[underlying representation|underlying]] {{IPA|/t/}} becomes [[affricate]]d before an {{IPA|/e/}} {{IPA|(t > ts/_e)}}. Therefore, "ts" is not a separate phoneme, but an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/t/}}. 
* The sound {{IPA|[x]}} is not a phoneme, but derives from other phonemes, including {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (when {{IPA|/ʃ/}} precedes or follows a non-front vowel, {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/o/}}), and the past tense [[morpheme]] {{IPA|/h/}} which is pronounced {{IPA|[x]}} when it precedes a morpheme which starts with {{IPA|/h/}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Consonants
|-
!
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
|
|
|-
![[Plosive]]
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
|
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
![[Fricative]]
| {{IPAlink|v}}
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}}
| ({{IPAlink|x}})
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|}

===Orthography===
The Cheyenne [[orthography]] of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a [[phonetic]] transcription; it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a "pronunciation [[orthography]]". In other words, it is a practical spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as voiceless vowels, are shown. {{angbr|e}} represents the phoneme symbolized {{IPA|/e/}}, and {{angbr|š}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.

====Vowels====

* a – {{IPA|[a]}}
* e – {{IPA|[e/ɪ/ɛ]}}
* o – {{IPA|[o]}}

====Consonants====

* h – {{IPA|[h/s/ʃ]}}
* k – {{IPA|[k]}}
* ' – {{IPA|[ʔ]}}
* m – {{IPA|[m]}}
* n – {{IPA|[n]}}
* p – {{IPA|[p]}}
* s – {{IPA|[s]}}
* š – {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
* t – {{IPA|[t]}}
* v – {{IPA|[v]}}
* x – {{IPA|[x]}}

====Tones====
* á, é, ó – high tone
* ȧ, ė, ȯ or â, ê, ô – voiceless or whispered

Low tone is usually unmarked.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cheyenne language, alphabet, and pronunciation |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/cheyenne.htm |website=Omniglot |access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref>

=== Feature system for phonemes ===
The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne are distinguished by seven two-valued features. Scholar Donald G. Frantz defined these features as follows:{{sfn|Frantz|1972a}}
* Oral: primary articulation is oral (vs. at the glottis)
* Vocoid (voc): central resonant (oral) continuant
* Syllabic (syl): nuclear to syllable (vs. marginal)
* Closure (clos): stoppage of air flow at point of primary articulation ['non-continuant']
* Nasal (nas): velic is open
* Grave (grv): primary articulation at oral extremity (lips or velum) ['non-coronal' for consonants, 'back' for vowels]
* Diffuse (dif): primary articulation is relatively front ['anterior']

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! || ʔ || h || a || o || e || m || n || p || k || t || b || s || š || x
|-
! oral
| − || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+) || + || + || + || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+)
|-
! voc
| (−) || + || (+) || (+) || (+) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || − || − || − || −
|-
! syl
| (−) || − || + || + || + || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−)
|-
! clos
| (+) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (+) || (+) || + || + || + || − || − || − || −
|-
! nas
| 0 || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || + || + || − || (−) || − || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−)
|-
! grv
| 0 ||  || − || + || (−) || + || − || + || + || − || + || − || − || +
|-
! dif
| 0 ||  || − || − || + || + || (+) || + || − || (+) || + || + || − || −
|}

0 indicates the value is indeterminable/irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable, but context is required (even though any value could be inserted because the post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). [[Bracket|Parentheses]] enclose values that are redundant according to the phonological rules; these values simply represent the results of these rules.{{sfn|Frantz|1972a}}

=== Voicing ===

Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters representing 13 phonemes. {{IPA|[x]}} is written as {{Grapheme|x}} orthographically but is not a phoneme. This count excludes the results of allophonic devoicing, which are spelled with a [[dot (diacritic)|dot over vowels]]. Devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase but can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word. Non-high {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} is also usually devoiced preceding ''h'' followed by a stop. Phonemic {{IPA|/h/}} is absorbed by a preceding voiceless vowel. Examples are given below.

==== Penultimate devoicing ====
* {{IPA|/hohkoʃ/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|hohk'''ȯ'''xe}} 'ax'; 
* {{IPA|/tétahpetáht/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|tsét'''ȧ'''hpét'''ȧ'''htse}} 'the one who is big';
* {{IPA|/mótehk/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|motš'''ė'''ške}} 'knife'

Devoicing occurs when certain vowels directly precede the consonants {{IPA|[t]}}, {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, {{IPA|[k]}}, or {{IPA|[x]}} followed by an {{IPA|[e]}}. The rule is linked to the rule of ''e''-[[epenthesis]], which states simply that [e] appears in the environment of a consonant and a word boundary.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=215}}

==== Prepenultimate devoicing ====
* {{IPA|/tahpeno/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|t'''ȧ'''hpeno}} 'flute';
* {{IPA|/kosáné/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|k'''ȯ'''sâne}}  'sheep (pl.)';
* {{IPA|/mahnohtehtovot/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|m'''ȧ'''hn'''ȯ'''hts'''ė'''stovȯtse}} 'if you ask him'

A vowel that does not have a high pitch is devoiced if it is followed by a voiceless fricative and not preceded by {{IPA|[h]}}.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=215}}

==== Special {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} devoicing ====
* {{IPA|/émóheeohtéo/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|émôhee'''ȯ'''htseo'o}} 'they are gathering'; 
* {{IPA|/náohkeho'sóe/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|ná'''ȯ'''hkėho'soo'e}} 'I regularly dance'; 
* {{IPA|/nápóahtenáhnó/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nápô'''ȧ'''htsenáhno}} 'I punched him in the mouth'

Non-high {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} become at least partially devoiced when they are preceded by a voiced vowel and followed by an {{IPA|[h]}}, a consonant, and two or more syllables.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=218}}

==== Consonant devoicing ====
{{Lang|chy|émane}} {{IPA|[ɪmaṅɪ]|lang=chy}} 'He is drinking.'

Before a voiceless segment, a consonant is devoiced.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=218}}

==== ''h''-absorption ====
* {{Lang|chy|-pėhévoéstomo'he}} 'kind' + {{Lang|chy|-htse}} 'imperative suffix' > {{Lang|chy|-pėhévoéstomo'ėstse}}
* {{Lang|chy|tsé-}} 'conjunct prefix' + {{Lang|chy|-éna'he}} 'old' + {{Lang|chy|-tse}} '3rd pers. suffix' > {{Lang|chy|tsééna'ėstse}} 'the one who is old'
* {{Lang|chy|né}} + 'you' + {{Lang|chy|-one'xȧho'he}} 'burn' + {{Lang|chy|tse}} 'suffix for some 'you-me' transitive animate forms' > {{Lang|chy|néone'xȧho'ėstse}} ' you burn me'

The {{IPA|[h]}} is absorbed if it is preceded or followed by voiceless vowels.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=217}}

=== Pitch and tone ===
There are several rules that govern pitch use in Cheyenne.  Pitch can be ˊ = high, unmarked = low, ˉ = mid, and ˆ = raised high. According to linguist Wayne Leman, some research shows that Cheyenne may have a stress system independent from that of pitch. If this is the case, the stress system's role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch.{{sfn|Leman|1981}}

====High-raising====
A high pitch becomes a raised high when it is not preceded by another high vowel and precedes an underlying word-final high.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/ʃéʔʃé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|š'''ê'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>še}} 'duck'; 
* {{IPA|/sémón/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|s'''ê'''mo}} 'boat'

====Low-to-high raising====
A low vowel is raised to the high position when it follows a high and is followed by a word final high.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/méʃené/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|méš'''é'''ne}} 'ticks'; 
* {{IPA|/návóomó/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|návó'''ó'''mo}} 'I see him'; 
* {{IPA|/póesón/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|pó'''é'''so}} 'cat'

====Low-to-mid raising====
A low vowel becomes a mid when it is followed by a word-final high but not directly preceded by a high vowel.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/kosán/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|k'''ō'''sa}} 'sheep (sg.)'; 
* {{IPA|/heʔé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|h'''ē'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>e}} 'woman'; 
* {{IPA|/éhomosé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|éhom'''ō'''se}} 'he is cooking'

===High pushover===
A high vowel becomes low if it comes after a high and followed by a phonetic low.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/néháóénáma/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|néhâ'''oe'''n'''a'''ma}} 'we (incl) prayed'; 
* {{IPA|/néméhótóne/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|némêh'''o'''t'''o'''ne}} 'we (incl) love him'; 
* {{IPA|/náméhósanémé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|námêh'''o'''sanême}} 'we (excl) love'

====Word-medial high raising====
According to Leman, "some verbal prefixes and preverbs go through the process of Word-Medial High-Raising. A high is raised if it follows a high (which is not a trigger for the High Push-Over rule) and precedes a phonetic low. One or more voiceless syllables may come between the two highs.  (A devoiced vowel in this process must be underlyingly low, not an underlyingly high vowel which has been devoiced by the High-Pitch Devoicing rule.)"{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=220}}
* {{IPA|/émésehe/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|ém'''ê'''sehe}} 'he is eating'; 
* {{IPA|/téhnémenétó/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|tséhn'''ê'''menéto}} 'when I sang'; 
* {{IPA|/násáamétohénoto/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nás'''â'''amétȯhênoto}} 'I didn't give him to him'

=== Tone ===
Syllables with high pitch (tone) are relatively high pitched and are marked by an acute accent, {{Grapheme|á}}, {{Grapheme|é}}, and {{Grapheme|ó}}. The following pairs of phrases demonstrate pitch contrasts in the Cheyenne language: 
* {{Lang|chy|maxháeanáto}} ('if I am hungry')
* {{Lang|chy|maxháeanato}} ('if you are hungry')
* {{Lang|chy|hótame}} ('dog')
* {{Lang|chy|hotāme}} ('dogs')
As noted by Donald G. Frantz, phonological rules dictate some pitch patterns, as indicated by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare {{Lang|chy|matšėškōme}} 'raccoon'&nbsp;and {{Lang|chy|mátšėškomeo'o}}&nbsp;'raccoons'). In order for the rules to work, certain vowels are assigned inherent accent. For example, the word for 'badger' has a permanent accent position: {{Lang|chy|ma'háhko'e}} (sg.), {{Lang|chy|ma'háhko'eo'o}} (pl.){{sfn|Frantz|1972b}}

=== Nonnasal reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *''k'' ===
The research of linguist Paul Proulx provides an explanation for how these reflexes develop in Cheyenne: "First, *''n'' and *''h'' drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before *''k''. *''k'' then drops except in element-final position. Next, there is an increment before any remaining *''k'' not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary ''h'' (replaced by ''š'' after ''e'') ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the *''k'' gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio '''k''' clusters are all reduced to glottal catch."{{sfn|Proulx|1982}}

==Grammar==
Cheyenne is a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] [[polysynthetic language]] with a sophisticated, [[Agglutinating language|agglutinating]] verb system contrasting a relatively simple noun structure.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=338}}  Many Cheyenne verbs can stand alone in sentences, and can be translated by complete English sentences.  Aside from its verb structure, Cheyenne has several grammatical features that are typical of Algonquian languages, including an animate/inanimate [[noun class]]ification paradigm, an obviative third person and distinction of [[clusivity]] in the first person plural pronoun.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|pp=338-340}}

===Order and mode===
Like all Algonquian languages, Cheyenne shows a highly developed modal paradigm.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}}  Algonquianists traditionally describe the inflections of verbs in these languages as being divided into three "orders," with each order further subdivided into a series of "modes," each of which communicates some aspect of modality.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}}{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=24}}{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=243}} The charts below provide examples of verb forms of every order in each mode, after Leman (2011){{sfn|Leman|2011|pp=24-42}} and Mithun (1999).{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}}

====Independent order====
This order governs both declarative and interrogative statements. The modes of this order are generally subdivided along lines of [[evidentiality]].{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=243}}

{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 140px;" | Mode
! style="width: 150px;" | Example
! style="width: 130px;" | Translation
|-
|-
|Indicative
|{{Lang|chy|épėhêvahe}}
|'he is good'
|-
|Interrogative
|{{Lang|chy|épėhêvȧhehe}}
|'is he good?'
|-
|Inferential
|{{Lang|chy|mópėhêvȧhehêhe}}
|'he must be good'
|-
|Attributive
|{{Lang|chy|épėhêvahesėstse}}
|'he is said to be good'
|-
|Mediate
|{{Lang|chy|éhpehêvahêhoo'o}}
|'long ago he was good'
|}

====Conjunct order====
This order governs a variety of dependent clause types.{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=243}}  Leman (2011) characterizes this order of verbs as requiring other verbal elements in order to establish complete meaning.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=19}} Verbs in the conjunct order are marked with a mode-specific prefix and a suffix marking person, number and animacy.{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=244}}

{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 140px;" | Mode
! style="width: 150px;" | Example
! style="width: 130px;" | Translation
|-
|-
|Indicative
|{{Lang|chy|tséhpėhêvaese}}
|'when he was good'
|-
|Subjunctive
|{{Lang|chy|mȧhpėhévaestse}}
|'when he is good' (unrealized)
|-
|Iterative
|{{Lang|chy|ho'pėhévȧhesėstse}}
|'whenever he is good'
|-
|Subjunctive Iterative
|{{Lang|chy|ohpėhévȧhesėstse}}
|'when he is generally good'
|-
|Participle
|{{Lang|chy|tséhpėhêvaestse}}
|'the one who is good'
|-
|Interrogative
|{{Lang|chy|éópėhêvaestse}}
|'whether he is good'
|-
|Obligative
|{{Lang|chy|ahpėhêvȧhesėstse}}
|'he ought to be good'
|-
|Optative
|{{Lang|chy|momóxepėhévaestse}}
|'I wish he would be good'
|-
|Negative inferential
|{{Lang|chy|móho'nópėhévaestse}}
|'he must not be good'
|}

====Imperative order====
The third order governs commands.  Cheyenne, in common with several other North American languages,{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}} distinguishes two types of [[imperative mood]], one indicating immediate action, and the other indicating delayed action.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=18}}{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=242}}

{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 140px;" | Mode
! style="width: 150px;" | Example
! style="width: 130px;" | Translation
|-
|-
|Immediate
|{{Lang|chy|méseestse}}
|'eat!'
|-
|Delayed
|{{Lang|chy|méseheo'o}}
|'eat later!'
|-
|Hortative
|{{Lang|chy|mésėheha}}
|'let him eat!'
|}

===Verb morphology===
The Cheyenne verb system is very complex and verb constructions are central to the morphosyntax of the language,{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=17}}{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=451}} to the point that even adjectives{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=457}} and even some nouns{{sfn|Petter|1915|p=iv}} are largely substantive{{clarify|date=December 2023|reason=Substantive in Latin grammar is a synonym of noun in English grammar. What does it mean in Cheyenne grammar?}} in nature.  Verbs change according to a number of factors, such as [[Modal verb|modality]], [[Grammatical person|person]] and [[Transitivity (grammar)|transitivity]], as well as the [[animacy]] of the referent, each of these categories being indicated by the addition of an [[affix]] to the basic verb stem.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=22}} There are also several [[Instrumental case|instrumental]], [[Locative case|locative]] and [[adverb]]ial affixes that add further information to the larger verb construction.  This can result in very long, complex verbs that are able to stand alone as entire sentences in their own right.
All Cheyenne verbs have a rigid templatic structure.{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=244}} The affixes are placed according to the following paradigm:

<div style="text-align: center;">person – (tense) – (directional) – (preverb) – ROOT – (medial) – final{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=22}}</div>

====Pronominal affixes====
Cheyenne represents the participants of an expression not as separate [[pronoun]] words but as affixes on the [[verb]]. There are three basic pronominal prefixes in Cheyenne:{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=20}}
*{{Lang|chy|ná-}}{{in5|6}}first person
*{{Lang|chy|né-}}{{in5|6}}second person
*{{Lang|chy|é-}}{{in5|8}}third person

These three basic prefixes can be combined with various suffixes to express all of Cheyenne's pronominal distinctions. For example, the prefix {{Lang|chy|ná-}} can be combined on a verb with the suffix -me to express the first person plural exclusive.

====Tense====
Tense in Cheyenne is expressed by the addition of a specific tense morpheme between the pronominal prefix and the verb stem.  Verbs do not always contain tense information, and an unmarked present tense verb can be used to express both past and "recent" present tense in conversation.  Thus, {{Lang|chy|návóómo}} could mean both 'I see him' and 'I saw him' depending on the context.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=191}}

Far past tense is expressed by the morpheme {{IPA|/-h-/}}, which changes to {{IPA|/-x-/}}, {{IPA|/-s-/}}, {{IPA|/-š-/}} or {{IPA|/-'-/}} before the -h, -t, -k and a vowel, respectively.  Thus:

*{{Lang|chy|návóómo}} {{gloss|I see him}}
*{{Lang|chy|náhvóómo}} {{gloss|I saw him}}

Similarly, the future tense is expressed by the morpheme {{IPA|/-hte/}}, which changes to {{Lang|chy|-htse}} after the {{Lang|chy|ná-}} pronominal, {{Lang|chy|-stse}} after {{Lang|chy|ne-}} and {{Lang|chy|-tse}} in the third-person, with the third-person prefix dropped altogether.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=191}}

====Directional affixes====
These prefixes address whether the action of the verb is moving "toward" or "away from" some entity, usually the speaker.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=23}}

*{{Lang|chy|-nėh-}}{{in5|8}}toward
*{{Lang|chy|-nex-}}{{in5|8}}toward (before -h)
*{{Lang|chy|-ne'-}}{{in5|9}}toward (before a vowel)
*{{Lang|chy|-nes-}}{{in5|8}}toward (before -t)
*{{Lang|chy|-ta-}}{{in5|11}}away from

====Preverbs====
Following Algonquianist terminology, Leman (2011) describes "preverbs", morphemes which add adjectival or adverbial information to the verb stem.  Multiple preverbs can be combined within one verb complex. The following list represents only a small sample.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=181}}

*{{Lang|chy|-emóose-}}{{in5|10}}secretly
*{{Lang|chy|-nésta-}}{{in5|14}}previously 
*{{Lang|chy|-sé'hove-}}{{in5|10}}suddenly
*{{Lang|chy|-áhane-}}{{in5|12}}extremely
*{{Lang|chy|-táve-}}{{in5|15}}slightly
*{{Lang|chy|-ohke-}}{{in5|15}}regularly
*{{Lang|chy|-pȧháve-}}{{in5|11}}good, well
*{{Lang|chy|-ma'xe-}}{{in5|13}}much, a lot
*{{Lang|chy|-hé-}}{{in5|19}}for the purpose of
*{{Lang|chy|-ha'ke-}}{{in5|14}}slowly, softly
*{{Lang|chy|-hoove-}}{{in5|13}}mistakenly

====Medial affixes====
This large group of suffixes provide information about something associated with the root, usually communicating that the action is done with or to a body part.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=23}} Thus: {{Lang|chy|énėše'xahtse}} ('he-wash-mouth') = 'he gargled'.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=165}} Following is a sample of medial suffixes:{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=163}}

*{{Lang|chy|-ahtse}}{{in5|14}}mouth
*{{Lang|chy|-éné}}{{in5|17}}face
*{{Lang|chy|-na'evá}}{{in5|12}}arm
*{{Lang|chy|-vétová}}{{in5|12}}body 
*{{Lang|chy|-he'oná}}{{in5|12}}hand
*{{Lang|chy|-hahtá}}{{in5|14}}foot

Medial suffixes can also be used with nouns to create compound words or to coin entirely new words from existing morphemes, as in:

{{Lang|chy|ka'énė-hôtame}} [short-face-dog] = 'bulldog'{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=165}}

====Final affixes====
Cheyenne verbs take different object agreement endings depending upon the animacy of the subject and the transitivity of the verb itself.  Intransitive verbs take endings depending upon the animacy of their subject, whereas transitive verbs take endings that depend upon the animacy of their object.  All verbs can therefore be broadly categorized into one of four classes: Animate Intransitive (AI), Inanimate Instransitive (II), Transitive Animate (TA) and Transitive Inanimate (TI).{{sfn|Leman|2011|pp=17-18}} Following are the most common object agreement markers for each verb class.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=23}}

*{{Lang|chy|-e}}{{in5|16}}Animate Intransitive (AI)
*{{Lang|chy|-ó}}{{in5|16}}Inanimate Intransitive (II)
*{{Lang|chy|-o}}{{in5|16}}Transitive Animate (TA)
*{{Lang|chy|-á/-é}}{{in5|12}}Transitive Inanimate  (TI)

====Negation====
Verbs are negated by the addition of the infix {{Lang|chy|-sâa-}} immediately after the pronominal affix.  This morpheme changes to {{Lang|chy|sáa-}} in the absence of a pronominal affix, as occurs in the imperative and in some future tense constructions.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=25}}

===Nouns===
Nouns are classified according to animacy.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=5}} They change according to [[grammatical number]] (singular and plural) but are not distinguished according to [[Grammatical gender|gender]]{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=456}} or [[definiteness]].{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=459}}

====Obviation====
When two third persons are referred to by the same verb, the object of the sentence becomes obviated, what Algonquianists refer to as a "fourth person."{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=21}} It is essentially an "out of focus" third person.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}} As with possessive obviation above, the presence of a fourth person triggers morphological changes in both the verb and noun.  If the obviated entity is an animate noun, it will be marked with an obviative suffix, typically {{Lang|chy|-o}} or {{Lang|chy|-óho}}.  For example:

*{{Lang|chy|návóómo hetane}}&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  'I saw a man'
*{{Lang|chy|he'e évôomóho hetanóho}}&nbsp; 'The woman saw a man'

Verbs register the presence of obviated participants whether or not they are present as nouns.  These forms could be likened to a kind of [[passive voice]], although Esteban (2012) argues that since Cheyenne is a "reference-dominated language where case marking and word order are governed by the necessity to code pragmatic roles," a passive-like construction is assumed.{{sfn|Corral Esteban|2012|p=93}} This phenomenon is an example of typical Algonquian "person hierarchy," in which animacy and first personhood take precedence over other forms.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=22}}

====Number====
Both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralized by the addition of suffixes.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=8}}{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=454}} These suffixes are irregular and can change slightly according to a complex system of phonological rules.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=214}}

*{{Lang|chy|-(h)o}}, {{Lang|chy|-(n)é}}{{in5|6}}Inanimate plural
*{{Lang|chy|-(n)ȯtse}}{{in5|11}}Animate plural

====Possession====
Possession is denoted by a special set of pronominal suffixes.  Following is a list of the most common possession prefixes, although rarely some words take different prefixes.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}}{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=455}}
*{{Lang|chy|na-}}{{in5|6}}first person
*{{Lang|chy|ne-}}{{in5|6}}second person
*{{Lang|chy|he-}}{{in5|8}}third person

Generally, possessive prefixes take a low pitch on the following vowel.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=20}}

When a third person animate noun is possessed by another third person, the noun becomes [[Obviative|obviated]] and takes a different form.  Much of the time, this obviated form is identical to the noun's regular plural form,{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}} with only a few exceptions.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=171}} This introduces ambiguity in that it is not always possible to tell whether an obviated noun is singular or plural.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}}

==Historical development==
[[File:Cheyennecatechism page 9.jpg|thumb|Cheyenne catechism page 9]]
Like all the Algonquian languages, Cheyenne developed from a reconstructed ancestor referred to as [[Proto-Algonquian language|Proto-Algonquian]] (often abbreviated "PA"). The sound changes on the road from PA to modern Cheyenne are complex, as exhibited by the development of the PA word {{Lang|alg-x-proto|*erenyiwa}} 'man' into Cheyenne {{Lang|chy|hetane}}:

*First, the PA suffix {{Lang|alg-x-proto|-wa}} drops ({{Lang|alg-x-proto|*erenyi}})
*The [[geminate]] vowel sequence {{Lang|alg-x-proto|-yi-}} simplifies to {{IPA|/i/}} ([[semivowel]]s were phonemically vowels in PA; when PA *{{IPA|/i/}} or *{{IPA|/o/}} appeared before another vowel, it became non-syllabic) ({{Lang|alg-x-proto|*ereni}})
*PA *{{IPA|/r/}} changes to {{IPA|/t/}} ({{Lang|alg-x-proto|*eteni}})
*{{IPA|/h/}} is added before word-initial vowels ({{Lang|alg-x-proto|*heteni}})
*Due to a vowel chain-shift, the vowels in the word wind up as {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} (PA *{{IPA|/e/}} sometimes corresponds to Cheyenne {{IPA|/e/}} and sometimes to Cheyenne {{IPA|/a/}}; PA *{{IPA|/i/}} almost always corresponds to Cheyenne {{IPA|/e/}}, however) ({{Lang|chy|hetane}}).
PA *''θk'' has the Sutaio reflex ' in {{Lang|chy|e-nete'e}} 'she tells lies', but the Cheyenne-Proper reflex '''k'' in {{Lang|chy|hetone'ke}} 'tree-bark'. According to linguist Paul Proulx, this gave off the appearance that "speakers of both Cheyenne dialects—perhaps mixed bands—were involved in the Arapaho contact that led to this unusual reflex of PA *k.".{{sfn|Proulx|1982}}

==Lexicon==
Some Cheyenne words (with the Proto-Algonquian reconstructions where known):
*''[[wikt:ameske|ame]]'' 'grease' (from PA {{Lang|alg-x-proto|*pemyi}})
*''[[wikt:he'e|he'e]]'' 'his liver' (from PA ''{{Lang|alg-x-proto|*weθkweni}}'')
*''[[wikt:hē'e|hē'e]]'' 'woman' (from PA ''{{Lang|alg-x-proto|**eθkwe·wa}}'')
*''[[wikt:hetane|hetane]]'' 'man' (from PA {{Lang|alg-x-proto|*erenyiwa}})
*''[[wikt:matana|matana]]'' 'milk' (from PA ''{{Lang|alg-x-proto|*meθenyi}}'')

==Translation history==
Early work was done on the Cheyenne language by Rodolphe Charles Petter, a [[Mennonite]] missionary based in [[Lame Deer, Montana]], from 1916.<ref>[http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/petter_rodolphe_charles_1865_1947/?searchterm=Lame%20Deer "Petter, Rodolphe Charles (1865-1947)"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604011412/http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/petter_rodolphe_charles_1865_1947/?searchterm=Lame%20Deer |date=June 4, 2011 }} Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online, accessed September 20, 2009</ref> Petter published a mammoth dictionary of Cheyenne in 1915.<ref>[http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015025866867 "Petter, 1915, English-Cheyenne Dictionary].</ref>

=== Current translations ===
Currently there are many online resources that allow for the instant translation from any language to the Cheyenne language. There are online vocabulary lists,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cheyenne Words |url=http://www.native-languages.org/cheyenne_words.htm |website=www.native-languages.org |access-date=7 December 2020}}</ref> pronunciation guides,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cheyenne Pronunciation Guide, Alphabet and Phonology |url=http://www.native-languages.org/cheyenne_guide.htm |website=www.native-languages.org |access-date=7 December 2020}}</ref> dictionaries,<ref>{{cite web |title=English-Cheyenne Student Dictionary |url=http://www.native-languages.org/cheyenne.htm |website=Native Languages of North America: Cheyenne |publisher=Council for Indian Education |access-date=7 December 2020}}</ref> etc. Along with these resources, there are numbers of published books regarding the history of the language that also explain its grammar.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=289}} These resources can be found online or in libraries that carry these published books.

The latest edition of an online Cheyenne dictionary is accessible from cheyennelanguage.org.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cheyenne Dictionary |url=http://www.cheyennelanguage.org/dictionary/lexicon.php |website=www.cheyennelanguage.org}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite journal |last=Corral Esteban |first=Avelino |title=Does There Exist Passive Voice in Lakhota and Cheyenne? |lang=en |journal=Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas |volume=7 |year=2012 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.4995/rlyla.2012.1126 |doi-access=free|hdl=10251/16758 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Louise |last2=Pine |first2=Leroy Sr. |last3=Sanchez |first3=Marie |last4=Leman |first4=Wayne |year=2004 |title=Cheyenne Dictionary |location=Lame Deer, MT |publisher=Chief Dull Knife College}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Frantz|first=Donald G.|date=1972a|title=Cheyenne Distinctive Features and Phonological Rules|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=38|issue=1|pages=6–13|doi=10.1086/465178|jstor=1264497|s2cid=144308038}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Frantz|first=Donald G.|date=1972b|title=The Origin of Cheyenne Pitch Accent|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=38|issue=4|pages=223–225|doi=10.1086/465218|jstor=1264297|s2cid=143834373}}
* {{cite journal |last=Goddard |first=Ives |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/31967/Goddard%2c%20Ives%20Historical%20Origins%20Cheyenne%20Inflections.pdf |title=The historical origins of Cheyenne inflections |journal=Papers of the Algonquian Conference |volume=31 |editor-first=John D. |editor-last=Nichols |location=Winnnipeg |publisher=University of Manitoba |year=2000 |pages=78–129 |hdl=10088/31967 |hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Leman |first=Wayne |title=Cheyenne Grammar Notes |publisher=Northern Cheyenne Bilingual Education Program |location=Lame Deer, MT |year=1979 |oclc=5355398}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Leman |first=Wayne |date=October 1981 |title=Cheyenne Pitch Rules |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=283–309 |doi=10.1086/465700 |jstor=1265058 |s2cid=145668413}}
* {{cite book |last=Leman |first=Wayne |title=A Reference Grammar of the Cheyenne Language |publisher=Lulu Press |isbn=978-1-304-42524-9 |year=2011 |edition=4th}}
* {{cite book |last=Mithun |first=Marianne |title=The Languages of Native North America |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999}}
* {{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Sarah E. |year=2012 |title=Two Imperatives in Cheyenne: Some Preliminary Distinctions |journal=Papers of the Algonquian Conference |volume=44 |publisher=State University of New York Press |pages=242–256 |url=https://ojs.library.carleton.ca/index.php/ALGQP/article/view/2327/2101}}
* {{cite book |last=Petter |first=Rodolphe |title=Sketch of the Cheyenne Grammar |location=Lancaster, PA |publisher=American Anthropological Association |year=1905}}
* {{cite book |last=Petter |first=Rodolphe |title=English-Cheyenne Dictionary |location=Kettle Falls, WA |publisher=Rodolphe Petter |year=1915}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Proulx|first=Paul|date=1982-01-01|title=Proto-Algonquian *k in Cheyenne|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=48|issue=4|pages=467–471|doi=10.1086/465756|jstor=1264849|s2cid=143457331}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|auto=1|wikt=Category:Cheyenne language|iw=chy|display=Cheyenne }}

*[https://www.cheyennelanguage.org/dictionary/index.html Cheyenne online dictionary]
*[http://www.cdkc.edu/cheyennedictionary/index.html an older Cheyenne online dictionary], maintained at [[Chief Dull Knife College]]
*[https://www.angelfire.com/ok3/dogg/language.html Modern Southern Cheyenne alphabet and pronunciation key]
*[https://www.freelang.net/online/cheyenne.php FREELANG Cheyenne-English and English-Cheyenne online dictionary]
*[http://quizlet.com/subject/cheyenne-language/ Cheyenne language flashcards] at [[Quizlet]], based on {{Cite book
| last1 = Risingsun
| first1 = Ted
| last2 = Leman
| first2 = Wayne
| title = Let's Talk Cheyenne (2 Audio CDs with Booklet)
| date = 1999
| publisher = Jeffrey Norton
| isbn = 9781579700928
}}
*[https://www.cheyennelanguage.org/ Cheyenne Language Website]
*[http://www.native-languages.org/cheyenne.htm Native Languages of the Americas: Cheyenne]
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/1892/cheyenne.html Portions of the Anglican/Episcopal Prayer Book Cheyenne]
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cheyenne_catechism Martin Luther's Small Catechism in Cheyenne]
*[https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_chy_vertxt-a1_audio-1 Lomax Collection Recording of Cheyenne (1956), Conversation]
*[http://www.language-archives.org/language/chy OLAC resources in and about the Cheyenne language]

{{Algonquian languages}}
{{Languages of Oklahoma}}
{{Languages of Montana}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cheyenne Language}}
[[Category:Cheyenne|Language]]
[[Category:Plains Algonquian languages]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Plains]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Montana]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Endangered languages of the United States]]
[[Category:Tonal languages in non-tonal families]]