Editing China proper

{{Short description|Geopolitical term}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| showflag = p
| t = {{lang|zh-hant|中國本土}}
| s = {{lang|zh-hans|中国本土}}
| l = China ''proper''
| p = zhōngguó běntǔ
| w = Chung<sup>1</sup> Kuo<sup>2</sup> Pen<sup>3</sup> T'u<sup>3</sup>
| bpmf =
| t2 = {{lang|zh-hant|中國本部}}
| s2 = {{lang|zh-hans|中国本部}}
| l2 = China core
| p2 = zhōngguó běnbù
| w2 = Chung<sup>1</sup> Kuo<sup>2</sup> Pen<sup>3</sup> Pu<sup>4</sup>
| bpmf2 =
| c3 = {{lang|zh|十八行省}}
| l3 = Eighteen Provinces
| p3 = shíbā xíngshěng
| bpmf3 =
| t4 = {{lang|zh-hant|關內十八省}}
| s4 = {{lang|zh-hans|关内十八省}}
| l4 = Eighteen Provinces inside [[Shanhai Pass|Shanhaiguan]]
| p4 = guānnèi shíbā shěng
| bpmf4 =
| t5 = {{lang|zh-hant|內地十八省}}
| s5 = {{lang|zh-hans|内地十八省}}
| l5 = Eighteen Provinces in mainland
| p5 = nèidì shíbā shěng
| bpmf5 =
| t6 = {{lang|zh-hant|中原漢地}}
| s6 = {{lang|zh-hans|中原汉地}}
| l6 = [[Han Chinese|Han]] territory in [[Zhongyuan|Central Plain]]
| p6 = zhōngyuán hàndì
| bpmf6 =
| c =
| j =
| mi =
| ci =
| altname =
}}

[[File:1912 China map from National Geographic.jpg|thumb|A 1912 map from an issue of ''[[National Geographic]]'' magazine showing the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. China proper is shaded in pink, while other Chinese territories have pink borders.]]
[[File:China 1900.jpg|thumb|Map of China proper in 1900 from the [[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]]]]

'''China proper''', also called '''Inner China''',{{NoteTag|'''Eighteen Provinces inside [[Shanhai Pass|the Pass]]''' ({{zhi|s=关内十八省|t=關內十八省}}) used within China, in reference to the eighteen provinces within the Great Wall.<ref name="Definition">{{cite web |url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/china/cn_glos.html |title = Glossary&nbsp;– China |publisher = [[Library of Congress]] Country Studies |quote = Used broadly to mean China within the Great Wall, with its eighteen historic provinces.}}</ref>}} are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the [[Manchu people|Manchu]]-led [[Qing dynasty]] to describe the distinction between the historical "'''Han lands'''" ({{lang-zh|t=漢地}}, i.e. regions long dominated by the majority [[Han Chinese|Han]] population) and the "frontier" regions of China where more [[ethnic minorities in China|non-Han ethnic minorities]] and newer foreign immigrants (e.g. [[Russians]]) reside, sometimes known as "Outer China".<ref name="Definition"/> There is no fixed extent for China ''proper'', as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in [[History of China|Chinese history]]. One definition refers to the original area of Chinese civilization, the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plain]] (in the [[North China Plain]]); another to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. There was no [[direct translation]] for "China ''proper''" in the [[Chinese language]] at the time due to differences in terminology used by the Qing to refer to the regions.

'''Outer China''' usually includes the geographical regions of [[Dzungaria]], [[Tarim Basin]], [[Gobi Desert]],{{NoteTag|Sometimes including the [[Mongolian Plateau]] as a whole.}} [[Tibetan Plateau]], and [[Manchuria]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Outer China |url=http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/geo/outer.htm |website=depts.washington.edu}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
{{Original research section|date=March 2024}}
It is not clear when the concept of "China proper" in the [[Western world]] appeared. However, it is plausible that historians during the age of empires and the fast-changing borders in the eighteenth century, applied it to distinguish the 18 provinces in China's interior from its frontier territories. This would also apply to [[Great Britain|Great Britain proper]] versus the [[British Empire]], which would encompass vast lands overseas. The same would apply to [[Metropolitan France|France proper]] in contrast to the [[First French Empire]], which [[Napoleon]] managed to expand all the way to [[Moscow]].

According to [[Harry Harding (political scientist)|Harry Harding]], the concept can date back to 1827.<ref>Harry Harding, "The Concept of 'Greater China': Themes, Variations, and Reservations", in ''The China Quarterly'', 136 (December 1993), pp.&nbsp;660–686. [https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S030574100003229X]</ref> But as early as in 1795, [[William Winterbotham]] adopted this concept in his book. When describing the Chinese Empire under the Qing dynasty, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China proper, [[Chinese Tartary]], and the [[List of tributary states of China|states tributary to China]]. He adopted the opinions of [[Jean-Baptiste Du Halde|Du Halde]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Grosier|Grosier]] and suspected that the name of "China" came from [[Qin dynasty]]. He then said: "China, properly so called,... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..."<ref>[[William Winterbotham|Winterbotham, William]] (1795). ''An Historical, Geographical, and Philosophical View of the Chinese Empire...'', London: Printed for, and sold by the editor; J. Ridgway; and W. Button. (pp.&nbsp;35–37: General Description of the Chinese Empire → '''China Proper'''→ 1. Origin of its Name, 2. Extent, Boundaries, &c.)</ref>

However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system of the [[Ming dynasty]], which the Qing dynasty maintained until 1662. Although Ming dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions, Winterbotham uses the name of Kiang-nan ({{lang|zh-hant|江南}}, Jiāngnán) province, which had been called [[South Zhili]] ({{lang|zh-hant|南直隶}}, Nán-Zhílì) during the Ming dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e., [[Jiangnan]]) in 1645, the second year after the Qing dynasty replaces the Ming dynasty. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by the 18-province system between 1662 and 1667. Using the 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that the concept of China proper probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662 and this concept may reflect the idea that identifies China as the territory of the former Ming dynasty after the [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming–Qing transition]].

[[File:China Proper 1944.png|thumb|A 1944 map of China Proper, [[Manchuria]] ([[Northeast China]]), [[Mongolia]] ([[Outer Mongolia]]), Sinkiang ([[Xinjiang]]), and [[Tibet]] from the [[United States Office of War Information|War Information Office]] [[propaganda film]] {{nowrap|''[[Why We Fight]]'':}} {{nowrap|''[[The Battle of China]]''}}. The outer borders include [[administrative division of the Republic of China|several areas claimed]] by the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].]]

The concept of "China proper" also appeared before this 1795 book. It can be found in ''The Gentleman's Magazine'', published in 1790, and ''The Monthly Review'', published in 1749.<ref>Copyright has passed, "Full View" available through [[Google Books]].</ref> In the nineteenth century, the term "China proper" was sometimes used by Chinese officials when they were communicating in foreign languages. For instance, the Qing ambassador to Britain [[Zeng Jize]] used it in an English language article, which he published in 1887.<ref>Marquis Tseng, "China: The Sleep and the Awakening", ''The Asiatic Quarterly Review'', Vol. III 3 (1887), p. 4.</ref>

"Dulimbai Gurun" is the Manchu name for China ({{lang|zh-hant|中國}}, Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom").<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117 Hauer 2007], p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80 Dvořák 1895], p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102 Wu 1995], p. 102.</ref> After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in the Manchu language. The Qing emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including both "China proper" and present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multiethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han-populated areas in "China proper", proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" ({{lang|zh-hant|中國人}}, Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006], pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</ref>

When the Qing [[Ten Great Campaigns#Campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–59)|conquered Dzungaria in 1759]], they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004], p. 77.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83 Dunnell 2004], p. 83.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503 Elliott 2001], p. 503.</ref> The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han peoples like the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han people, into "one family" united under the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" ({{lang|zh-hant|中外一家}}) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" ({{lang|zh-hant|內外一家}}, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004], pp. 76–77.</ref> A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 Cassel 2012], pp. 44, 205.</ref>

In the Manchu official [[Tulisen]]'s Manchu language [[Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars, in the years 1712, 13, 14, and 15|account of his meeting]] with the [[Kalmyk people|Torghut Mongol leader]] [[Ayuka Khan|Ayuki Khan]], it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun; {{lang|zh-hant|中國}}, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218 Perdue 2009], p. 218.</ref>

While the Qing dynasty used "China" (Zhongguo) to describe non-Han areas, some Han scholar-officials opposed the Qing emperor's use of Zhongguo to refer to non-Han areas, using instead Zhongguo to mark a distinction between the culturally Han areas and the territories newly acquired by the Qing empire. In the early 19th century, [[Wei Yuan]]'s ''Shengwuji'' (Military History of the Qing Dynasty) calls the Inner Asian polities ''guo'', while the seventeen provinces of the traditional heartland, that is, "China proper", and three eastern provinces of Manchuria are called "''Zhongguo''".<ref>Joseph Esherick, "How the Qing Became China," in Joseph W. Esherick, Hasan Kayali and Eric Van Young, ed., ''Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2006 {{ISBN|0742540308}}): 233.</ref> Some Ming loyalists of Han ethnicity refused to use Zhongguo to refer to areas outside the borders of Ming China, in effect refusing to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty. Han Chinese intellectuals gradually embraced the new meaning of "China" and began to recognize it as their homeland.<ref>{{cite book | first = Rowe | last = Rowe | title = China's Last Empire - The Great Qing | publisher = Harvard University Press | pages = 284 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC |date=February 15, 2010| isbn = 9780674054554 }}</ref>

The Qing dynasty referred to the Han-inhabited 18 provinces as "nèidì shíbā shěng" ({{lang|zh-hant|內地十八省}}), which meant the "interior region eighteen provinces", or abbreviated it as "nèidì" ({{lang|zh-Hant|內地}}), "interior region" and also as "jùnxiàn" ({{lang|zh-hans|郡县}}), while they referred to the non-Han areas of China such as the [[Northeast China|Northeast]], Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet as "wàifān" ({{lang|zh|外藩}}) which means "outer feudatories" or "outer vassals", or as "fānbù" ({{lang|zh|藩部}}, "feudatory region"). These wàifān were fully subject to and governed by the Qing government and were considered part of China (Zhongguo), unlike wàiguó ({{lang|zh-hant|外國}}, "outer/foreign countries") like Korea, Vietnam, the Ryukyus and Japan{{dubious|reason=Japan did not pay tribute to China during whole the Qing era|date=November 2021}}, who paid tribute to Qing China or were [[vassal states]] of China but were not part of China.

== Political use ==
In the early 20th century, a series of [[History of China–Japan relations#Meiji Restoration and the rise of the Japanese Empire 1868–1931|Sino-Japanese]] conflicts had raised Chinese people's concern for national unity, and the concept of a [[Zhonghua minzu|unified, undivided Chinese nation]] became more popular among Chinese scholars. On Jan 1, 1939, [[Gu Jiegang]] published his article "The term 'China proper' should be abolished immediately",<ref>{{Cite journal|last={{lang|zh|颉刚}}|first={{lang|zh|顾}}|script-title=zh:"中国本部"一名亟应废弃|url=http://www.shehui.pku.edu.cn/upload/editor/file/20180627/20180627102430_7376.pdf|journal={{lang|zh|italics=no|益世报}}}}</ref> which argued that the widely accepted area covered by "China proper" is not the actual territory of any of the [[Dynasties of China|Chinese dynasties]]. Gu further theorized that "[[wikt:中国本部|中国本部]]",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weblio.jp/wkpja/content/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%9F|script-title=ja:中国本土}}</ref> the Chinese and Japanese term equal to "China proper" at the time, actually originated from Japan and was translated into "China proper", hence the concept of "China proper" was developed by Japanese people, and it had become a tool to divide Chinese people, making way for the Japanese invasion of Mongolia, [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|Manchuria]], and other parts of China. Gu's article sparked a heated debate on the definition and origin of "[[Zhonghua minzu]]" (Chinese nation),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theory.people.com.cn/GB/49157/49163/8594511.html|script-title=zh:"中华民族是一个"?——追记抗战初期一场关于中国是不是多民族国家的辩论|date=2008-12-29|access-date=9 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210044414/http://theory.people.com.cn/GB/49157/49163/8594511.html|archive-date=10 February 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sohu.com/a/127357656_488111|script-title=zh:徘徊到纠结——顾颉刚关于"中国"与"中华民族"的历史见解|last={{lang|zh|葛}}|first={{lang|zh|兆光}}|date=2017-02-27|website=[[Sohu]]|access-date=9 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209232335/http://www.sohu.com/a/127357656_488111|archive-date=9 February 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> which contributed to unifying the Chinese people in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], and to an extent shaped the later established concept of Zhonghua minzu.

== Modern ==
[[File:China autonomous regions.svg|thumb|Much of the regions outside of China proper are [[Autonomous regions of China|autonomous regions]].]]
Today, China proper is a controversial concept in China itself, since the current official paradigm does not contrast the core and the periphery of China. There is no single widely used term corresponding to it in the [[Standard Chinese|Chinese language]].

The separation of China into a "China proper" dominated by Han people and other states for ethnic minorities such as [[East Turkestan]] ([[Chinese Turkestan]]) for the [[Uyghurs]] impugns on the legitimacy of China's current territorial borders, which is based on the [[succession of states]] principle. According to sinologist [[Colin Mackerras]], foreign governments have generally accepted Chinese claims over its ethnic minority areas, because to redefine a country's territory every time it underwent a change of regime would cause endless instability and warfare. Also, he asks, "if the boundaries of the Qing were considered illegitimate, why should it go back to the much smaller Ming in preference to the quite extensive [[Tang dynasty]] boundaries?"<ref name="Mackerras">{{cite book|title=State and Society in 21st Century China: Crisis, Contention and Legitimation|editor1-first=Peter Hays|editor1-last=Gries|first=Colin|last=Mackerras|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2012|chapter=Han-minority relations|pages=219–220}}</ref>

== Extent ==
[[File:Ming foreign relations 1580.jpg|thumb|The approximate extent of China proper during the late [[Ming dynasty]], the last dynasty of China ruled by the Han people. [[Liaodong Peninsula]] was still administered as part of China proper before it was conquered by the Manchu. ]]
[[File:China Proper Map William Mackenzie c1866.png|thumb|right|250px|The Eighteen Provinces of China proper in 1875, before Taiwan's separation from Fujian in 1885 and its annexation by Japan in 1895]]
There is no fixed geographical extent for China proper, as it is used to express the contrast between the core and frontier regions of China from multiple perspectives: historical, administrative, cultural, and linguistic.

=== Historical perspective ===
One way of thinking about China proper is to refer to the long-standing territories held by [[dynasties of China]] founded by the Han people. Chinese civilization developed from a core region in the North China Plain, and expanded outwards over several millennia, conquering and assimilating surrounding peoples, or being conquered and influenced in turn. Some dynasties, such as the [[Han dynasty|Han]] and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties, were particularly expansionist, extending far into [[Inner Asia]], while others, such as the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin]] and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties, were forced to relinquish the North China Plain itself to rivaling regimes founded by peoples from the north.

The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox Chinese dynasty of ethnic Han origin and the second-last imperial dynasty of China. It governed fifteen administrative entities, which included thirteen provinces ({{lang-zh|c=布政使司 |p=Bùzhèngshǐ Sī}}) and two "directly-governed" areas. After the Manchu-led Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper, the Qing court decided to continue to use the Ming administrative system to rule over former Ming lands, without applying it to other domains under Qing rule, namely [[Manchuria under Qing rule|Manchuria]], [[Mongolia under Qing rule|Mongolia]], [[Xinjiang under Qing rule|Xinjiang]], [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Taiwan]] and [[Tibet under Qing rule|Tibet]]. The 15 administrative units of the Ming dynasty underwent minor reforms to become the "Eighteen Provinces" ({{zhi|c=一十八行省 |p=Yīshíbā Xíngshěng}}, or {{zhi|c=十八省 |p=Shíbā Shěng}}) of China proper under the Qing dynasty. It was these eighteen provinces that early Western sources referred to as China proper.

There are some minor differences between the extent of Ming China and the extent of the eighteen provinces of Qing China: for example, [[Manchuria|some parts of Manchuria]] were Ming possessions belonging to the province of Liaodong (now [[Liaoning]]), which is inside the [[Ming Great Wall]]; however, the Qing conquered it before entering the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plain]] and did not administer as part of a regular province of China proper. On the other hand, Taiwan was a new acquisition of the Qing dynasty, and it was placed under the administration of [[Fujian]], one of the provinces of China proper. Eastern [[Kham]] in Greater Tibet was added to [[Sichuan]], while much of what now constitutes northern [[Burma]] was added to [[Yunnan]].

Near the end of the Qing dynasty, there was an effort to extend the province system of China proper to the rest of the empire. Taiwan was converted into a separate province in 1885, but was ceded to Japan in 1895. [[Xinjiang]] was reorganized into a province in 1884. Manchuria was split into the three provinces of [[Shenyang|Fengtian]], [[Jilin]] and [[Heilongjiang]] in 1907. There was discussion to do the same in Tibet, [[Qinghai]] (Kokonor), Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia, but these proposals were not put to practice, and these areas were outside the provincial system of China proper when the Qing dynasty fell in 1912.

The Provinces of the Qing Dynasty were:
{|class=wikitable
!colspan=11|Eighteen provinces
|-
![[Postal romanization|Postal]]!![[Pinyin]]!![[Chinese character|Chinese]]!!rowspan=7|
![[Postal romanization|Postal]]!![[Pinyin]]!![[Chinese character|Chinese]]!!rowspan=7|
![[Postal romanization|Postal]]!![[Pinyin]]!![[Chinese character|Chinese]]
|-
|Anhwei||[[Anhui|Ānhuī]]||{{lang|zh|安徽省}}||Hunan||[[Hunan|Húnán]]||{{lang|zh|湖南省}}||Kweichow||[[Guizhou|Guìzhōu]]||{{lang|zh|貴州省}}
|-
|Chekiang||[[Zhejiang|Zhèjiāng]]||{{lang|zh|浙江省}}||Kansu||[[Gansu|Gānsù]]||{{lang|zh|甘肅省}}||Shansi||[[Shanxi|Shānxī]]||{{lang|zh|山西省}}
|-
|Chihli||[[Zhili|Zhílì]]||{{lang|zh|直隸省}}||Kiangsu||[[Jiangsu|Jiāngsū]]||{{lang|zh|江蘇省}}||Shantung||[[Shandong|Shāndōng]]||{{lang|zh|山東省}}
|-
|Fukien||[[Fujian|Fújiàn]]||{{lang|zh|福建省}}||Kiangsi||[[Jiangxi|Jiāngxī]]||{{lang|zh|江西省}}||Shensi||[[Shaanxi|Shǎnxī]]||{{lang|zh|陝西省}}
|-
|Honan||[[Henan|Hénán]]||{{lang|zh|河南省}}||Kwangtung||[[Guangdong|Guǎngdōng]]||{{lang|zh|廣東省}}||Szechwan||[[Sichuan|Sìchuān]]||{{lang|zh|四川省}}
|-
|Hupeh||[[Hubei|Húběi]]||{{lang|zh|湖北省}}||Kwangsi||[[Guangxi|Guǎngxī]]||{{lang|zh|廣西省}}||Yunnan||[[Yunnan|Yúnnán]]||{{lang|zh|雲南省}}
|-
!colspan=11|Additional provinces in late Qing dynasty
|-
|Fengtien||[[Liaoning|Fèngtiān]]||{{lang|zh|奉天省}}
!rowspan=2|
|Heilungkiang||[[Heilongjiang|Hēilóngjiāng]]||{{lang|zh|黑龍江省}}
!rowspan=2|
|Kirin||[[Jilin|Jílín]]||{{lang|zh|吉林省}}
|-
|Sinkiang||[[Xinjiang|Xīnjiāng]]||{{lang|zh|新疆省}}
|}
Some of the revolutionaries who sought to overthrow Qing rule desired to establish a state independent of the Qing dynasty within the bounds of the Eighteen Provinces, as evinced by their [[Wuchang Uprising|Eighteen-Star Flag]]. Others favoured the replacement of the entire Qing dynasty by a new republic, as evinced by their Five-Striped Flag. Some revolutionaries, such as [[Zou Rong]], used the term ''Zhongguo Benbu'' ({{lang|zh-hant|中国本部}}) which roughly identifies the Eighteen Provinces.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Revolutionary Army |last=Zou |first=Rong |author-link=Zou Rong |year=1903 |chapter = Chapter 4}}</ref> When the Qing dynasty fell, the [[Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor|abdication decree of the Xuantong Emperor]] bequeathed all the territories of the Qing dynasty to the new [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]], and the latter idea was therefore adopted by the new republic as the principle of [[Five Races Under One Union]], with Five Races referring to the Han, Manchus, Mongols, Muslims (Uyghurs, Hui etc.) and Tibetans. The Five-Striped Flag was adopted as the national flag, and the Republic of China viewed itself as a single unified state encompassing all five regions handed down by the Qing dynasty. The People's Republic of China, which was founded in 1949 and replaced the Republic of China on the Chinese mainland, has continued to claim essentially the same borders, with the only major exception being the recognition of an independent [[Mongolia]]. As a result, the concept of China proper fell out of favour in China.

The Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty still largely exist, but their boundaries have changed. [[Beijing]] and [[Tianjin]] were eventually split from Hebei (renamed from Zhili), [[Shanghai]] from Jiangsu, [[Chongqing]] from Sichuan, [[Ningxia]] autonomous region from [[Gansu]], and [[Hainan]] from Guangdong. Guangxi is now an [[autonomous region of China|autonomous region]]. The provinces that the late Qing dynasty set up have also been kept: Xinjiang became an autonomous region under the People's Republic of China, while the three provinces of Manchuria now have somewhat different borders, with Fengtian renamed as Liaoning.

When the Qing dynasty fell, Republican Chinese control of Qing territories, including of those generally considered to be in "China proper", was tenuous, and non-existent in [[Tibet (1912–1951)|Tibet]] and [[Mongolian People's Republic]] (former [[Outer Mongolia]]) since 1922, which were controlled by governments that declared independence from China. The Republic of China subdivided Inner Mongolia in its time on the mainland, although the People's Republic of China later joined Mongol-inhabited territories into a single autonomous region. The PRC joined the [[Qamdo Prefecture|Qamdo area]] into the Tibet area (later the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]). The Republic of China officially recognized the independence of Mongolia in 1946, which was also acknowledged by the PRC government since its founding in 1949.

=== Ethnic perspective ===
[[File:Ethnolinguistic map of China 1983.jpg|thumb|The approximate extent of the Han ethnicity in China and Taiwan as of 1983, denoted in brown.{{NoteTag|Source: United States Central Intelligence Agency, 1983. The map shows the distribution of ethnolinguistic groups according to the majority ethnic group by region in 1983. This map does not represent the current distribution of ethnic groups due to internal migration and assimilation.}} Scattered distribution is denoted by circles.]]
China proper is often associated with the Han people, the majority ethnic group of China and with the extent of the Chinese languages, an important unifying element of the Han ethnicity.

However, Han regions in the present day do not correspond well to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. Much of southwestern China, such as areas in the provinces of [[Yunnan]], [[Guangxi]], and [[Guizhou]], was part of successive dynasties of ethnic Han origin, including the Ming dynasty and the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. However, these areas were and continue to be populated by various non-Han minority groups, such as the [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]], the [[Miao people]], and the [[Bouyei people|Bouyei]]. Conversely, Han people form the majority in most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, many areas in Xinjiang and scattered parts of Tibet today, not least due to the expansion of Han settlement encouraged by the late Qing dynasty, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China.

Ethnic Han is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han ethnicities, such as the [[Hui people|Hui]] and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in the Chinese language, but do not identify as ethnic Han. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than a single language if the criterion of [[mutual intelligibility]] is used to classify its subdivisions.

In polls the majority of the people of Taiwan call themselves "Taiwanese" only with the rest identifying as "Taiwanese and Chinese" or "Chinese" only. Most of the people of Taiwan are descendants of immigrants from mainland China since the 1600s, but the inclusion of Taiwan in the definition of China proper, is still a controversial subject. See [[History of Taiwan]] and [[Political status of Taiwan]] for more information.

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|History}}
* [[Names of China]]
* [[Annam (Chinese Province)|Annam]]
* [[Chinese world]]
** [[Greater China]]
* [[Mainland China]]
* [[Metropole]]
* [[North China Plain]]
* [[Chinese Empire]]
* [[Inner Asia]]
** [[Ming dynasty in Inner Asia]]
** [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia]]
* [[Outer Mongolia]]
* [[Outer Manchuria]]
* [[Sinocentrism]]
* [[Zhonghua Minzu]]
* [[Chinese macro-regions]]—Socio-economic divisions of China proper
* [[Willow Palisade]]
* [[Great Wall of China]]
* [[Serbia proper]]
* [[Russia proper]]
* [[Mainland India]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |title = Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan |first=Par Kristoffer |last=Cassel |edition=illustrated |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC |isbn = 978-0199792054 |access-date = 10 March 2014}}
* [[Jean-Baptiste Du Halde|Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste]] (1736). ''The General History of China. Containing a geographical, historical, chronological, political and physical description of the empire of China, Chinese-Tartary, Corea and Thibet...'', London: J. Watts.
* [[Jean-Baptiste Grosier|Grosier, Jean-Baptiste]] (1788). ''A General Description of China. Containing the topography of the fifteen provinces which compose this vast empire, that of Tartary, the isles, and other tributary countries...'', London: G.G.J. and J. Robinson.
* Darby, William (1827). ''Darby's Universal Gazetteer, or, A New Geographical Dictionary. ... Illustrated by a ... Map of the United States'' (p.&nbsp;154),. Philadelphia: Bennett and Walton.
* {{cite book |title = Chinas religionen ... |first = Rudolf |last = Dvořák |volume = 12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte |edition = illustrated |year = 1895 |publisher=Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung) |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ |isbn = 978-0199792054 |access-date=10 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |title = New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde |first1 = Ruth W. |last1 = Dunnell |first2 = Mark C. |last2 = Elliott |first3 = Philippe |last3 = Foret |first4 = James A |last4 = Millward |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC |isbn = 978-1134362226 |access-date=10 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |title = The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China |first = Mark C. |last = Elliott |edition = illustrated, reprint |year=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC |isbn = 978-0804746847 |access-date=10 March 2014 }}
* {{cite book |title = Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache |first=Erich |last=Hauer |editor-first=Oliver |editor-last=Corff |volume = 12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte |edition=illustrated |year=2007 |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC |isbn = 978-3447055284 |access-date = 10 March 2014 }}
* {{cite book |title = China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia |first=Peter C |last=Perdue |edition=reprint |year=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC |isbn = 978-0674042025 |access-date = 10 March 2014 }}
* {{cite book |title = Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717 - 1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao |first = Shuhui |last = Wu |volume = 2 of Tunguso Sibirica |edition = reprint |year = 1995 |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC |isbn = 978-3447037563 |access-date = 10 March 2014 }}
* {{cite journal |jstor=20062627 |doi=10.1177/0097700405282349 |title=Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century |journal=Modern China |last = Zhao |first = Gang |volume=32 |pages=3–30 |number=1 |date=January 2006 |s2cid=144587815 |df=dmy }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|China proper}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03663b.htm China] The Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/geo/outer.htm Photographic survey of Outer China]
{{US government sources}}

{{China topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:China Proper}}
[[Category:Historical regions of China]]
[[Category:Geography of China]]
[[Category:Metropolitan or continental parts of states]]