Editing Chlorella

{{short description|Genus of green algae}}
{{about|the genus of algae|the bacterial infection|Cholera|and|Vibrio cholerae}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Chlorella vulgaris NIES2170.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Chlorella vulgaris]]''
| taxon = Chlorella
| authority = M.Beijerinck, 1890
| type_species = '''''Chlorella vulgaris'''''
| type_species_authority = Beijerinck<ref name=AlgaeBase/>
| subdivision_ranks = Other species<ref>Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. 2025. ''[[AlgaeBase]]''. World-wide electronic publication, University of Galway. https://www.algaebase.org; searched on 25 May 2025.</ref>
| subdivision = *''[[Chlorella acuminata]]''
*''[[Chlorella autotrophica]]''
*''[[Chlorella botryoides]]''
*''[[Chlorella colonialis]]''
*''[[Chlorella conglomerata]]''
*''[[Chlorella elongata]]''
*''[[Chlorella faginea]]''
*†''[[Chlorella godinezii]]''
*''[[Chlorella heliozoae]]''
*''[[Chlorella infusionum]]''
*''[[Chlorella lewinii]]''
*''[[Chlorella miniata]]''
*''[[Chlorella nocturna]]''
*''[[Chlorella oocystoides]]''
*''[[Chlorella pachyderma]]''
*''[[Chlorella peruviana]]''
*''[[Chlorella photophila]]''
*''[[Chlorella pituita]]''
*''[[Chlorella pulchelloides]]''
*''[[Chlorella rotunda]]''
*''[[Chlorella rugosa]]''
*''[[Chlorella salina]]''
*''[[Chlorella singularis]]''
*''[[Chlorella sorokiniana]]''
*''[[Chlorella stigmatophora]]''
*''[[Chlorella terrestris]]''
*''[[Chlorella vannielii]]''
*''[[Chlorella variabilis]]''
*''[[Chlorella volutis]]''
*''[[Chlorella vulgaris]]''
}}

'''''Chlorella''''' is a [[genus]] of about thirteen [[species]] of single-[[Cell (biology)|cell]]ed or [[Colony (biology)|colonial]] [[green algae]] of the division [[Chlorophyta]]. The cells are spherical in shape, about 2 to 10 [[Micrometre|μm]] in diameter, and are without [[flagella]]. Their [[chloroplasts]] contain the green photosynthetic pigments [[chlorophyll-a]] and [[chlorophyll b|-b]]. In ideal conditions cells of ''Chlorella'' multiply rapidly, requiring only [[carbon dioxide]], [[water]], [[sunlight]], and a small amount of [[mineral]]s to reproduce.<ref>{{cite journal |first=John |last=Scheffler |date=3 September 2007 |title=Underwater Habitats |journal=Illumin |volume=9 |issue=4 |url=http://illumin.usc.edu/163/underwater-habitats/}}</ref>

The name ''Chlorella'' is taken from the [[Greek language|Greek]] χλώρος, ''chlōros/ khlōros'', meaning green, and the [[Latin]] diminutive suffix -''ella'', meaning small. German [[biochemist]] and cell physiologist [[Otto Heinrich Warburg]], awarded with the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1931 for his research on [[cell respiration]], also studied photosynthesis in ''Chlorella''. In 1961, [[Melvin Calvin]] of the [[University of California]] received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for his research on the pathways of [[Calvin cycle|carbon dioxide assimilation in plants]] using ''Chlorella''.

''Chlorella'' has been considered as a source of food and energy because its [[photosynthetic efficiency]] can reach 8%,<ref>{{cite book |first=I. |last=Zelitch |title=Photosynthesis, Photorespiration and Plant Productivity |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |year=1971 |page=275}}</ref> which exceeds that of other highly efficient crops such as [[sugar cane]].

== Description ==
''Chlorella'' consists of small, rounded cells which are spherical, subspherical, or ellipsoidal, and may be surrounded by a layer of [[mucilage]]. The cells contain a single [[chloroplast]] which is parietal (lying against the inner side of the cell membrane), with a single [[pyrenoid]] that is surrounded by grains of starch.<ref name=AlgaeBase>{{AlgaeBase genus|id= 43426 |title=''Chlorella'' Beyerinck [Beijerinck], 1890, nom. cons.|access-date=2025-01-14}}</ref>

===Reproduction===
Reproduction occurs by the formation of [[autospore]]s; [[zoospore]]s or gametes are not known to be produced in ''Chlorella''.<ref name=AlgaeBase/> In autosporulation, the contents of the cell divide into two, four or sometimes eight [[protoplast]]s. Each daughter protoplast rounds off, and are liberated by the rupture of the parent cell wall. On release, each autospore grows to become a new individual.{{cn|date=February 2025}} The daughter cell may remain attached to the parent cell wall, thereby forming colonies of cells.<ref name=AlgaeBase/> The presence of [[sulphur]] in the culture medium is considered essential for cell division. It takes place even in the dark with sulphur alone as the source material but under light conditions nitrogen also required in addition.{{cn|date=February 2025}} Pearsall and Loose (1937)<ref name="Pearsall 1937">{{cite journal|vauthors=Pearsall WH, Loose L|title=The Growth of Chlorella Vulgaris in Pure Culture|journal=Proc Roy Soc B|date=1937 |volume=121 |issue=824 |pages=451–501 |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.1936.0075|doi=10.1098/rspb.1936.0075|access-date=2024-08-13|url-access=subscription}}</ref> reported the occurrence of motile cells in ''Chlorella''. Bendix (1964)<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Bendix S|title=Phenotypic Variability in Certain Chlorella pyrenoidosa Strains|journal=Phycologia|pages=84–92|volume=4|issue=2|date=1964-01-22|doi=10.2216/i0031-8884-4-2-84.1|bibcode=1964Phyco...4...84B }}</ref> also observed that ''Chlorella'' produces motile cells which might be gametes. These observations have an important bearing on the concept of the life cycle of ''Chlorella,'' which at present is considered to be strictly asexual in character.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

Asexual reproduction in ''Chlorella ellipsoides'' has been studied in detail and the following four phases have been observed during the asexual reproduction.
#Growth phase - During this phase the cells grow in size by utilizing the photosynthetic products.
#Ripening phase - In this phase the cells mature and prepare themselves for division.
#Post ripening phase - During this phase, each mature cell divides twice either in dark or in light. The cells formed in dark are known as dark to light phase, cells again grow in size.
#Division phase - During this phase the parent cell wall ruptures and unicells are released.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

== Taxonomy ==
''Chlorella'' was first described by [[Martinus Beijerinck]] in 1890. Since then, over a hundred taxa have been described within the genus. However, biochemical and genomic data has revealed that many of these species were not closely related to each other, even being placed in a separate class [[Chlorophyceae]]. In other words, the "green ball" form of ''Chlorella'' appears to be a product of [[convergent evolution]] and not a natural taxon.<ref name=Kreinitz2015>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2014.11.005 |title=''Chlorella'': 125 years of the green survivalist |year=2015 |last1=Krienitz |first1=Lothar |last2=Huss |first2=Volker A.R. |last3=Bock |first3=Christina |journal=Trends in Plant Science |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=67–69 |pmid=25500553 |bibcode=2015TPS....20...67K }}</ref> Identifying ''Chlorella''-like algae based on morphological features alone is generally not possible.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Freshwater Algae in Northwest Washington, Volume II, Chlorophyta and Rhodophyta|year=2016 |doi=10.25710/fctx-n773|last1=Matthews |first1=Robin |journal=A Collection of Open Access Books and Monographs |publisher=Western Washington University }}</ref>

Some strains of "Chlorella" used for food are incorrectly identified, or correspond to genera that were classified out of true ''Chlorella''. For example, ''[[Heterochlorella luteoviridis]]'' is typically known as ''Chlorella luteoviridis'' which is no longer considered a valid name.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10811-014-0431-2 |title=Review of the taxonomic revision of ''Chlorella'' and consequences for its food uses in Europe |year=2015 |last1=Champenois |first1=Jennifer |last2=Marfaing |first2=Hélène |last3=Pierre |first3=Ronan |journal=Journal of Applied Phycology |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1845–1851 |bibcode=2015JAPco..27.1845C |s2cid=254605212 }}</ref>

== As a food source ==

When first harvested, ''Chlorella'' was suggested as an inexpensive protein supplement to the human diet. According to the [[American Cancer Society]], "available scientific studies do not support its effectiveness for preventing or treating cancer or any other disease in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/chlorella
|publisher=[[American Cancer Society]]
|date=29 April 2011
|access-date=23 August 2013
|title=Chlorella
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905235019/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/chlorella
|archive-date=5 September 2013}}</ref>

Under certain growing conditions, ''Chlorella'' yields oils that are high in [[polyunsaturated fat]]s—''Chlorella minutissima'' has yielded [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] at 39.9% of total lipids.<ref name=Yongmanitchai>{{cite journal |pmid=2014989 |year=1991 |last1=Yongmanitchai |first1=W |last2=Ward |first2=OP |title=Growth of and omega-3 fatty acid production by Phaeodactylum tricornutum under different culture conditions |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=419–25 |pmc=182726 |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|doi=10.1128/AEM.57.2.419-425.1991 |bibcode=1991ApEnM..57..419Y }}</ref>

=== History ===
Following global fears of an uncontrollable human population boom during the late 1940s and the early 1950s, ''Chlorella'' was seen as a new and promising primary food source and as a possible solution to the then-current world hunger crisis. Many people during this time thought hunger would be an overwhelming problem and saw ''Chlorella'' as a way to end this crisis by providing large amounts of high-quality food for a relatively low cost.<ref name= "belasco">{{cite journal |first1=Warren |last1=Belasco |date=July 1997 |title=Algae Burgers for a Hungry World? The Rise and Fall of Chlorella Cuisine |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=608–34 |jstor=3106856 |doi=10.2307/3106856|s2cid=109494408 }}</ref>

Many institutions began to research the algae, including the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington|Carnegie Institution]], the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], the [[National Institutes of Health|NIH]], [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]], and [[Stanford University]]. Following [[World War II]], many Europeans were starving, and many [[Malthusianism|Malthusians]] attributed this not only to the war, but also to the inability of the world to produce enough food to support the increasing population. According to a 1946 [[FAO]] report, the world would need to produce 25 to 35% more food in 1960 than in 1939 to keep up with the increasing population, while health improvements would require a 90 to 100% increase.<ref name= "belasco"/> Because meat was costly and energy-intensive to produce, protein shortages were also an issue. Increasing cultivated area alone would go only so far in providing adequate nutrition to the population. The [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] calculated that, to feed the U.S. population by 1975, it would have to add 200 million acres (800,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) of land, but only 45 million were available. One way to combat national food shortages was to increase the land available for farmers, yet the American frontier and farm land had long since been extinguished in trade for expansion and urban life. Hopes rested solely on new agricultural techniques and technologies. Because of these circumstances, an alternative solution was needed.

To cope with the upcoming postwar population boom in the United States and elsewhere, researchers decided to tap into the unexploited sea resources. Initial testing by the [[SRI International|Stanford Research Institute]] showed ''Chlorella'' (when growing in warm, sunny, shallow conditions) could convert 20% of solar energy into a plant that, when dried, contains 50% protein.<ref name= "belasco"/> In addition, ''Chlorella'' contains fat and vitamins. The plant's photosynthetic efficiency allows it to yield more protein per unit area than any plant—one scientist predicted 10,000 tons of protein a year could be produced with just 20 workers staffing a 1000-acre (4-km<sup>2</sup>) ''Chlorella'' farm.<ref name= "belasco"/> The pilot research performed at Stanford and elsewhere led to immense press from journalists and newspapers, yet did not lead to large-scale algae production. ''Chlorella'' seemed like a viable option because of the technological advances in agriculture at the time and the widespread acclaim it got from experts and scientists who studied it. Algae researchers had even hoped to add a neutralized ''Chlorella'' powder to conventional food products, as a way to fortify them with vitamins and minerals.<ref name= "belasco"/>

When the preliminary laboratory results were published, the scientific community at first backed the possibilities of ''Chlorella''. ''[[Science News Letter]]'' praised the optimistic results in an article entitled "Algae to Feed the Starving". John Burlew, the editor of the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] book ''Algal Culture-from Laboratory to Pilot Plant'', stated, "the algae culture may fill a very real need",<ref name="Algal Culture">{{cite book |title=Algal Culture-from Laboratory to Pilot Plant |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Burlew |year=1953 |page=6 |isbn=978-0-87279-611-9}}</ref> which ''Science News Letter'' turned into "future populations of the world will be kept from starving by the production of improved or educated algae related to the green scum on ponds". The cover of the magazine also featured [[Arthur D. Little]]'s Cambridge laboratory, which was a supposed future food factory. A few years later, the magazine published an article entitled "Tomorrow's Dinner", which stated, "There is no doubt in the mind of scientists that the farms of the future will actually be factories." ''[[Science Digest]]'' also reported, "common pond scum would soon become the world's most important agricultural crop." However, in the decades since those claims were made, algae have not been cultivated on that large of a scale.

=== Current status ===
Since the growing world food problem of the 1940s was solved by better crop efficiency and other advances in traditional agriculture, ''Chlorella'' has not seen the kind of public and scientific interest that it had in the 1940s. ''Chlorella'' has only a niche market for companies promoting it as a dietary supplement.<ref name= "belasco"/>

==== Production difficulties ====
[[File:L'Eclosarium 07.jpg|thumb|upright|Chlorella culture, L'Eclosarium, [[Houat]].]]
The experimental research was carried out in laboratories, rather than in the field, and
scientists discovered that ''Chlorella'' would be much more difficult to produce than previously thought. To be practical, the algae grown would have to be placed either in [[artificial light]] or in shade to produce at its maximum photosynthetic efficiency. In addition, for the ''Chlorella'' to be as productive as the world would require, it would have to be grown in [[carbonated water]], which would have added millions to the production cost. A sophisticated process, and additional cost, was required to harvest the crop and for ''Chlorella'' to be a viable food source, its cell walls would have to be pulverized. The plant could reach its nutritional potential only in highly modified artificial situations. Another problem was developing sufficiently palatable food products from ''Chlorella.''<ref name="becker" />

Although the production of ''Chlorella'' looked promising and involved creative technology, it has not to date been cultivated on the scale some had predicted. It has not been sold on the scale of ''[[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]]'', [[soybean]] products, or whole grains. Costs have remained high, and ''Chlorella'' has for the most part been sold as a health food, for cosmetics, or as [[animal feed]].<ref name="becker">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.11.002 |title=Micro-algae as a source of protein |year=2007 |last1=Becker |first1=E.W. |journal=Biotechnology Advances |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=207–10 |pmid=17196357}}</ref> After a decade of experimentation, studies showed that following exposure to sunlight, ''Chlorella'' captured just 2.5% of the solar energy, not much better than conventional crops.<ref name= "belasco"/> ''Chlorella'', too, was found by scientists in the 1960s to be impossible for humans and other animals to digest in its natural state due to the tough cell walls encapsulating the nutrients, which presented further problems for its use in American food production.<ref name= "belasco"/>

== Use in carbon dioxide reduction and oxygen production ==
{{See also|Carbon sequestration}}
In 1965, the Russian [[Controlled Ecological Life Support System|CELSS]] experiment [[BIOS-3]] determined that 8 m<sup>2</sup> of exposed ''Chlorella'' could remove carbon dioxide and replace oxygen within the sealed environment for a single human. The algae were grown in vats underneath artificial light.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=PERMANENT |title=Russian CELSS Studies |url=https://www.spacesettlement.com/russian-celss.html |access-date=24 June 2024 |work=Space Colonies}}</ref>

== Dietary supplement==
[[File:ChlorellaPill.jpg|thumb|Chlorella in pill form.|right|125px]]
''Chlorella'' is consumed as a [[dietary supplement]]. Some manufacturers of ''Chlorella'' products have falsely asserted that it has health benefits,<ref>[http://www.lasentinel.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3180:sun-chlorella-going-green-from-the-inside-out&catid=67&Itemid=157 Sun Chlorella, Going Green from the Inside Out – LA Sentinel<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> including an ability to treat cancer,<ref name=acs/> for which the [[American Cancer Society]] stated "available scientific studies do not support its effectiveness for preventing or treating cancer or any other disease in humans".<ref name=acs>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/chlorella |title=Chlorella |date=29 April 2011 |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |access-date=13 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905235019/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/chlorella |archive-date=5 September 2013 }}</ref> The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] has issued [[FDA warning letter|warning letters]] to supplement companies for falsely advertising health benefits of consuming chlorella products, such as one company in October 2020.<ref name="fda-12-20">{{cite web |author1=William A. Correll |title=FDA Warning Letter to ForYou Inc.|url=https://www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-investigations/warning-letters/foryou-inc-607305-10202020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202011259/https://www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-investigations/warning-letters/foryou-inc-607305-10202020 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 December 2020 |publisher= Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=9 March 2021 |date=20 October 2020}}</ref>

There is some support from animal studies of chlorella's ability to detoxify [[insecticides]]. ''Chlorella protothecoides'' accelerated the detoxification of rats poisoned with [[chlordecone]], a persistent insecticide, decreasing the half-life of the toxin from 40 to 19 days.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pore |first=R. Scott |date=1984 |title=Detoxification of Chlordecone Poisoned Rats with Chlorella and Chlorella Derived Sporopollenin |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/01480548409014173 |journal=Drug and Chemical Toxicology |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=57–71 |doi=10.3109/01480548409014173 |pmid=6202479 |issn=0148-0545|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The ingested algae passed through the gastrointestinal tract unharmed, interrupted the enteric recirculation of the persistent insecticide, and subsequently eliminated the bound chlordecone with the feces.

== Health concerns ==
A 2002 study showed that ''Chlorella'' cell walls contain [[lipopolysaccharide]]s, [[endotoxin]]s found in [[Gram-negative bacteria]] that affect the [[immune system]] and may cause [[inflammation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://robbwolf.com/2012/01/19/trojan-horses-of-chlorella-superfood/ |title=Trojan horses of ''Chlorella'' 'superfood' |first=Roman |last=Sasik |date=19 January 2012 |publisher=Robb Wolf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12414578 |year=2002 |last1=Armstrong |first1=PB |last2=Armstrong |first2=MT |last3=Pardy |first3=RL |last4=Child |first4=A |last5=Wainwright |first5=N |title=Immunohistochemical demonstration of a lipopolysaccharide in the cell wall of a eukaryote, the green alga, Chlorella |volume=203 |issue=2 |pages=203–4 |journal=The Biological Bulletin |doi=10.2307/1543397|jstor=1543397 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/glia.20467 |title=Systemic LPS causes chronic neuroinflammation and progressive neurodegeneration |year=2007 |last1=Qin |first1=Liya |last2=Wu |first2=Xuefei |last3=Block |first3=Michelle L. |last4=Liu |first4=Yuxin |last5=Breese |first5=George R. |last6=Hong |first6=Jau-Shyong |last7=Knapp |first7=Darin J. |last8=Crews |first8=Fulton T. |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=453–62 |pmid=17203472 |pmc=2871685 |journal=Glia}}</ref> However, more recent studies have found that the lipopolysaccharides in organisms other than Gram-negative bacteria, for example in cyanobacteria, are considerably different from the lipopolysaccharides in Gram-negative bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1186/1476-069X-5-7 | year = 2006 | last1 = Stewart | first1 = Ian | last2 = Schluter | first2 = Philip J | last3 = Shaw | first3 = Glen R | journal = Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source | volume = 5 | pages = 7 | pmid=16563160 | pmc=1489932 | title=Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides and human health – a review | issue = 1 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2006EnvHe...5....7S }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Commons category}}
* [[Calvin cycle]]
* [[List of ineffective cancer treatments]]
* [[Quorn]]: food made from mycoprotein
* [[Soyuz 28#Mission highlights|Soyuz 28]], a 1978 space mission which included experiments on ''Chlorella
* [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)]]
* [[Chlorellosis]], a disease caused by the infection of ''Chlorella''.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q133017}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chlorella| ]]
[[Category:Trebouxiophyceae genera]]
[[Category:Edible algae]]
[[Category:Dietary supplements]]
[[Category:Algaculture]]
[[Category:Alternative cancer treatments]]