Editing Christian art

{{Short description|Art with subjects from Christianity}}
[[File:Daphni.jpg|thumb|A mosaic from [[Daphni Monastery]] in [[Greece]] (c. 1100), showing midwives bathing the new-born Christ.]]
{{Christian culture}}

'''Christian art''' is [[sacred art]] which uses subjects, themes, and imagery from [[Christianity]]. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, including [[early Christian art and architecture]] and [[Christian media]].

Images of [[Jesus]] and narrative scenes from the [[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]] are the most common subjects, and scenes from the [[Old Testament]] play a part in the art of most denominations. Images of the [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Virgin Mary]] and saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].

Christianity makes far wider use of images than related religions, in which figurative representations are forbidden, such as [[Aniconism in Islam|Islam]] and [[Aniconism in Judaism|Judaism]]. However, there are some that have promoted [[aniconism in Christianity]], and there have been periods of [[iconoclasm]] within Christianity.

== History ==

===Beginnings===
{{main|Early Christian art and architecture}}
[[File:VirgenNino.jpg|thumb|250px|Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early [[catacombs]], Rome, 4th century.]]
[[Early Christian art]] survives from dates near the origins of Christianity, although many early Christians associated figurative art with pagan religion, and were suspicious or hostile towards it. Over time, this lessened. But large free-standing sculpture, the medium for the most prominent pagan images, continued to be distrusted and largely shunned for some centuries, and virtually up to the present day in the [[Orthodox world]].<ref>[[Hans Belting|Belting, Hans]], ''Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Before the Era of Art'', p. xxii, 1994, Chicago University Press (English trans.), ISBN 9780226042152, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kuWm7jVWFiEC google books]</ref>  The oldest Christian sculptures are small [[relief]]s from [[Roman sarcophagi]], dating to the beginning of the 2nd century.  The largest groups of Early Christian paintings come from the tombs in the [[Catacombs of Rome]], and show the evolution of the [[depiction of Jesus]], a process not complete until the 6th century, since when the conventional appearance of Jesus in art has remained remarkably consistent.

Until the [[Constantine I and Christianity|adoption of Christianity by Constantine]] Christian art derived its style and much of its [[iconography]] from popular [[Roman art]], but from this point grand Christian buildings built under imperial patronage brought a need for Christian versions of Roman elite and official art, of which [[mosaic]]s in churches in Rome are the most prominent surviving examples.  Christian art was caught up in, but did not originate, the shift in style from the classical tradition inherited from [[Ancient Greek art]] to a less realist and otherworldly hieratic style, the start of [[gothic art]].

===Middle Ages===
{{main|Medieval art}}
[[File:Christ Pantocrator Deesis mosaic Hagia Sophia.jpg|thumb|Late 13th-century Byzantine mosaics of the [[Hagia Sophia]] showing the image of [[Christ Pantocrator]].|152x152px]]
Much of the art surviving from [[Europe]] after the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] is Christian art, although this is in large part because the continuity of church ownership has preserved church art better than secular works.  While the [[Western Roman Empire]]'s political structure essentially collapsed after the fall of [[Rome]], its religious hierarchy, what is today the modern-day [[Roman Catholic Church]] commissioned and funded production of religious art imagery.

While the Byzantine Empire continued to focus on the creation of Christian art, in Denmark and Norway, the [[Vikings]] would see a surge of Christianity. Christianity spread to the Vikings through [[pillaging]], [[missionaries]], political pressure, and trading with other peoples of Europe.<ref>Legel, Tracy Marie. 2006. "The Introduction of Christianity into Scandinavia, Iceland, and Finland." Order No. 1441221, University of Louisville. <nowiki>https://newman.richmond.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdissertations-theses%2Fintroduction-christianity-into-scandinavia%2Fdocview%2F305319166%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D14731</nowiki>.</ref>  [[Runestone|Rune stones]] with Christian imagery were used as grave markings, promotion, or a demonstration of faith. King [[Harald Bluetooth|Harold Bluetooth]]'s rune stone, also known as The Great Jelling Rune Stone, is credited with marking the shift to Christianity in the Viking Era. [[Gravestone|Gravestones]] would also display prominent Christian imagery. The Rathdown Stones are the most well-known of these Viking gravestones: granite stones with tablet or cross-like designs mixed with traditional Viking styling.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=hÉailidhe |first=P. Ó |date=1957 |title=The Rathdown Slabs |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25509271 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=75–88 |jstor=25509271 |issn=0035-9106}}</ref> Driftwood crosses have been found around other churches and graveyards.

Named for their strong foundational pillars, [[Stave church|Stave Churches]] were another popular display of Christian Viking art.<ref>Berg, Fredrik. 2018. “Wear and Tear of World Heritage: Preventive Conservation and Tourism in Norway’s Stave Churches.” ''Studies in Conservation'' 63 (January): 320–22. doi:10.1080/00393630.2018.1495459.</ref> These churches displayed engravings of Christian and Nordic beliefs, with animal-like depictions appearing on walls and entrances. The cross is also a prominent image in Christian Viking imagery. Vikings would be marked with a cross as a sign that they had been baptized abroad or during a venture. Viking Nordic myths and symbolism can be seen engraved into stone and wooden crosses. German and English influence can be found in some distinct examples of these crosses, with choices to use Doric capital ends, believed to have spread throughout Scandinavia in the 12th and 13th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyborg |first1=Ebbe |last2=Arneborg |first2=Jette |date=2020 |title=Christian Medieval Art in Norse Greenland : Crosses and Crucifixes and their European Antecedents |url=https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:1513281&dswid=6068 |journal=Scripta Islandica: Isländska Sällskapets Årsbok |volume=71 |pages=155–176|doi=10.33063/diva-429323 }}</ref>

The [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople]], which enjoyed greater stability within the surviving [[Eastern Empire]] was key in producing imagery there and glorifying Christianity. They commissioned many shrines to be built in [[Constantinople]]’s honor and also lots of well-decorated churches. These tended to have extravagant [[Medieval stained glass|stained glass]] and paintings covering the walls and ceilings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Christian art {{!}} Iconography, Mosaics & Frescoes {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Early-Christian-art |access-date=2024-04-24 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Also, [[relief]] sculptures were made which were etched into the sides of buildings and churches. [[Hagia Sophia]], the world's largest cathedral during the 15th century, was decorated almost entirely using [[Mosaic|mosaics]] as a way to honor God. Following the fall of Constantinople, it was converted into a mosque, but it's wonderous art remained.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thorson |first=Dr Mark |date=2020-09-01 |title=Byzantine and Medieval Art: Teaching Christianity |url=https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/encounterswiththeartsartc150/chapter/byzantine-and-medieval-art-teaching-christianity/ |language=en}}</ref> As a stable Western European society emerged during the [[Middle Ages]], the Catholic Church led the way in terms of art, using its resources to commission [[painting]]s and [[sculpture]]s.

During the development of Christian art in the [[Byzantine Empire]] (see [[Byzantine art]]), a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects and people.  Realistic perspective, proportions, light and colour were ignored in favour of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events.  The controversy over the use of ''graven images'', the interpretation of the Second Commandment, and the crisis of [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] led to a standardization of religious imagery within the [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].
[[File:Cologne_cathedral_2022.jpg|thumb|Cologne Cathedral in 2022]]
Similar to the Vikings, wood and carvings are also used in Germanic Christian art in depictions of crosses and relations to the Crucifixion utilized in different areas such as churches and cathedrals. The [[Cologne Cathedral]] is a notable church located in Cologne, Germany, resting upon ruins of buildings from the Romantic and Frankish periods. Although the structure would begin construction in 1248 under archbishop Conrad von Hostaden, the monument would not be completed until the 1880s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The cathedral of Cologne, its history, architecture...legends. A guide for visitors, compiled from historical and descriptive records... by Frz. Theod. ... |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=gri.ark:/13960/t4zh08m1m&seq=32 |access-date=2024-12-03 |website=HathiTrust |language=en}}</ref>

In the late Medieval period, the East made steps in Christian art. In the Mediterranean area, there was a shift from Islamic to Christian art. With 86 examples of [[Muqarnas|muqarnaṣ]] displayed around the Mediterranean, with the majority (78) being displayed in Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula. This is explained through the increased political power associated with muqarnas, being placed in important buildings such as chapels.<ref>Marcos Cobaleda, María. 2022. "Artistic Transfers from Islamic to Christian Art: A Study with Geographic Information Systems (GIS)" ''Histories'' 2, no. 4: 439-456. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/histories2040031</nowiki></ref> Recently discovered in Syria and Egypt, other examples of medieval Christian art have been explored, such as the [[Monastery of Saint Moses the Abyssinian|Mar Musa]] Monastery with different examples of medieval Christian art, like wall paintings. Because of the nature of traveling painters and artists, these paintings often had Greek lettering and script<ref>Brock, Sebastian P. “Identity Puzzles. Medieval Christian Art in Syria and Lebanon. By M. Immerzeel. (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 184.) Pp. Viii+332 Incl. 19 Figs and 128 Colour Plates. Leuven: Peeters/Departement Oosterse Studies, 2009. €80. 978 90 429 2149 8.” ''The Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 62, no. 3 (2011): 588–90. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022046910003519</nowiki>.</ref>

===Renaissance and early modern period===
{{main|Renaissance art|The Reformation and art}}
[[File:Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The Last Supper (1495-1498).jpg|thumb|280px|[[The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)|Leonardo da Vinci's ''The Last Supper'']] (1498).]]
The [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453 brought an end to the highest quality Byzantine art, produced in the Imperial workshops there. Orthodox art, known as [[icon]]s regardless of the medium, has otherwise continued with relatively little change in subject and style up to the present day, with Russia gradually becoming the leading centre of production.

In the West, the Renaissance saw an increase in monumental secular works, although Christian art continued to be commissioned in great quantities by churches, clergy and by the aristocracy.  The Reformation had a [[The Reformation and art|huge impact on Christian art]]; [[Martin Luther]] in Germany allowed and encouraged the display of a more limited range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church as a continuation of the "ancient, apostolic church".<ref name="Lamport2017"/> [[Lutheran art|Lutheran altarpieces]] like [[Last Supper (Cranach)|the 1565 ''Last Supper'' by the younger Cranach]] were produced in Germany, especially by Luther's friend [[Lucas Cranach the Elder|Lucas Cranach]], to replace Catholic ones, often containing portraits of leading reformers as the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional [[depiction of Jesus]]. As such, "Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior."<ref name="Spicer2016">{{cite book|last=Spicer|first=Andrew|title=Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe|date=5 December 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|language=en|isbn=9781351921169|page=237|quote=As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph pained in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.5.).}}</ref> Lutherans proudly employed the use of the [[crucifix]] as it highlighted their high view of the [[Theology of the Cross]].<ref name="Lamport2017"/><ref name="MarquardtJordan2009">{{cite book|last1=Marquardt|first1=Janet T.|last2=Jordan|first2=Alyce A.|title=Medieval Art and Architecture after the Middle Ages|date=14 January 2009|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|language=en|isbn=9781443803984|page=71|quote=In fact, Lutherans often justified their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is evident from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of Doberan.}}</ref> Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image."<ref name="Dixon2012">{{cite book|last=Dixon|first=C. Scott|title=Contesting the Reformation|date=9 March 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|language=en|isbn=9781118272305|page=146|quote=According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.}}</ref> On the other hand, Christians from a [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] background were generally iconoclastic, destroying existing religious imagery and usually only creating more in the form of book illustrations.<ref name="Lamport2017">{{cite book|last=Lamport|first=Mark A.|title=Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation|date=31 August 2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|language=en|isbn=9781442271593|page=138|quote=Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. [[Joseph Leo Koerner]] has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's ''theologia crucis''. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles, and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.}}</ref>

Artists were commissioned to produce more secular genres like [[portrait]]s, [[landscape painting]]s and because of the revival of Neoplatonism, subjects from [[classical mythology]].  In Catholic countries, production of religious art continued, and increased during the [[Counter-Reformation]], but Catholic art was brought under much tighter control by the church hierarchy than had been the case before.  From the 18th century the number of religious works produced by leading artists declined sharply, though important commissions were still placed, and some artists continued to produce large bodies of religious art on their own initiative.

===Modern period===
As a secular, non-sectarian, universal notion of art arose in 19th-century Western Europe, ancient and Medieval Christian art began to be collected for art appreciation rather than worship, while contemporary Christian art was considered marginal.  Occasionally, secular artists treated Christian themes ([[Bouguereau]], [[Manet]]) — but only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon (such as [[Georges Rouault|Rouault]] or [[Stanley Spencer]]).  However many modern artists such as [[Eric Gill]], [[Marc Chagall]], [[Henri Matisse]], [[Jacob Epstein]], [[Elisabeth Frink]] and [[Graham Sutherland]] have produced well-known works of art for churches.<ref>Beth Williamson, ''Christian Art: A Very Short Introduction'', [[Oxford University Press]] (2004), page 110.</ref> [[Salvador Dalí]] is an artist who had also produced notable and popular artworks with Christian themes.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/dali/salvador/resources/DaliandReligion.pdf |title=Dalí and Religion |work=National Gallery of Victoria, Australia }}</ref> Contemporary artists such as [[Makoto Fujimura]] have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts. Other notable artists include [[Larry D. Alexander]] and [[John August Swanson]]. Some writers, such as Gregory Wolfe, see this as part of a rebirth of Christian humanism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wolfe|first=Gregory|title=Beauty Will Save the World: Recovering the Human in an Ideological Age|year=2011|publisher=Intercollegiate Studies Institute|isbn=978-1-933859-88-0|pages=278}}</ref>

===Popular devotional art===
Since the advent of printing, the sale of reproductions of pious works has been a major element of popular [[Christian culture]]. In the 19th century, this included genre painters such as [[Mihály Munkácsy]]. The invention of color lithography led to broad circulation of [[holy card]]s. In the modern era, companies specializing in modern commercial Christian artists such as [[Thomas Blackshear]] and [[Thomas Kinkade]], although widely regarded in the fine art world as [[kitsch]],<ref>Cynthia A. Freeland, ''But Is It Art?: An Introduction to Art Theory'', Oxford University Press (2001), page 95</ref> have been very successful.

==Subjects==
[[File:1602-3 Caravaggio,Supper at Emmaus National Gallery, London.jpg|thumb|300px| ''[[Supper at Emmaus (London) (Caravaggio)|Supper at Emmaus]]'', 1601, by Caravaggio. Oil on canvas, 139 x 195&nbsp;cm. [[National Gallery, London]]]]
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}

Subjects often seen in Christian art include the following.  See [[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]] and [[Life of the Virgin]] for fuller lists of narrative scenes included in cycles:

{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Adoration of the Magi in Art|Adoration of the Magi]]
* [[Adoration of the shepherds]]
* [[Angels in art|Angels]]
* [[Annunciation]]
* [[Arrest of Jesus]]
* [[Ascension of Jesus in Christian art|Ascension of Jesus]]
* [[Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Art]] or [[Dormition of the Virgin]]
* [[Baptism of Jesus]]
* [[Christ in Majesty]]
* [[Christ Pantocrator]]
* [[Coronation of the Virgin]]
* [[Crucifix]]
* [[Descent from the Cross]]
* [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]]
* [[Holy Family]]
* [[Holy Trinity Icon]]
* [[Madonna (art)|Madonna]]
* [[Madonna and Child]]
* [[Maestà]]
* [[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity of Jesus]]
* [[Noli me tangere]]
* [[Passion of Jesus]]
* [[Pietà]]
* [[Resurrection appearances of Jesus]]
* [[Salvator Mundi]]
* [[Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus]]
* [[Shield of the Trinity]]
* [[Stations of the Cross]]
* [[Doom (painting)|The Last Judgment]]
* [[Last Supper in Christian art|The Last Supper]]
* [[Tree of Jesse]]
}}

===Motifs===
The Virgin Mary is shown spinning and weaving, appearing in artworks with a loom or knitting needles, weaving cloth over her womb, or knitting for her son. The imagery, much of it German, places the sacred narratives in the domestic realm.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rudy |first=Kathryn M. |title=Weaving, Veiling and Dressing: Textiles and their Metaphors in the Late Middle Ages |publisher=Brepols |date=2007 |page=3}}</ref> She is shown weaving in paintings of [[The Annunciation]], or spinning. Although spinning was less common an example is found in some convents where nuns would spin silk, presumably to create a link between the convent community of women and the image of the Mary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Twomey |first=Lesley K. |title=The Fabric of Marian Devotion in Isabel de Villena's Vita Christi |publisher=Brepols |date=2007 |page=61}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
{{Gallery
|title= Middle Age Christian Art
|width=160 | height=170
|align=center
|File:Borgund Stave Church in Lærdalen, 2013 June.jpg|Borgund Stave Church in Lærdalen, 2013
|File:The interior of the Hopperstad Stave Church Replica.jpg|The interior of the Hopperstad Stave Church Replica
|File:Cologne cathedral aerial (25326253726).jpg |Cologne Cathedral Aerial View
|File:Stave church Urnes, craving detail 1.jpg|Carving detail of the north portal of the 12th-century Urnes stave church.
|File:Mosaic icon with the Virgin of Tenderness at the Byzantine and Christian Museum on 12 April 2019.jpg|Mosaic icon with the Virgin of Tenderness at the Byzantine and Christian Museum, 2019
|12=Example of Muqarnas|13=File:Cross on a Viking necklace (Sweden).jpg|14=Cross on a Viking necklace (Sweden)|15=File:Kulturhistorisk Museum, Oslo, Norway. Stave church portal (stavkirkeportal) from Fåberg Stave Church, Oppland. Photo 2017-12-14.jpg|16=Kulturhistorisk Museum, Oslo, Norway. Stave Church Portal|17=File:Wrocław Epitaph of Katharina Lindner.jpg|18=Wrocław Epitaph of Katharina Lindner|19=File:Viking Christ pendant (39905499655).jpg|20=Viking Christ pendant}}

==See also==
[[File:Russia-Moscow-Kremlin Museums Exhibitions-9.jpg|thumb|200px|A rare sample of medieval Orthodox sculpture from Russia]]
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Andachtsbilder]]
* [[Animals in Christian art]]
* [[Archangel Michael in Christian art]]
* [[Arma Christi]]
* [[Catholic Church art]]
* [[Icon|Christian icons]]
* [[Christian music]]
* [[Christian poetry]]
* [[Christian symbolism]]
** [[Saint symbolism]]
* [[Crucifixion in the arts]]
* [[God the Father in Western art]]
* [[Holy Spirit in Christian art]]
* [[Trinity in Christian art]]
* [[Iconography]]
** [[Plants in Christian iconography]]
* [[Illuminated manuscript]]
* [[Islamic influences on Christian art]]
* [[List of Catholic artists]]
* [[Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art]]
* [[Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy]]
* [[Theological aesthetics]]
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Berg, Fredrik. 2018. “Wear and Tear of World Heritage: Preventive Conservation and Tourism in Norway’s Stave Churches.” ''Studies in Conservation''
* Brock, Sebastian P. “Identity Puzzles. Medieval Christian Art in Syria and Lebanon. By M. Immerzeel. 
* Régamey, Pie-Raymond (1952). ''Art sacré au XXe siècle?'' Éditions du Cerf.
* Frz. Theod. "The cathedral of Cologne, its history, architecture...legends. A guide for visitors, compiled from historical and descriptive records..."
* {{cite book |last       = Grabar
 |first      = André
 |author-link = André Grabar
 |year       = 1968
 |title      = Christian iconography, a study of its origins
 |publisher  = Princeton University Press
 |isbn       = 0-691-01830-8
 |url-access = registration
 |url        = https://archive.org/details/christianiconogr00grab
}}
* hÉailidhe, P. Ó (1957). "The Rathdown Slabs". ''The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland''.
* Legel, Tracy Marie. 2006. "The Introduction of Christianity into Scandinavia, Iceland, and Finland."
* Marcos Cobaleda, María. 2022. "Artistic Transfers from Islamic to Christian Art: A Study with Geographic Information Systems (GIS)"
* Nyborg, Ebbe; Arneborg, Jette (2020). "Christian Medieval Art in Norse Greenland : Crosses and Crucifixes and their European Antecedents"
* [[Jean Soldini|Soldini, Jean]]. ''Storia, memoria, arte sacra tra passato e futuro'', in ''Sacre Arti'', by [[Flaminio Gualdoni]] (editor), [[Tristan Tzara]], S. Yanagi, [[Titus Burckhardt]], [[Bologna]], FMR, 2008, pp.&nbsp;166–233.
* [[Ralf van Bühren|Bühren, Ralf van]] and Maciej Jan Jasiński, ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23753234.2024.2322546 The invisible divine in the history of art. Is Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) still relevant for decoding Christian iconography?]'', in ''Church, Communication and Culture'' 9 (2024), pp.&nbsp;1–36. DOI: 10.1080/23753234.2024.2322546.

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | author1=Evans, Helen C. | author2=Wixom, William D. | title=''The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843-1261'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1997 | isbn=9780810965072 | url=https://archive.org/details/gloryofbyzantium00evan | url-access=registration }}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030065223/http://ica.princeton.edu/ Princeton's Index of Medieval Art]

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