Editing Chinese philosophy

{{Short description|Type of philosophy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}

{{Infobox Chinese
| pic = yin-yang-and-bagua-near-nanning.jpg
| piccap = [[Yin and Yang]] symbol with the [[bagua]] symbols paved in a clearing outside of Nanning City, [[Guangxi]] province, [[China]]
| picsize = 300px
| t = 中國哲學
| s = 中国哲学
| p = Zhōngguó zhéxué
| w = {{tone superscript|Chung1-kuo2 che2-hsüeh2}}
| gr = Jonggwo jershyue
| j = zung1 gwok3 zit3 hok6
| y = Jūng-gwok jit-hohk
| h = {{tone superscript|Zung1-get5 ziet5-hok6}}
| wuu = Tson-kueʔ tseʔ-ghoʔ
| poj = Tiong-kok tiat-ha̍k
| vie = Triết học Trung Quốc
| chuhan = 哲學中國
| kanji = 中国哲学
| romaji = Chūgoku tetsugaku
| hangul = 중국 철학
| hanja = 中國哲學
| rr = Jungguk cheolhak
| mr = Chungguk ch'ŏrhak
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| ci = {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|-|gw|ok|3|-|z|it|3|-|h|ok|6}}
| tp = Jhong-guó jhé-syué
| bpmf = ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄓㄜˊ ㄒㄩㄝˊ
| hiragana = ちゅうごくてつがく
| katakana = チュウゴクテツガク
| kunrei = Tyûgoku tetugaku
}}
{{Asian philosophy sidebar}}

'''Chinese philosophy''' ([[Simplified Chinese characters|simplified Chinese]]: 中国哲学; [[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional Chinese]]: 中國哲學) refers to the philosophical traditions that originated and developed within the historical and cultural context of China. It encompasses systematic reflections on issues such as existence, knowledge, ethics, and politics. Evolving over more than two millennia, Chinese philosophy includes classical traditions such as [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism|Daoism]], and [[Buddhism]], as well as modern responses to Western philosophical currents. As a cultural form of philosophy, it addresses universal philosophical concerns while also reflecting the specific historical and social conditions of China.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Zehou |title=中国古代思想史论 |year=2008 |isbn=9787108028976 |language=Chinese |trans-title=On the History of Thought in Ancient China}}</ref>

The historical development of Chinese philosophy began during the [[Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[Warring States period|Warring States]] periods, a time known as the "[[Hundred Schools of Thought]]".<ref name="pe">{{cite book |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |page=42}}</ref> Major schools such as [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism|Daoism]], [[Mohism]], and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] emerged with distinct views on human nature, social order, and political authority. During the [[Han dynasty]], Confucianism was established as the official [[ideology]], shaping China's intellectual and political systems for centuries. In subsequent eras, Chinese philosophy integrated influences from [[History of Buddhism in India|Indian Buddhism]], giving rise to new developments such as [[Neo-Confucianism]] in the [[Song dynasty|Song]] and [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] dynasties.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Lai |title=宋明理学 |year=2020 |isbn=9787301303665 |language=Chinese |trans-title=Neo-Confucianism}}</ref> In the modern period, Chinese thinkers engaged with Western thought, resulting in the emergence of [[Three Principles of the People]], [[Chinese Marxist philosophy|Chinese Marxism]], [[New Confucianism]], and other philosophical movements.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Zehou |title=中国现代思想史论 |isbn=9787108028969 |language=Chinese |trans-title=On the History of Thought in Modern China}}</ref> Throughout the 20th century, these traditions were reshaped by political upheaval and continue to evolve today.

Chinese philosophy, like other philosophical traditions, engages with fundamental questions in [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], and [[Political philosophy|political]] [[Political philosophy|philosophy]]. Thinkers across various schools explored debates about the nature of human goodness, the source of moral knowledge, and the foundations of social order. Confucianism emphasizes ethical cultivation and political responsibility; Daoism advocates a life in accordance with nature and spontaneity; and Buddhist and Neo-Confucian thinkers developed detailed theories of consciousness and moral practice.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Lao |first=Siguang |title=新编中国哲学史 |isbn=9787108067050 |language=Chinese |trans-title=A New History of Chinese Philosophy}}</ref> Beyond abstract theorizing, Chinese philosophy has played a significant role in shaping Chinese education, governance, and cultural life.<ref name=":0" /> In the modern era, Chinese philosophers continue to reinterpret classical ideas while engaging with global philosophical discourse.

Chinese philosophy has exerted significant influence across [[East Asia]]. Buddhist thought and Neo-Confucian philosophy spread to [[Korea]], [[Japan]], and [[Vietnam]], where they shaped local intellectual and educational traditions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maruyama |first=Masao |title=日本政治思想史研究 |isbn=9784130300056 |language=Japanese |trans-title=Studies on the History of Japanese Political Thought}}</ref> During the 17th and 18th centuries, Confucianism attracted the interest of [[Age of Enlightenment|European Enlightenment]] thinkers—often through idealized or inaccurate interpretations—which nonetheless played a role in debates about reason, morality, and secular governance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Confucius in the European Enlightenment |url=https://daily.jstor.org/confucius-in-the-european-enlightenment/}}</ref> In the contemporary era, Chinese philosophy is gaining greater visibility in global academia, though challenges remain regarding its integration into broader philosophical discourse beyond cultural or regional frameworks.

==Overview==
The development of Chinese philosophy began in earnest during the [[Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (c. 770–221 BCE), an era later known as the "[[Hundred Schools of Thought]]" (诸子百家). Thinkers such as [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Laozi]], [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]], [[Mozi]], [[Han Fei]], and [[Xunzi (philosopher)|Xunzi]] laid the foundations for enduring traditions like [[Confucianism]] (儒家), [[Taoism|Daoism]] (道家), [[Mohism]] (墨家), and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] (法家).<ref name=":0" /> These schools addressed questions of ethics, governance, human nature, and the ideal social order, reflecting the intellectual ferment of a politically fragmented age.<ref name=":3" /> Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with the unpopular [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] rule of [[Qin Shi Huang]]. However, many of its ideas and institutions would continue to influence Chinese philosophy throughout the Han dynasty and after.<ref name=":4" />

During the [[Han dynasty|early Han dynasty]], these competing traditions began to merge in practice, but it was not until the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] (141–87 BCE) that Confucianism, through the work of [[Dong Zhongshu]], was officially adopted as state ideology.<ref name=":4" /> This institutionalization of a [[Mysticism|mysticized form]] of Confucianism, infused with cosmological elements from [[Yin and yang|Yin-Yang]] and [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]] theories (阴阳五行)—often summarized as "rejecting the Hundred Schools, honoring Confucianism alone" (罢黜百家，独尊儒术)—would shape Chinese education, bureaucracy, and political thought for centuries.<ref name="pe" /> Daoism, meanwhile, developed into an organized religion, while [[Buddhism]] (佛教) entered China from India and gained increasing prominence in the centuries that followed.<ref name=":3" />

Buddhism entered China during the Han dynasty and developed into a major philosophical force through the translation efforts of figures like [[Kumārajīva]] and [[Xuanzang]], who introduced [[Madhyamaka]] (中观) and [[Yogachara|Yogācāra]] (唯识) thought, which profoundly influenced Chinese [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], and [[soteriology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hirakawa |first=Akira |title=A History of Indian Buddhism |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |year=1990 |isbn=9780824812034 |language=English}}</ref> In the 5th–7th centuries, Indian monk [[Bodhidharma]] transmitted the foundations of Chan ([[Zen]]) Buddhism (禅宗), which was later transformed by [[Huineng]] into a distinctly Chinese tradition emphasizing [[sudden awakening]] (顿悟) and direct experience.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Shi |first=Shunyin |title=中国禅宗史 |year=2010 |isbn=9787101074826 |language=Chinese |trans-title=History of Chinese Zen Buddhism}}</ref> Over time, Buddhist metaphysics and moral psychology significantly influenced Daoist thought and provoked Confucian responses, laying the groundwork for later syntheses such as Neo-Confucianism.<ref name=":1" />

Beginning in the mid-[[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasty, certain scholars with a strong sense of cultural identity initiated efforts to revive Confucianism in response to what they perceived as [[moral nihilism]] in Buddhism.<ref name=":1" /> [[Han Yu]] was a leading figure in this movement; he criticized Buddhist monastics for being unproductive and for undermining the Confucian ethic of social responsibility. Following two major waves of Buddhist suppression (三武一宗灭佛) under [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang]] and [[Chai Rong|Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou]], Buddhism's dominance in political and intellectual life declined.<ref name=":5" /> During the Song dynasty, Confucian scholar-officials critically absorbed elements of Buddhist and Daoist philosophy and practice, laying the foundations for what became [[Neo-Confucianism]] (宋明理学). [[Zhang Zai]] articulated a philosophy of qi (matter, 气) as the material basis of all existence. The [[Cheng brothers]] (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi) emphasized li (principle, 理) and the necessity of internal cultivation to eliminate selfish desires and restore moral nature.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

Building on these earlier thinkers, [[Zhu Xi]] systematized Neo-Confucian thought into a comprehensive [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] framework. He posited li (principle) as the underlying structure of the cosmos, advocated for "investigation of things" (格物) as the path to knowledge, and emphasized the importance of preserving tianli (Heavenly Principle, 天理) by eliminating personal desire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Lai |title=朱子哲学研究 |year=2010 |isbn=9787108035523 |language=Chinese |trans-title=Study on Zhu Xi's Philosophy}}</ref> From the [[Yuan dynasty]] onward, the [[Cheng–Zhu school|School of Principle]] (程朱理学) became state orthodoxy and the basis of the [[Imperial examination|imperial examination system]] throughout the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties, playing a central role in governance, education, and moral regulation.<ref name="pe" /> During the late Ming period, rapid commercial expansion and a flourishing publishing industry gave rise to new currents of thought, many of which challenged Zhu Xi's doctrines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wei |first=Qingyuan |title=暮日耀光 |year=2023 |isbn=9787203128830 |language=Chinese |trans-title=Sunset Glow}}</ref> The most influential among them was [[Wang Yangming]]'s [[Yangmingism|School of Mind]] (陆王心学), which replaced external investigation with introspective moral awareness (良知) and emphasized the unity of knowledge and action to solve Zhu's [[epistemology]] paradox.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Xuezhi |title=明代哲学史 |year=2012 |isbn=9787300157320 |language=Chinese |trans-title=History of Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty}}</ref> Wang's philosophy gained wide support and even political traction, though it never supplanted the School of Principle as the state-sanctioned orthodoxy. After [[Transition from Ming to Qing|the fall of the Ming]], Confucian scholars entered a period of deep reflection. Among them, [[Wang Fuzhi]] developed an integrative synthesis drawing from Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Bin |title=回归真实的存在：王船山哲学的阐释 |year=2002 |isbn=9787309033090 |language=Chinese |trans-title=Returning to the real existence: an interpretation of Wang Fuzhi's philosophy}}</ref> Though his influence was limited during his lifetime, his ideas gained renewed interest in the late Qing and would later be reinterpreted as a source of inspiration for modern political ideologies, including aspects of [[Maoism|Maoist]] thought.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Platt |first=Stephen R. |title=Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China |publisher=Harbard University Press |year=2007 |isbn=9780674026650 |language=English}}</ref> The Qing dynasty saw the rise of [[Kaozheng|evidential scholarship]] (乾嘉学派) and philology, though official ideology remained conservative, especially during the height of literary inquisition.<ref name=":2" />

Beginning in the late Qing dynasty, Chinese philosophy underwent a profound transformation in response to national crisis, Western [[imperialism]], and the collapse of the dynastic worldview. Thinkers such as [[Yan Fu]] introduced [[liberalism]], [[Social Darwinism]], and [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] thought through translations of Western works, while reformers like [[Kang Youwei]] sought to modernize Confucianism into a national religion (立教改制).<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Zehou |title=中国近代思想史论 |year=2008 |isbn=9787108028983 |language=Chinese |trans-title=On the History of Near Modern Chinese Thought}}</ref> During the early [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] period, the [[New Culture Movement]] promoted science and democracy while denouncing traditional morality, leading to the marginalization of classical Confucianism. Meanwhile, under the influence of [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Sun Yat-sen]] developed the [[Three Principles of the People]] (三民主义)—[[nationalism]] (民族), [[democracy]] (民权), and people's livelihood (民生)—as a political-philosophical framework that blended Western [[republicanism]] with Chinese moral values.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sun |first=Wen |title=三民主义 |isbn=9787510703973 |language=Chinese |trans-title=Three Principles of the People}}</ref> The ideology of the Nationalist Party ([[Kuomintang]], 国民党) incorporated this system into its governance strategy, creating a modernist yet culturally rooted foundation for the Chinese state.<ref name=":8" /> Following the [[Shanghai massacre|April 12 Purge]], [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s Nationalist [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] synthesized the Three Principles of the People with Confucianism, [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian governance]], and [[Nationalism|nationalist]] ideology, developing a framework explicitly opposed to both liberalism and Marxism which often referred to as [[Chiangism]] (蒋介石主义).<ref>[[wikisource:中國國民革命與戴季陶主義|中國國民革命與戴季陶主義]] at [[Wikisource]] (Chinese)</ref>

[[Maoism|Mao Zedong Thought]] (毛泽东思想) drew from [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Marxism–Leninism]] (马克思列宁主义), particularly [[Stalinism|Stalinist doctrine]] (斯大林主义), as well as late Qing Hunanese intellectual traditions and the anti-elitist, anti-capitalist sentiments prevalent in [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republican-era China]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Youxin |year=2001 |title=青年毛泽东与杨昌济的思想关系及其湘学渊源 |journal=船山学刊 |volume=01 |page=80-84 |via=中国知网}}</ref> In the struggle for ideological leadership within the Communist Party against [[Wang Ming]], Mao reinterpreted Marxist terminology and developed a distinctive theoretical system centered on concepts like practice (实践), contradiction (矛盾), and [[dialectical materialism]] (辩证唯物主义), which gained institutional authority following his political success and became the unquestioned orthodoxy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gao |first=Hua |title=红太阳是怎样升起的: 延安整风运动的来龙去脉 |publisher=The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press |isbn=9789881756329 |language=Chinese |trans-title=How the Red Sun Rises: The Origins and Development of the Yan'an Rectification Movement}}</ref> Following [[Chinese Communist Revolution|the Communist victory in 1949]], Maoism became the dominant state ideological system. During the later stages of the [[Cultural Revolution]], its discourse became increasingly ritualized and detached from theoretical coherence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gao |first=Hua |title=历史笔记 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199445370 |language=Chinese |trans-title=Historical Notes}}</ref> Although the Maoist period ended in 1976, Mao Zedong Thought remains one of the guiding ideologies of the [[Chinese Communist Party]], and its paradigmatic impact on philosophical discourse, institutional norms, and modes of intellectual expression continues to shape Chinese thought.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jin |first=Guantao |title=观念史研究：中国现代重要政治术语的形成 |year=2009 |isbn=9787511801333 |language=Chinese |trans-title=Research on the History of Ideas: The Formation of Important Political Terms in Modern China}}</ref>

Since the 1980s, Chinese philosophy has gradually diversified under conditions of [[Reform and opening up|economic reform]]. [[New Confucianism]], initially developed by scholars in [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]] such as [[Mou Zongsan]] and [[Tang Chun-i|Tang Junyi]], was reintroduced into the mainland and engaged in dialogue with Western [[humanism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Junmian |title=新儒家思想史 |isbn=9787300075754 |language=Chinese |trans-title=History of New Confucian Thought}}</ref> At the same time, [[Marxist humanism]], [[existentialism]], [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[Frankfurt School]], [[John Rawls|Rawlsianism]], and [[analytic philosophy]] gained influence in academic circles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chou |first=Li-Quan |title=Great Changes in Marxist Philosophy in China Since 1978 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398951? |journal=Philosophy East and West}}</ref> State ideology shifted toward "[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics|Socialism with Chinese Characteristics]]" (中国特色社会主义), emphasizing pragmatism and national rejuvenation while selectively drawing on traditional values. Though political constraints remain, contemporary philosophers have attempted to develop original frameworks addressing global ethics, language, and subjectivity. Nevertheless, the legacy of revolutionary philosophy and ongoing state involvement in ideology continue to shape the structure and limits of philosophical inquiry in China.<ref name=":2" />

In addition to the Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist traditions rooted in Han cultural regions, other philosophical systems developed across China's multiethnic landscape. [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (藏传佛教), which took shape from the Yuan dynasty onward, formed a systematic tradition incorporating [[Madhyamaka]] thought and Buddhist logic ([[Pramana|pramāṇa]], 因明), particularly through the [[Gelug|Gelug school]] (格鲁学派) founded by [[Je Tsongkhapa|Tsongkhapa]]. This tradition had a major influence on [[Mongolia|Mongolian]] and Manchu political institutions and continues to play a central role in Tibetan intellectual life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Banban |first=Duojie |title=藏传佛教思想史纲 |isbn=9787010161525 |language=Chinese |trans-title=An Outline of the History of Tibetan Buddhist Thought}}</ref>

Beginning in the 17th century, Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits like [[Matteo Ricci]] and [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]], introduced [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] and [[Thomism|Thomistic]] philosophy to China. They translated Western philosophical concepts into Confucian terminology and attempted to establish a dialogue between Catholic theology and Chinese ethical traditions. Although controversial, these efforts created an enduring legacy of cross-cultural exchange that shaped the development of modern Chinese intellectual history.<ref name=":6" />

[[Islam|Islamic]] philosophy in China—often referred to as Islamic Heavenly Studies (天方理学)—flourished particularly during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Muslim scholars such as [[Liu Zhi (scholar)|Liu Zhi]] and [[Ma Zhu]] synthesized Islamic theology with Confucian ethics, developing distinctive metaphysical and ethical frameworks known as "Hui Confucianism" (回儒). Their works reflected efforts to reconcile Islamic and Chinese thought within a shared intellectual world.<ref name=":6" />

==Early beliefs==
Early [[Shang dynasty]] thought was based on cycles like the [[Heavenly Stems|10 stems]] and [[Earthly Branches|12 earthly branches]]. This notion stems from what the people of the Shang dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycles, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout [[Chinese history]], reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from [[western philosophy]], in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, [[Ancestor worship]] was present and universally recognized.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

When the Shang were overthrown by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the [[Mandate of Heaven]]. This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a justification for Zhou rule it is said that the [[Duke of Zhou]] made the early solar terms by measuring with a [[gnomon]] that was added to make the complete [[solar term]]s. He is also said to have used [[try square]]s and wrote the ''[[Zhoubi Suanjing]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cullen |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YOGpzgEACAAJ |title=Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient China: The 'Zhou Bi Suan Jing' |date=2007-01-18 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03537-8}}</ref> with his astrologer. Several early beliefs might be found in the ''[[Guicang]]'' and perhaps the earliest Chinese book, the small calendar of the Xia in Da Dai Liji, though debated to exist the Xia dynasty is said to be its origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaughnessy |first=Edward L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcuJAwAAQBAJ&q=Guicang |title=Unearthing the Changes: Recently Discovered Manuscripts of the Yi Jing (I Ching) and Related Texts |date=2014-04-15 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-53330-0}}</ref>

==Ancient philosophy==

=== Spring and Autumn period ===

{{Main|Hundred Schools of Thought}}

Around 500 BCE, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved into the [[Spring and Autumn period]], the classic period of Chinese philosophy began. This is known as the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] ({{lang|zh-hant|諸子百家}}; ''zhūzǐ bǎijiā''; "various scholars, hundred schools"). This period is considered the golden age of Chinese philosophy. Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent [[Warring States period]], the four most influential ones were [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism|Daoism]] (often spelled "Taoism"), [[Mohism]] and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]].<ref name=":4">{{cite book|editor-last1=Garfield|editor-first1=Jay L.|editor-last2=Edelglass|editor-first2=William|year=2011|chapter=Chinese Philosophy|title=The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780195328998}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ebrey|first=Patricia|author-link=Patricia Buckley Ebrey|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|location=New York|page=42}}</ref>

==== Confucianism ====

[[Image:Confucius Statue at the Confucius Temple.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kong Fuzi ([[Latin Language|Latin]]: [[Confucius]])]]
{{Main|Confucianism}}

Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of Confucius collected and written by his disciples after his death in ''[[The Analects]]'', and in the [[Warring States period]], [[Mencius]] in ''[[The Mencius]]'' and [[Xun Kuang|Xunzi]] in ''[[Xunzi (book)|The Xunzi]]''. It is a system of [[morality|moral]], [[social philosophy|social]], [[politics|political]], and [[religion|religious]] thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 20th century. Some Westerners have considered it to have been the "[[state religion]]" of [[imperial China]] because of its lasting influence on Asian culture. Its influence also spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and many other Asian countries.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Confucianism reached its peak of influence during the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties under a rebranded Confucianism called [[Neo-Confucianism]]. Confucius expanded on the already present ideas of Chinese religion and culture to reflect the time period and environment of political chaos during the [[Warring States period]]. Because Confucius embedded the Chinese culture so heavily into his philosophy it was able to resonate with the people of China. However, the relationship between Confucianism and contemporary Chinese society is continuously transforming, reflecting the evolving cultural, political, and social landscape of modern China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lai |first=Chen |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781351268912 |title=Confucius and the Modern World |date=2018-11-21 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-26892-9 |edition=1 |location=New York : Routledge, 2019. {{!}} Series: Routledge studies in contemporary Chinese philosophy |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781351268929}}</ref>

The major Confucian concepts include [[filial piety]], loyalty ({{lang-zh|c=忠|p=zhōng|labels=no}}),  ''[[Li (Confucian)|li]]'' (ritual), ''[[Ren (Confucianism)|ren]]'' (humanity or humaneness), the [[rectification of names]] (i.e., to ensure everything is what its name implies it should be),.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Warren|last=Steinkraus|title=Socrates, Confucius, and the Rectification of Names|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=30|issue=2|year=1980|pages=261–64|doi=10.2307/1398850|jstor=1398850}}</ref> Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the [[Golden Rule]]. The concepts [[yin and yang]] represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change. The Confucian idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent of the idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", often attributed to [[Hegel]], which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Confucius heavily emphasized the idea of microcosms in society (subunits of family and community) success's were the foundations for a successful state or country. Confucius believed in the use of education to further knowledge the people in ethics, societal behavior, and reverence in other humans. With the combination of education, successful family, and his ethical teachings he believed he could govern a well established society in China.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

==== Taoism ====

[[Image:SFEC BritMus Asia 021.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Chinese [[ceramic glaze|glaze]]d [[stoneware]] statue of a [[Daoist]] deity, from the [[Ming dynasty]], 16th century]]
{{Main|Taoist philosophy}}

[[File:BatQuaiDo_2.svg|thumb|left|200px|[[Bagua]]: Modern ''[[Taijitu]]'' with ''I Ching'' trigrams]]

Taoism arose as a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (ascribed to [[Laozi]]) and the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' (partly ascribed to [[Zhuang Zhou]]). The word ''[[Tao]]'' ({{lang|zh-hant|道}}; also transliterated as ''Dao'') literally means 'path' or 'way'. However, in Taoism it refers more often to a meta-physical force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt.

All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct ''Way'' to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction (''[[wu wei]]''), the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practice Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside."

Most of Taoism's focus is on the notion that human attempts to make the world better actually make the world worse. Therefore, it is better to strive for harmony, minimising potentially harmful interference with nature or in human affairs.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy|translator= Wing-tsit Chan|page=137|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qs9W6Km6UC&pg=PA137|publisher = Princeton University Press|date= 2008|isbn = 9781400820030}}</ref>

=== Warring States period ===

==== Legalism ====
{{Main|Legalism (Chinese philosophy)}}

Philosopher [[Han Fei]] synthesized together earlier the methods of his predecessors, which famous historian [[Sima Tan]] posthumously termed Legalism. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", late pre-[[Han dynasty]] reformers emphasized rule by law.

In Han Fei's philosophy, a ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:
#''Fa'' ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=法|p=fǎ}}): law or principle.
#''Shu'' ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=術|p=shù}}): method, tactic, art, or statecraft.
#''Shi'' ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=勢|p=shì}}): legitimacy, power, or charisma.

What has been termed by some as the intrastate Realpolitik of the Warring States period was highly progressive, and extremely critical of the Confucian and Mohist schools. But that of the [[Qin dynasty]] would be blamed for creating a [[totalitarian]] society, thereby experiencing decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment". In Han Fei's philosophy the ruler possessed authority regarding reward and penalty, enacted through law. Shang Yang and Han Fei promoted absolute adherence to the law, regardless of the circumstances or the person. Ministers were only to be rewarded if their words were accurate to the results of their proposals. Legalism, in accordance with Shang Yang's interpretation, could encourage the state to be a [[militarism|militaristic]] [[autarky]].

====Naturalists====

{{Main|School of Naturalists}}

The [[School of Naturalists]] or the School of Yin-yang ({{zh|t=陰陽家|p=Yīnyángjiā|w=Yin-yang-chia|l=School of Yin-Yang|c=}}) was a [[Warring States]] era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of [[yin-yang]] and the ''[[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|wuxing]]''; [[Zou Yan]] is considered the founder of this school.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan|title=Zou Yan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=1 March 2011|archive-date=26 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426150251/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan|url-status=live}}</ref> His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth).

In its early days, this theory was most strongly associated with the states of [[Yan (state)|Yan]] and [[Qi (state)|Qi]]. In later periods, these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief.  This school was absorbed into Taoism's alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into the Chinese medical framework. The earliest surviving recordings of this are in the [[Mawangdui Silk Texts|Mawangdui]] texts and ''[[Huangdi Neijing]]''.

==== Mohism ====
{{Main|Mohism}}

[[Mohism]] (Moism), founded by [[Mozi]], promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit. Everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war. Mozi was strongly against Confucian ritual, instead emphasizing [[pragmatism|pragmatic]] survival through farming, [[fortification]], and [[Public administration|statecraft]]. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the ''Will of Heaven'', but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels [[utilitarianism]].

==== Logicians ====

{{Main|School of Names}}

The logicians (School of Names) were concerned with logic, paradoxes, names and actuality (similar to Confucian rectification of names). The logician [[Hui Shi]] was a friendly rival to [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]], arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner. Another logician, [[Gongsun Long]], originated the famous [[When a White Horse is Not a Horse]] dialogue.

==== Agriculturalists ====

{{main|Agriculturalism}}

[[Agriculturalism]] was an early [[Agrarianism|agrarian]] social and political philosophy that advocated peasant [[utopian]] communalism and [[egalitarianism]].<ref name="wp">{{cite book|last= Deutsch |first=Eliot |author2=Ronald Bontekoei|year=1999 | page= 183|title=A companion to world philosophies|publisher=Wiley Blackwell}}</ref> The philosophy is founded on the notion that human society originates with the development of [[agriculture]], and societies are based upon "people's natural propensity to farm."<ref name="js">{{cite book|last= Sellmann |first=James Daryl|year=2010 | page= 76|title=Timing and rulership in Master Lü's Spring and Autumn annals|publisher=SUNY Press}}</ref>

The Agriculturalists believed that the ideal government, modeled after the semi-mythical governance of [[Shennong]], is led by a benevolent king, one who works alongside the people in tilling the fields. The Agriculturalist king is not paid by the government through its treasuries; his livelihood is derived from the profits he earns working in the fields, not his leadership.<ref name="dw">{{cite book|last= Denecke|first=Wiebke|year=2011 | page= 38|title=The Dynamics of Masters Literature: Early Chinese Thought from Confucius to Han Feizi|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Unlike the Confucians, the Agriculturalists did not believe in the [[division of labour]], arguing instead that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarian [[self sufficiency]]. The Agriculturalists supported the [[price fixing|fixing of prices]], in which all similar goods, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price.<ref name="dw" />

==Early imperial era philosophy==

===History===

==== Qin and Han dynasties ====
{{multiple image
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| image2            = Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg
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| footer            = A [[Western Han]] (202 BC – 9 AD) [[fresco]] depicting [[Confucius]] (and [[Laozi]]), from a tomb of [[Dongping County]], [[Shandong province]], China
}}

The short founder [[Qin dynasty]], where Legalism was the official philosophy, [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools]]. Legalism remained influential during the early [[Han dynasty]] under the Taoist-Realist ideology [[Huang-Lao]] until [[Emperor Wu of Han]] adopted Confucianism as official doctrine. Confucianism and Taoism became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of [[Buddhism]].

Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han dynasty, whose greatest thinker was [[Dong Zhongshu]], who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace.

In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination ''Old Text'') that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal

==== Six Dynasties ====
The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the ''[[Xuanxue]]'' (mysterious learning), also called ''Neo-Taoism''.

Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the [[Southern and Northern dynasties|Northern and Southern]], [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect. [[Mahayana Buddhism]] was far more successful in China than its rival [[Hinayana]], and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were [[Sengzhao]] and [[Daosheng]]. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the [[Chan Buddhism|Chan]] sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the [[Zen]] sect.

In the mid-Tang Buddhism reached its peak, and reportedly there were 4,600 monasteries, 40,000 hermitages and 260,500 monks and nuns. The power of the Buddhist clergy was so great and the wealth of the monasteries so impressive, that it instigated criticism from Confucian scholars, who considered Buddhism as a foreign religion. In 845 Emperor [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang|Wuzong]] ordered the [[Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution]], confiscating the riches and returning monks and nuns to lay life. From then on, Buddhism lost much of its influence.

===Schools of thought===

====Xuanxue====
{{Main|Xuanxue}}

[[Xuanxue]] was a philosophical school that combined elements of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] to reinterpret the [[I Ching]]'',''[[Tao Te Ching]]'','' and ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]].'' The most important philosophers of this movement were [[Wang Bi]], [[Xiang Xiu]] and [[Guo Xiang]]. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, ''ming'' and ''wuming''). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the [[Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove]], was the concept of ''feng liu'' (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.

==== Buddhism ====
[[Image:Zhang Shengwen. L'enseignement de Bouddha Sakyamuni.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''The [[Gautama Buddha|Sakyamuni Buddha]]'', by artist Zhang Shengwen, 1173–1176 CE, [[Song dynasty]]]]
{{Main|Chinese Buddhism}}

Buddhism is a religion, a [[practical philosophy]], and arguably a [[psychology]], focusing on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], who lived on the [[Indian subcontinent]] most likely from the mid-6th to the early 5th century BCE. When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] is generally considered to be someone who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]].

Buddhism until the 4th century AD had little impact on China but in the 4th century its teachings hybridized with those of Taoism.<ref name="Eichman2000">{{cite book|author=Shawn Eichman|title=Taoism and the Arts of China|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5ame4Rl1RXMC|year=2000|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22785-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5ame4Rl1RXMC/page/n192 45]–}}</ref> Buddhism brought to China the idea of many hells, where sinners went, but the deceased sinners souls could be saved by pious acts.<ref name="Eichman2000" /> Since Chinese traditional thought focused more on ethics rather than [[metaphysics]], the merging of Buddhist and Taoist concepts developed several schools distinct from the originating Indian schools.

The most prominent examples with philosophical merit are [[Sanlun]], [[Tiantai]], [[Huayan school|Huayan]], and [[Chan Buddhism|Chan]] (a.k.a. Zen). They investigate [[higher consciousness|consciousness]], levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and how [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]] is to be achieved. Buddhism has a spiritual aspect that complements the action of [[Neo-Confucianism]], with prominent Neo-Confucians advocating certain forms of meditation.

==Mid to late imperial era philosophy==

=== History ===
[[Neo-Confucianism]] was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the [[Song dynasty]], with [[Buddhist]], [[Taoist]], and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] features. The first philosophers, such as [[Shao Yong]], [[Zhou Dunyi]] and [[Chang Zai]], were [[cosmologists]] and worked on the ''[[I Ching]]''. The [[Cheng brothers]], [[Cheng Yi (philosopher)|Cheng Yi]] and [[Cheng Hao]], are considered the founders of the two main schools of thought of Neo-Confucianism: the [[School of Principle]] the first, the [[School of Mind]] the latter.

The School of Principle gained supremacy during the Song dynasty with the philosophical system elaborated by [[Zhu Xi]], which became mainstream and officially adopted by the government for the imperial examinations under the [[Yuan dynasty]]. [[The School of Mind]] was developed by [[Lu Jiuyuan]], Zhu Xi's main rival, but was soon forgotten. Only during the [[Ming dynasty]] was the School of Mind revived by [[Wang Yangming|Wang Shouren]], whose influence is equal to that of Zhu Xi. This school was particularly important in Japan.

During the [[Qing dynasty]] many philosophers objected against Neo-Confucianism and there was a return to the Han dynasty Confucianism, and also the reprise of the controversy between Old Text and New Text. In this period also started the penetration of Western culture, but most Chinese thought that the Westerners were maybe more advanced in technology and warfare, but that China had primacy in moral and intellectual fields.

Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influenced [[Korean philosophy]], [[Vietnamese philosophy]] and [[Japanese philosophy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Chinese Religions and Philosophies |url=https://asiasociety.org/chinese-religions-and-philosophies |website=Asia Society |access-date=21 January 2021|archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116092034/https://asiasociety.org/chinese-religions-and-philosophies |url-status=live }}</ref> During later Chinese dynasties like the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean [[Joseon dynasty]] (1392–1897), a resurgent [[Neo-Confucianism]] led by thinkers such as [[Wang Yangming]] (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Perez|first=Louis G.|year=1998|title=The History of Japan|pages=57–59|location=Westport, CT|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-30296-1}}</ref>

===Schools of thought===

==== Neo-Confucianism ====
{{Main|Neo-Confucianism|Yangmingism}}

Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism, [[Neo-Confucianism]] combined those ideas into a more [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] framework. Its concepts include ''[[Li (Neo-Confucianism)|li]]'' (principle, akin to [[Plato]]'s [[Theory of forms|forms]]), ''[[qi]]'' (vital or material force), ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]'' (the Great Ultimate), and ''[[Xin (heart-mind)|xin]]'' (mind). [[Song dynasty]] philosopher [[Zhou Dunyi]] (1017–1073) is commonly seen as the first true "pioneer" of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.<ref name="CSB">{{Harvnb|Chan|1963|p=460}}.</ref>

Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and religious Daoism. Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts.<ref name="huang5">{{cite book|last=Huang|first=Siu-chi|title=Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods|location=Westport|publisher=[[Greenwood Press]]|year=1999|page=5}}</ref>
Neo-Confucianist philosophers like [[Zhu Xi]] and [[Wang Yangming]] are seen as the most important figures of Neo-Confucianism.

<gallery>
File:Zhu-xi1.gif|[[Zhu Xi]] was a leading figure in Neo-Confucianism.
File:Wang-yang-ming.jpg|[[Wang Yangming]] was an important figure in Neo-Confucianism.
</gallery>

== Modern era ==
{{see also|Chinese nationalism|Maoism|Chinese Marxist Philosophy}}
During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also begun to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. Chinese philosophy never developed the concept of [[human rights]], so that classical Chinese lacked words for them. In 1864, [[William Alexander Parsons Martin|W.A.P. Martin]] had to invent the word ''quanli'' ({{zh|t=權利|c=|p=}}) to translate the Western concept of "rights" in the process of translating [[Henry Wheaton]]'s ''[[Elements of International Law]]'' into classical Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cao|first=Deborah|title=Chinese Law: A Language Perspective|year=2004|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|pages=71–72}}</ref>

By the time of the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1911, there were many calls such as the [[May Fourth Movement]] to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate [[democracy]], [[republicanism]], and [[industrialism]] into Chinese philosophy, notably by [[Sun Yat-Sen]] at the beginning of the 20th century. [[Mao Zedong]] added [[Marxism]], [[Stalinism]], [[Chinese Marxist Philosophy]] and other [[Communism|communist]] thought.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

When the [[Chinese Communist Party]] [[Chinese Civil War|took over]] in 1949, previous schools of thought were denounced as backward, and later purged during the [[Cultural Revolution]] as part of the campaign against the [[Four Olds]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Ho |first=Dahpon David |title=THREE To Protect and Preserve: Resisting the Destroy the Four Olds Campaign, 1966-1967 |date=2006-03-22 |work=The Chinese Cultural Revolution as History |pages=64–95 |editor-last=Esherick |editor-first=Joseph W. |publisher=Stanford University Press |doi=10.1515/9780804767989-004 |isbn=978-0-8047-6798-9 |editor2-last=Pickowicz |editor2-first=Paul G. |editor3-last=Walder |editor3-first=Andrew G.}}</ref>

During the [[China under Xi Jinping|Xi Jinping administration]], the People's Republic of China has promoted a revival in Chinese philosophy. In 2024, [[East China Normal University]] established the Chinese Zhuzi Research Institute to promote the study of Chinese philosophies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Liang |first=Xinlu |date=2024-12-01 |title=China looks beyond Confucius in latest move to win narrative war with West |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3288687/chinas-narrative-war-west-goes-beyond-confucius-focus-other-ancient-schools |access-date=2024-12-01 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en |archive-date=2 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202021711/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3288687/chinas-narrative-war-west-goes-beyond-confucius-focus-other-ancient-schools |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== New Confucianism ===
{{Excerpt|New Confucianism|only=paragraph|paragraphs=1}}

== Philosophers ==
{{Main|List of Chinese philosophers}}

* [[Confucius]], seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists.
** [[Mencius]], Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration
** [[Xun Zi]], another Confucius' follower, closer to realism, teacher of Han Fei and Li Si
** [[Zhu Xi]], founder of [[Neo-Confucianism]]
** [[Wang Yangming]], most influential proponent of "state of mind." (''{{ill|Xinxue|zh|心學}}'')
* [[Laozi]], the semi-mythical founder of Taoist school.
** [[Zhuang Zhou]], said to be the author of the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]''.
** [[Lie Yukou]], said to be the author of the ''[[Liezi]]''.
* [[Yang Zhu]], proposed ethical egoism and founded [[Yangism]].
* [[Mozi]], the founder of Mohist school.
* [[Shang Yang]], Legalist founder and pivotal Qin reformer
* [[Han Fei]], one of the most notable theoreticians of Legalism
* [[Li Si]], major proponent and practitioner of Legalism
==Chinese philosophy as a philosophy==
{{main|Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy}}

The debate over whether the ''thought'' of ancient Chinese masters should be called philosophy has been discussed since the introduction of this academic discipline into China.<ref>Is There Such a Thing as Chinese Philosophy Arguments of an Implicit Debate. Carine Defoort. ''Philosophy East and West'' 51 (3):393–413 (2001)</ref> See [[Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy]] for details.

== Concepts ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2010}}
Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.

Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:
* {{lang|ko|道}} [[Tao|Dao]] (the Way, or one's doctrine)
* {{lang|ko|德}} [[De (Chinese)|De]] (virtue, power)
* {{lang|zh-hant|理}} [[Li (Neo-Confucianism)|Li]] (principle, [[Chinese law|Law]])
* {{lang|zh-hant|氣}} [[Qi]] (vital energy or material force)
* {{lang|zh-hant|太極}}The ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|Tai-chi]]'' (''Great Heavenly Axis'') forms a unity of the two complementary polarities, ''[[Yin and Yang]]''. The word ''Yin'' originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the dark, passive, feminine principle; whereas ''Yang'' (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, masculine principle. Yin and Yang are not antagonistic, they alternate in inverse proportion to one another—like the rise and fall of a [[wave]] and are known by their comparison.

Among the commonalities of Chinese philosophies are:
* The tendency not to view man as separate from nature.
* Questions about the nature and existence of a [[Chinese names for the God of Abrahamic religions|monotheistic deity]], which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy, have not been important in Chinese philosophies or a source of great conflict in [[Chinese traditional religion]].
* The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.
* The political focus: most scholars of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought|Hundred Schools]] were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|Taiwan|Hong Kong|Singapore|Philosophy}}
{| valign=top style="font-size:95%;"|-
|width=200 valign=top|
* [[Chinese classic texts]]
*[[History of China]]
* [[:Category:Chinese philosophers|Chinese philosophers]]
|width=200 valign=top|
* [[Confucianism]]
* [[Culture of China]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
|width=200 valign=top|
* [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]]
* [[Hun and po]]
* [[List of Chinese philosophers]]
|width=200 valign=top|
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Thirteen Classics]]
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Bo Mou (Editor), ''History of Chinese Philosophy'', Routledge, 2009.
* {{citation |last=Chan |first=Wing-tsit |title=A Sourcebook of Chinese Philosophy |year=1963 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-07137-4}}
* [[Antonio Cua|Antonio S. Cua]] (Editor),  ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy'', Routledge, 2003.
* [[Feng Youlan]], ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'' (Princeton Paperbacks), tr. [[Derk Bodde]], 1983.
* [[Herrlee Glessner Creel]],  ''Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong'', 1971.
*  A. C. Graham, ''Disputers of the Tao; Philosophical Argument in Ancient China'', 1989.
* Christoph Harbsmeier, ''Logic and Language in Ancient China'', Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilisation in China'', Volume 7, Part I, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
* [[Philip J. Ivanhoe]] and [[Bryan W. Van Norden]] (Editors), ''Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy'', 2nd edition, Indianapolis:  Hackett Publishing, 2005.
* Karyn Lai, ''Introduction to Chinese Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, 2008.
* [[Lin Yutang]], ''The Importance of Living'', William Morrow Paperbacks, 1998.
* [[Jana S. Rošker]], ''Searching for the Way: Theory of Knowledge in Pre-modern and Modern Chinese Philosophy'' Hong Kong Chinese University Press, 2008.
* [[Roel Sterckx]], ''Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding.'' London: Penguin, 2019.
* [[Roel Sterckx]], ''Ways of Heaven. An Introduction to Chinese Thought.'' New York: Basic Books, 2019.
* [[Justin Tiwald]] and [[Bryan W. Van Norden]] (Editors), ''Readings in Later Chinese Philosophy: Han Dynasty to the 20th Century'', Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2014.
* [[Bryan W. Van Norden]],  ''Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy'', Indianapolis:  Hackett Publishing, 2011.
* [[Arthur Waley]], ''Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China'', 1983.

== External links ==
*{{cite SEP |url-id=chinese-metaphysics |title=Metaphysics in Chinese Philosophy |last=Perkins  |first=Franklin}}
*{{cite SEP |url-id=comparphil-chiwes |title=Comparative Philosophy: Chinese and Western |last=Wong |first=David}}
*{{cite SEP |url-id=chinese-translate-interpret |title=Translating and Interpreting Chinese Philosophy |author=Henry Rosemont Jr.}}
*{{cite SEP |url-id=chinese-epistemology |title=Epistemology in Chinese Philosophy |last=Rošker  |first=Jana}}
*{{cite IEP |url-id=chin-ovr |title=Chinese Philosophy: Overview of Topics |last=Littlejohn |first=Ronnie}}
*{{cite IEP |url-id=lang-chi |title=Language in Classical Chinese Philosophy |last=Sikri |first=Rohan}}
*{{cite IEP |url-id=mod-chin |title=Modern Chinese Philosophy |last=Yu |first=Yih-Hsien}}
* {{InPho|taxonomy|2420}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070704160934/http://www.literati-tradition.com/space.html Article "The Chinese Concept of Space"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070704160751/http://www.literati-tradition.com/time.html Article "The Chinese Concept of Time"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091119230928/http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou-literature.html The Hundred Schools of Thought]
* [http://ctext.org Chinese Text Project] – Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations
* [http://www.newleftreview.org/?page=article&view=2664 Contesting Confucius] Henry Zhao, New Left Review 44, March–April 2007
* ''Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'', 1751–1772, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080605205614/http://ringmar.net/europeanfury/?page_id=1594 "Philosophie des Chinois]" [in French]

{{Chinese philosophy}}
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