Editing Chhayavad

{{short description|Era of Neo-romanticism in Hindi literature}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
[[File:Matvala Magazine.jpg|thumb|180px|right|The first issue of [[Matwālā|Matvala]], a notable magazine that played a significant role in the development of Chāyāvād.]]
'''Chhayavad'''  ([[ISO 15919|ISO]]: {{transliteration|hi|ISO|  Chāyāvād}}) refers to the era of [[Neo-romanticism|mystical-romanticism]] in [[Hindi literature]], particularly poetry, spanning approximately from mid-1910s to early-1940s. It emerged as a reaction to the didacticism of its previous poetic movement - the Dwivedi era - as well as the courtly traditions of poetry.

It was marked by a renewed sense of the self and personal expression with an increase in romantic and humanist content. It is known for its leaning towards themes of [[Nature writing|love and nature]], as well as an individualistic reappropriation in a new form of [[mysticism]].

The movement is typically attributed to [[Jaishankar Prasad]], [[Suryakant Tripathi Nirala]], [[Sumitranandan Pant]], and [[Mahadevi Varma]], often cited as the four pillars of Chāyāvād.  Their writings reflected a conscious blending of classical Indian heritage with occidental sensibilities. The movement delved into love as a spiritual and transformative force, reverence for nature as a source of solace, and the individual's quest for identity and connection with the divine. These themes incorporated traditional values with the evolving ideas of freedom and self-expression during the country's struggle for [[Indian independence movement|independence]].

It is characterized by a lyrical, poetic, and musical accomplishment of modern [[Hindi literature]]. Anchored in new sensibilities, it concluded with the rise of the experimental spirit of ''[[Experimental literature|Prayogvad]]'' and the socially engaged ''Pragativad'', together reflecting the dynamic evolution of Hindi poetry in the early 20th century.

==Eytmology==
The literal meaning of ''chāyā'' carries various interpretations, including shade, such as from a tree or cloud; reflection, like that in a mirror; and shadow, as cast by an object.<ref>Rubin, David (1998), p. 11</ref><ref>Mayrhofer 1992, p.559-560</ref><ref>Turner 1969-1985, p.276</ref> The suffix ''[[:hi:वाद|vād]]'' is the Hindi equivalent of the English suffix ''[[-ism]].''

The term chāyā appears in the [[Upanishads]], where it refers to the universe as a phenomenal reflection of transcendental reality. This interpretation is supported by the broader intellectual environment of that time, when figures like [[Swami Vivekananda|Vivekananda]] and [[Rabindranath Tagore]] were revisiting the Upanishads and introducing modern interpretations of ancient texts.<ref>Ritter, Valerie (2011), p.220-221</ref>

Researchers have also proposed that the term may be associated with the reflection of the literary expression exemplified in [[Tagore|Tagore's]] [[Gitanjali]] which itself was influenced by [[Romanticism]] of [[English literature]].<ref>Gupta, Ankita (2018)</ref>

The first use of the term chāyāvād in the context of Hindi poetry is attributed to Mukutdhar Pandey, who introduced it through his collection of essays in 1920. [[Namvar Singh]] notes that the essays were presented with annotations, suggesting that commentaries on this poetic style already existed. Scholars agree that the essence of chāyāvād' began to take shape around the mid-1910s, predating its formal recognition in 1920.<ref>Singh, Namvar (2018), p.11</ref>

==Historical Context==
===Development===
[[File:Sarasvati Magazine.png|thumb|150px|left|Cover of  Sarasvatī, an influential magazine started during the Dwivedi period]]
Until the early 20th century, Hindi poetry followed traditions that had developed over several centuries through various medieval literary forms and dialects. The first attempts at modern standardized Hindi poetry, based on [[Kauravi dialect|''Khari Boli'']], emerged during a surge of literary activity in [[Varanasi]] in the 1860s, centered around [[Bharatendu Harishchandra]]. It was primarily characterized by ''bhakti'' (religious devotion) or ''riti'' (courtly love) themes. The '''''Bhartendu yug''''' introduced innovations, such as using verses in [[Braj Bhasha]] for dramas to comment on contemporary issues, but these did not gain lasting traction.<ref>McGregor,R.S.(1974), p.34-38</ref>

A significant shift in Hindi poetry occurred with the founding of the magazine [[Saraswati (magazine)|''Sarasvatī'']] in 1900, under the editorship of [[Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi]]. While initially appreciated more for its social and literary goals than for its aesthetic value, the '''''Dwivedi yug''''' marked a transformation in the content of Hindi poetry. Poets of this era moved away from the limited scope of ''rītī'' poetry and began addressing themes such as [[nationalism]] and [[social reform]]. A defining work of this period is [[Maithili Sharan Gupt|Maithilisharan Gupt's]] 1912 poem ''Bhārat-Bhāratī'', which exemplifies the nationalist sentiment of the time. Dwivedi-era introduced didactic themes that shaped the discourse of Hindi literature through the second and third decades of the 20th century.<ref>Schomer, Karine (1983), p.6-7</ref>

Simultaneously, a younger generation of poets emerged on the fringes of the literary establishment, rejecting both the ideal prosaic moral earnestness of Dwivedi-era poetry and the narrow scope of ''rītī'' traditions. Their reaction against earlier styles and themes led to a revolution in poetic sensibility, ultimately giving rise to the '''''Chhayavad yug'''''.<ref>Schomer, Karine (1983), p.7-8</ref><ref>Rubin, David (1998), p-12</ref>

===Period===
The Chāyāvād period is generally dated between 1918 and 1938, though some critics and scholars propose slight variations for its inception. This period of literary flourishing coincided with the aftermath of [[World War I]], and extended through the interwar years, culminating in the early 1940s as [[World War II]] commenced. Hence, this poetic stream aligns with global trends of [[introspection]], and [[Cultural movement|cultural revival]] in [[Aftermath of World War I|post-war]] societies. The Chāyāvād era also coincided with India's escalating struggle for [[Indian Independence Movement|independence]], intertwining personal emotions with the collective aspirations for cultural identity and an implicit desire for political independence.<ref>Rubin, David (2005), p.17-20</ref>

==Definition==
===By critics===
Prominent critic [[Ramchandra Shukla]] in his ''Hindi Sahitya ka Itihas'' asserts that: {{blockquote|Chāyāvād should be understood in two senses. First, in the context of mysticism, where it relates to the subject matter of poetry, depicting the poet's eternal and unknown beloved through highly imaginative language. Second, as a particular poetic style, where the focus lies in expressing the unmanifest through the shadow of the manifest. Chhayavad generally represents an artistic response against the dry, narrative style of the Dwivedi era.<small> (English translation)</small><ref>Shukla, Ramchandra (1938) "छायावादी शब्द का प्रयोग दो अर्थों में समझना चाहिए। एक तो रहस्यवाद के अर्थ में, जहाँ उसका संबंध काव्य-वस्तु से होता है अर्थात् जहाँ कवि उस अनन्त और अज्ञात प्रियतम को आलंबन बनाकर अत्यंत चित्रमयी भाषा में प्रेम का अनेक प्रकार से व्यंजना करता है। इस अर्थ का दूसरा प्रयोग काव्य-शैली या पद्धति-विशेष के व्यापक अर्थ में होता है। छायावाद का चलन द्विवेदी काल की रूखी इतिवृत्तात्मक (कथात्मकता) की प्रतिक्रिया के रूप में हुआ था।"</ref><ref>Sharan, Deenanath (1958), p.06</ref>}}

[[Hazari Prasad Dwivedi]] asserted that Chāyāvād stemmed from an inward orientation of the mind and a steadfast belief in the changing human condition. The poets of this era were endowed with exceptional sensitivity and keen awareness of social disparities and discord. Stylistically, they were markedly distinct from their predecessors, focusing primarily on subjectivity. By 1920, Khadi Boli poetry still emphasized themes, but subsequently, the poet's own emotions and sentiments took precedence. The significance of the theme itself became secondary, while the poet's inner resonance with it became paramount.<ref>Sharan, Deenanath (1958), p.08</ref>

[[Namwar Singh]] wrote: {{blockquote|Regardless of its literal meaning, the term chāyāvād practically refers to the collected works of poets like Prasad, Nirala, Pant, and Mahadevi written between 1918 and 1936. It is the poetic manifestation of the national awakening of that era, striving to break free from old traditions on one hand and foreign domination on the other.<small> (English translation)</small><ref>Singh, Namvar (2018), p.48</ref>}}

[[Nand Dulare Bajpai]] defined Chāyāvād as the subtle yet manifest beauty of nature imbued with a spiritual aura, offering a universally accepted explanation of the movement.

===By the contributing poets===
'''Jaishankar Prasad''' noted that this new form of poetry relied more on Indian aesthetics of experience and expression. Its distinctive features included suggestiveness, figurativeness, the depiction of nature, and the nuanced articulation of personal emotions. He said:{{blockquote| When poetry moved away from the mythological narratives or external descriptions of women’s beauty in different lands and began expressing self-experienced emotions rooted in pain, it came to be termed Chāyāvād in Hindi.<ref>Sharan, Deenanath (1958), p.12 "काव्य के क्षेत्र में पौराणिक युग की किसी घटना अथवा देश-विदेश की सुन्दरी के बाह्य वर्णन से भिन्न जब वेदना के आधार पर स्वानुभूतिमयी अभिव्यक्ति होने लगी, तब हिन्दी में उसे छायावाद नाम से अभिहित किया गया।"</ref>}}

'''Mahadevi Varma''' viewed the philosophy of Chhayavad as rooted in [[Neo-Vedanta|universalism]] ''(sarvātmavād)'' and identified nature as its medium. She believed this poetry established a profound emotional bond with nature, evoking universal empathy and unity with all elements of the world. She regarded [[mysticism]] as a natural progression of Chāyāvād.<ref>Sharan, Deenanath (1958), p.12</ref>

'''Sumitranandan Pant''', in a distinctly poetic manner, observed that the spontaneous emergence of poetic sensibilities from diverse directions eventually coalesced into the epoch-defining Chhayavad.<ref>Jain, Nirmala (1971), p.125 "चारों दिशाओं से स्वतंत्र रूप से नई काव्य-चेतना की धाराएँ बहकर छायावाद के युगचरितमानस में संचित हुईं।"</ref>

==Literary Characteristics==
===Poetry===
One of the central themes is the profound connection between humans and nature. The natural world is often depicted as a mirror reflecting human emotions, with the elements of the [[earth]], [[sky]], and [[seasons]], as in Pant's ''Gramya'' and ''Gunjan'' serving as metaphors for internal states of being. In this regard, nature becomes both a symbol of the poet's emotional experiences and a vehicle for spiritual transcendence.<ref>Green, Sarah Virginia Houston (2008), p.12-35</ref>

Another key theme is the idealization of love and the [[Romanticism in philosophy|romantic quest for the eternal]], most prominent in the poems of Mahadevi. She frequently portrayed love as a divine force, representing the ideal of untainted beauty and connection, transcending the physical realm.<ref>Ritter, Valerie (2011), p.230-240</ref><ref>Green, Sarah Virginia Houston (2008), p.318-323</ref>

[[Spirituality]] and [[mysticism]] are also prevalent themes, with an emphasis on the search for truth, self-realization, and the connection between the individual and the divine. The movement was also marked by an engagement with the [[Existentialism|existential concerns of human life]]. Poets explored the duality of existence, such as life and death, material and spiritual worlds, and the transient nature of time, as evident in works of like ''Saroj Smriti'', ''Sneh nirjhar (Nirala)'', and ''Aansu'' (Prasad). This theme is often reflected through melancholic expressions, contemplating the impermanence of life and the inevitability of death.<ref>Priyanka, Prachi (2022), p.124-125</ref><ref>Chishti, Seema (12 April 2020)</ref>

===Prose===
Although Chāyāvād is primarily associated with poetry, it is noteworthy that all the prominent figures also made significant contributions to [[prose]]. Interestingly, much of their prose, both in style and more so in the time-period, aligns with the essence of Chāyāvād.<ref>Bandopadhyay, Manohar (1994), p.122</ref> For instance, Prasad's historical plays, Nirala's story collections, and Mahadevi's distinctive memoirs reflect this connection. Beyond this, themes of nationalism and freedom—both personal and political—are evident in works like ''Kankal'' (Prasad), ''Kulli Bhat'' (Nirala), ''[[Links in the Chain|Shrinkhla ki Kadiyan]]'' (Mahadevi), and Pant's essay collections. The prose of this era predominantly embodied nationalistic and emotional fervor, in contrast to the mystical and romantic themes characteristic of its poetry.<ref>Varmā, Mahādevī (2003)</ref><ref>Sharma, Ruchi (2021)</ref><ref>Singh, Sheela (October 1982 – April 1983), p.2-7</ref>

== Notable authors ==
[[Jaishankar Prasad]], [[Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala']], [[Sumitranandan Pant]] and [[Mahadevi Varma]] are considered as the four pillars of the ''Chhayavadi'' school of Hindi literature.

=== Jaishankar Prasad ===
{{main|Jaishankar Prasad}}
[[File:Prasad Ji.png|thumb|90px|left|{{center|Prasad}}]]
Prasad was born in 1889 in Varanasi into a prosperous family with a strong association to [[Shaivism]]. His family's enterprise was focused on the trade of snuff and tobacco. His early education began at home, studying [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi]], [[Persian language|Persian]], and [[Urdu]], before he got enrolled at Queen's College.

He had a deep interest in religion, history, archaeology, and gardening. Music was a lifelong inclination, and he appreciated both [[Indian classical music|classical]] forms and lighter styles. His works often include love in its diverse forms, the profound exploration of pain and anguish, the complexities of the human condition, the pursuit of spiritual ideals, and the examination of historical and mythological narratives—elements that are evident in both his poetry and prose.<ref>Singh, Rajendra (1982), pp.24-30</ref>

=== Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' ===
{{main|Suryakant Tripathi}}
[[File:Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'.jpg|thumb|100px|right|{{center|Nirala}}]]
Nirala was born towards the end of the 19th century at Mahishadal in [[Midnapore]] in [[Bengal Presidency]]. He independently started deciphering the grammar of modern standard Hindi by studying two Hindi journals available to him in Bengal: ''Sarasvatī'' and ''Maryādā''.

He revolutionized Hindi poetry by pioneering the use of free verse. Nirala's poetry illustrated a profound connection with the living spirits of nature. His mystical poems, rich with the devotion of medieval Bhakti poetry, explored nature within a metaphysical framework that aligned with his Advaita beliefs. Themes of minority subjectivity, social critique, and social upliftment also appeared frequently in his writings.<ref>Rubin, David (1976), pp.127-130</ref>

=== Sumitranandan Pant ===
{{main|Sumitranandan Pant}}
[[File:Sumitranandan Pant Ji.jpg|thumb|100px|left|{{center|Pant}}]]
Pant was born in [[Kausani]] in 1900. He grew up in a village and always cherished a love for the beauty and flavor of rural India, which is reflected in all his major works. He was known for romanticism in his poems which were inspired by nature, people and beauty within.

His works showcase a blend of innovation and emotional depth, marked by free verse and prose poems. Renowned for his vivid imagery, rhythmic variety, and charm, his contributions extend beyond poetry, highlighting his brilliance as a prose stylist, essayist, and critic.<ref>Mukhopadhyaya, Debabrata (1969), pp.21-24</ref>

=== Mahadevi Varma ===
{{main|Mahadevi Varma}}
[[File:Mahadevi Ji.jpg|thumb|100px|right|{{center|Mahadevi}}]]
Verma was born on 26 March 1907 in  [[Farrukhabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. She significantly impacted Hindi literature by refining the language and infusing poetry with heartfelt acceptance of Indian philosophy.

Her unique blend of emotional intensity, lyrical simplicity, and evocative imagery, along with her contributions as a translator and scholar, solidified her position as a leading figure of the Chhayavad movement. Her poetry, along with her work towards social upliftment and women's education, were depicted in her writings. These works greatly influenced both readers and critics.<ref>Schomer, Karine (1983), pp.158-185</ref>

===Others=== 
Other important figures of this literary movement were 

[[Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar']], widely regarded as a poet of rebellion, with his poetry often exuding heroic sentiment, he initially composed in the ''Chāyāvād'' style and is frequently cited as a major figure of the ''Chāyāvādottar'' period—the transitional phase between ''Chāyāvād'' and ''Uttar-Chāyāvād'' (Post-Chāyāvāda). His later work, based on the celestial nymph [[Urvashi]], also embodies the sensibilities of Chāyāvād.<ref>Damodar, Shrihari (1975)</ref>

[[Harivansh Rai Bachchan]] began his literary career under the influence of Chāyāvāda and gradually emerged as a prominent poet and writer of the Nayī Kavitā literary movement. In the later stages of his career, he became increasingly critical of Chāyāvād and became associated with other literary currents such as Pragativād.<ref>Castaing, Anne (2012)</ref>

[[Makhanlal Chaturvedi]] was an Indian poet, essayist, and journalist noted for his role in the Indian independence movement and his contribution to Chāyāvād. He received the first [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in Hindi for ''Him Taraṅginī'' (1955).<ref>Kalbhor, Gopinath</ref>

[[Ramkumar Verma]], known for his historical one-act plays and poetry collections. His works reflect themes of sacrifice, love, service, and humanity, influenced by Gandhian ideals.<ref>George, K.M. (1995)</ref>

[[Pandit Narendra Sharma]] statred his career as a poet and towards the 1940s, he contributed lyrics to Hindi cinema and is widely recognized for his work in the [[Bollywood|film industry]].<ref>Sukumaran, Shradha </ref>

== Notable works ==
Some of the important works of this school include:
*Jaishankar Prasad's ''[[Kamayani]]'' (1936), and ''Aansu''
* Nirala's anthologies like ''Anamika'' (featuring iconic poems such as ''[[Ram Ki Shakti Puja]]'' and [[Saroj Smriti]]), ''Parimal'', ''Naye Patte'', and long poem [[Tulsidas (poem)|''Tulsidas'']] 
*Mahadevi's ''Rashmi'', ''Neerja'', ''Deepshikha'', and ''Sandhyageet''
* Pant's ''Pallav'' and ''Gunjan''
*Harivansh Rai Bachchan's ''[[Madhushala]]''<ref>Castaing, Anne (2012)</ref>

== Reception  ==
The reception of Chāyāvād evolved over-time from initial skepticism and critique to widespread acceptance, followed by decline as literary tastes shifted.

===Early Criticism===
When Chāyāvād first emerged in the early 20th century, it was met with considerable resistance from critics and readers accustomed to the didactic and traditional poetic forms of Brajbhasha and the preceding Dwivedi Yug. The movement’s focus on individual emotion, subjective experience, and mystical symbolism marked a radical departure from the moralistic and public-oriented tone of earlier Hindi literature. Some critics dismissed Chāyāvād poets as overly sentimental, vague, or escapist. The metaphysical and romantic elements were too criticized for being inspired from Western Romanticism directly on indirectly and were often perceived as inaccessible to the common reader.<ref>Shukla, Ramchandra (1938), p.640</ref><ref>Varma, Tulika (July 2024), p.84</ref>

===Rise and Popularity===
Despite early criticism, Chāyāvād gradually gained popularity. The poetry, characterized by lyrical beauty, emotional depth, and philosophical introspection, resonated with a generation of readers seeking aesthetic and spiritual expression in the Hindi language. The movement was lauded for enriching Khari Boli Hindi with a heightened poetic sensibility. By the 1930s, Chāyāvād had become the dominant literary voice in Hindi poetry.<ref>Pachori, Satya S. (1978-79)</ref>

===Critical Acclaim===
As the movement matured, it received growing recognition from literary scholars for its role in shaping modern Hindi literature. Chāyāvād was praised for asserting the autonomy of the poet and exploring the inner world of the individual self. The poetic works of this era were seen as a synthesis of classical Indian themes and contemporary literary forms.<ref>Varma, Tulika (July 2024), p.85</ref>

===Decline and Transition===
By the 1940s and 1950s, the Chāyāvād movement began to decline, coinciding with the rise of the ''Pragativad'' (Progressive Writers' Movement) and later, ''Prayogvad'' (Experimentalism). These emerging movements emphasized social realism, political engagement, and literary experimentation—contrasting sharply with the introspective and often abstract tone of Chāyāvād. Critics increasingly viewed Chāyāvād as overly idealistic and disconnected from pressing social and political realities. The romantic idealism that once defined the movement was seen as inadequate in addressing the challenges of a newly independent and rapidly transforming Indian society.<ref>Dave, Radhekant (1979), p.63</ref>

===Legacy===
Despite its decline, Chāyāvād continues to be regarded as a foundational era in modern Hindi literature. Its influence can be seen in the subsequent development of poetic language, symbolism, and literary style. Contemporary literary criticism often reassesses Chāyāvād not just as a romantic movement, but also as a complex and nuanced response to colonial modernity, national identity, and the evolving self. <ref>Rubin, David (1998), p. 47</ref><ref>Singh, Shivkaaran (1967)</ref>

==See also==
*[[Symbolism (movement)|Symbolism]]
*[[List of Hindi poets]]
*[[Irish Literary Revival]]
*[[Nagari Pracharini Sabha]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}} 
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*{{cite book |last=Rubin |first=David |date=2005 |title=Of Love and War: A Chayavad Anthology |url= |trans-title= |language= |location=India |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195675320 |access-date=}}
*{{cite book |last=Schomer |first=Karine |date=1983 |title=Mahadevi Verma and the Chhayavad Age of Modern Hindi Poetry |url= |trans-title= |language= |location= |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-04255-1 |access-date=}}
*{{cite book |last=Sharan |first=Deenath |title=Chhayavad Vishleshan aur Mulyakan|publisher=Pavan Printing Press |year=1958}}
*{{cite magazine |last1=Singh |first1=Sheela |editor-last1=Singh |editor-first1=Shrinath |magazine=Nagari Patrika|title=Prasad ki kavya bhasha |date=Oct 1982 – Apr 1983 |volume=16 |issue=1–7 |publisher=[[Nagari Pracharini Sabha|Nagari Pracharini Sabha Varanasi]]}}
*{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Namwar |date=2018 |title=Chhayavad |trans-title= |language=hi |location= |publisher=Rajkamal Prakashan |isbn=9788126707362 |access-date=}}
*{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Rajendra |date=1982 |title=Jayshankar Prasad |url= |language=English |location=Boston |publisher=Twayne |series=World Author Series|isbn=9780805764741 |access-date=}}
*{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Shivkaran |title=Swachhandtavad Evam Chhayavad Ka Tulnatmak Adhyayan |edition=2nd |year=1967 |publisher=Kitab Mahal |location=Allahabad |page=111}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Ruchi |date=2021 |title=A Portrait of the Artist as a Social Reformer: Nirala's A Life Misspent and "Chaturi, the Shoemaker" |journal=Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=204–212 |url=https://jcla.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/JCLA-44.4_Ruchi-Sharma.pdf |access-date=2024-07-24 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309143655/https://jcla.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/JCLA-44.4_Ruchi-Sharma.pdf |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Shukla Acharya |first=Ramchandra |date=1929 |title=Hindi Sahitya Ka Itihas|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.321534 |language=Hindi |location=India |publisher=Nagari Pracharini Sabha Kashi (NPS)|access-date=}}
*{{cite web|last=Sukumaran |first=Shradha |url=http://www.mid-day.com/specials/2009/jun/140609-Lata-Mangeshkar-In-her-own-voice-Books-Private-Life-Bollywood-Playback-Singers.htm |title=Voice of India |publisher=Mid-day.com |date=2009-06-14 |accessdate=2011-12-28}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Turner |first=Ralph Lilley |date=1969–1985 |title=A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/soas_query.py?qs=ch%C4%81y%C4%81%CC%81&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact |location=London |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
*{{cite book |last=Varmā |first=Mahādevī |title=Links in the Chain |translator-last=Sohoni |translator-first=Neera Kuckreja |publisher=Katha |year=2003 |isbn=9788187649342|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5pP-yfTV-J4C |pages=147 |format=Paperback |language=English }}
*{{cite magazine |last=Varma |first=Tulika |date=July 2024 |title=Chhayavad poetry's search for ancestors |url=https://library.iimtrichy.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/The-Caravan-July-2024.pdf |magazine=The Caravan |location=New Delhi |publisher=Delhi Press |page=85 |access-date=May 14, 2025}}
*{{cite book |last=White |first=Charles S. J. |date=2006 |title=The Garden of Loneliness: A Translation of Jaishankar Prasad's Hindi Poem 'Ansu |url= |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=8120831373|language=hi}}
{{refend}}

{{Schools of poetry}}

[[Category:Hindi literary movements]]
[[Category:Neo-romanticism]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian literature]]