Editing Civil service

{{Short description|Government workers that are employed rather than hired or appointed}}
{{for|the album|Civil Service (album){{!}}''Civil Service'' (album)}}
The '''civil service''' is a collective term for a sector of [[government]] composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A '''civil service official''', also known as a '''public servant''' or '''public employee''', is a person employed in the [[public sector]] by a government department or agency for public sector undertakings. Civil servants work for central and local governments, and answer to the government, not a political party.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.civilservant.org.uk/information-definitions.html |title=UK Civil Service – Definitions – What is a Civil Servant? |website=civilservant.org.uk |access-date=5 November 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011202510/https://civilservant.org.uk/information-definitions.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/gov/ethics/managingconflictofinterestinthepublicservice.htm|title=Managing Conflict of Interest in the Public Service - OECD|date=2005|website=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|access-date=2018-12-09|archive-date=2019-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805120240/https://www.oecd.org/gov/ethics/managingconflictofinterestinthepublicservice.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the "civil service" varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom (UK), for instance, only [[The Crown|Crown]] (national government) employees are referred to as "civil servants" whereas employees of [[local authorities]] (counties, cities and similar administrations) are generally referred to as "local government officers", who are considered public servants but not civil servants. Thus, in the UK, a civil servant is a public servant but a public servant is not necessarily a civil servant.

The study of the civil service is a part of the field of [[public service]] (and in some countries there is no distinction between the two). Staff members in "non-departmental public bodies" (sometimes called "[[Quango|QUANGOs]]") may also be classed as civil servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms and conditions. Collectively a state's civil servants form its civil service or public service. The concept arose in China and modern civil service developed in Britain in the 18th century.

An international civil servant or international staff member is a civilian employee who is employed by an [[intergovernmental organization]]. These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation (from which they have [[intergovernmental organization#Privileges and immunities|immunity of jurisdiction]]) but are governed by internal staff regulations. All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations such as, for instance, the Administrative Tribunal of the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]]. Specific referral can be made to the [[International Civil Service Commission]] (ICSC) of the [[United Nations]], an independent expert body established by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]. Its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service.

[[File:Share of employee compensation in public spending, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=2|2017 share of government employee compensation in public spending according to [[Our World in Data]]]]

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== History ==

===In China===
[[File:Exam cells-large.jpg|upright=1.4|thumb|Imperial Civil Service Examination hall with 7500 cells in [[Guangdong]], 1873]]
[[File:Sui Wendi Tang.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Emperor Wen of Sui]] (r. 581–604), who established the first [[Imperial examination|civil service examination system]] in China; a painting by the [[Chancellor of China|chancellor]] and artist [[Yan Liben]] (600–673).]]
The origin of the modern meritocratic civil service can be traced back to [[imperial examination]] founded in [[Imperial China]].<ref name="China Imperial">{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/jonathan-mirsky/chinas-examination-hell-civil-service-examinations-imperial-china|title=China's Examination Hell: The Civil Service Examinations of Imperial China|work=History Today|access-date=October 25, 2011|archive-date=March 19, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319024949/http://www.historytoday.com/jonathan-mirsky/chinas-examination-hell-civil-service-examinations-imperial-china|url-status=live}}</ref> The imperial exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy.<ref name="Imperial China">{{cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil%20Service%20Examinations.pdf|title=Imperial China: Civil Service Examinations|publisher=Princeton University|access-date=October 25, 2011|archive-date=April 1, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401191710/http://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil%20Service%20Examinations.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of [[scholar-bureaucrats]] irrespective of their family pedigree.<ref name="Confucian civil service">{{cite web|url=http://www.csupomona.edu/~plin/ls201/confucian3.html|publisher=[[California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]]|title=Confucianism and the Chinese Scholastic System: The Chinese Imperial Examination System|access-date=December 7, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000418212653/http://www.csupomona.edu/~plin/ls201/confucian3.html|archive-date=April 18, 2000}}</ref>

Originally appointments to the bureaucracy were based on the patronage of [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocrats]]; During the [[Han dynasty]], [[Emperor Wu of Han]] established the [[xiaolian]] system of recommendation by superiors for appointments to office. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit. This was an early form of the imperial examinations, transitioning from inheritance and patronage to merit, in which local officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the [[Confucian classics]].<ref name="Confucian civil service"/> After the fall of the Han dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the [[nine-rank system]].

This system was reversed during the short-lived [[Sui dynasty]] (581–618), which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through [[Imperial examination|written examinations]] and recommendation. The first civil service examination system was established by [[Emperor Wen of Sui]]. [[Emperor Yang of Sui]] established a new category of recommended candidates for the mandarinate in AD 605. The following [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) adopted the same measures for drafting officials, and decreasingly relied on aristocratic recommendations and more and more on promotion based on the results of written examinations. The structure of the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of [[Wu Zetian]].<ref>[[Ann Paludan|Paludan, Ann]] (1998). ''[[iarchive:chronicleofchine0000palu|Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China]]''. New York: Thames and Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-05090-2}}</ref>
The system reached its apogee during the Song dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=J. A. G.|title=A Concise History of China|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=0-674-00075-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00robe_0}}</ref>

In theory, the Chinese civil service system provided one of the main avenues for social mobility in Chinese society, although in practice, due to the time-consuming nature of the study, the examination was generally only taken by sons of the landed gentry.<ref name="China civil service">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112424/Chinese-civil-service|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Chinese civil service|access-date=December 7, 2011|archive-date=December 16, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216191712/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112424/Chinese-civil-service|url-status=live}}</ref> The examination tested the candidate's memorization of the [[Four Books and Five Classics|Nine Classics of Confucianism]] and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms and [[calligraphy]]. It was ideally suited to literary candidates. Thus, toward the end of the Ming Dynasty, the system attracted the candidature of Tang Xianzu (1550–1616). Tang at 14 passed the imperial examination at the county level; and at 21, he did so at the provincial level; but not until he was 34 did he pass at the national level. However, he had already become a well-known poet at age 12, and among other things he went on to such distinction as a profound literati and dramatist that it would not be far-fetched to regard him as China's answer to William Shakespeare.<ref>{{cite book|last=Xianzu|first=Tang|title=The Complete Works of Tang Xianzu|year=2018}}</ref> In the late 19th century, however,  the system increasingly engendered internal dissatisfaction, and was criticized as not reflecting candidates' ability to govern well, and for giving undue weight to style over content and originality of thought. Indeed, long before its abandonment, the notion of the imperial system as a route to social mobility was somewhat mythical. In Tang's magnum opus, The Peony Pavilion, sc 13, Leaving Home, the male lead, Liu Mengmei, laments: "After twenty years of studies, I still have no hope of getting into office", and on this point Tang may be speaking through Liu as his alter ego. The system was finally abolished by the [[Qing government]] in 1905 as part of the [[New Policies]] reform package.

The Chinese system was often admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brook|first=Timothy|title=China and Historical Capitalism|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-64029-6}}</ref> However, the Chinese imperial examination system was hardly universally admired by all Europeans who knew of it. In a debate in the unelected chamber of the UK parliament on March 13, 1854, John Browne 'pointed out [clearly with some disdain] that the only precedent for appointing civil servants by literary exams was that of the Chinese government'.<ref>{{cite book|last=Coolican|title= Chapter 5: The Northcote–Trevelyan Report|pages=106–107|year=2018}}</ref>

=== Roman Empire ===
The [[Roman Empire|Roman empire]] (27 BC – AD 395) had several types of civil servants who fulfilled diverse functions in Roman society. They were called [[Apparitor|apparitores]].

==== Accensi ====
[[Accensi#Civil servants|Accensi]] were usually professional civil servants, providing assistance to the elected [[Roman magistrate|magistrates]] during their term in office. In the courts, they summoned witnesses, kept track of time, and helped keep order.<ref>{{Cite book |last=(LL.D.) |first=Alexander ADAM |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4NaAAAAcAAJ&dq=accensi+courts&pg=PA165 |title=Roman Antiquities; or, an Account of the manners and customs of the Romans, etc |date=1825 |publisher=T. Cadell |language=en}}</ref> Outside of the courts, they escorted the magistrate and acted as [[Herald|heralds.]]<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Suetonius • Life of Julius Caesar, 20 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/suetonius/12caesars/julius*.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120530163202/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html |archive-date=2012-05-30 |access-date=2018-02-09 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 45, chapter 29 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0168:book=45:chapter=29 |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=2018-02-09 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> They also helped in writing [[Edict|edicts]] and [[Roman law|laws]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plessis |first=Paul J. du |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDVYDwAAQBAJ&dq=Accensi&pg=PT131 |title=Cicero's Law: Rethinking Roman Law of the Late Republic |date=2016-08-30 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-0884-4 |language=en}}</ref> It is also possible they were messengers and [[orderlies]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Erdkamp |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC&dq=Accensi&pg=PA56 |title=A Companion to the Roman Army |date=2011-03-31 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-9376-7 |language=en}}</ref> The ''Accensi Velati'' were non military participants of military campaigns.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cicero |first1=Marcus Tullius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sqb73m5oskYC&dq=Accensi&pg=PA128 |title=Cicero, Against Verres, 2.1.53-86: Latin Text with Introduction, Study Questions, Commentary and English Translation |last2=Gildenhard |first2=Ingo |date=2011 |publisher=Open Book Publishers |isbn=978-1-906924-53-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nettleship |first=Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k4Dcf4d0N7MC&dq=Accensi+Velati&pg=PA14 |title=Contributions to Latin Lexicography |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-01272-0 |language=la}}</ref> They probably assisted clerks, accountants, supply officials, and aides.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Delbruck |first1=Hans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MP2k4rx-Q_UC&dq=Accensi+Velati&pg=PA266 |title=Warfare in antiquity |last2=Delbr_ck |first2=Hans |date=1990-01-01 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-9199-7 |language=en}}</ref> The''y'' also assisted religious affairs especially the [[Feriae Latinae]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Beck |first1=Hans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhC_GqPDcjUC&dq=Accensi+Velati&pg=PA129 |title=Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic |last2=Duplá |first2=Antonio |last3=Jehne |first3=Martin |last4=Polo |first4=Francisco Pina |date=2011-09-08 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49719-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rüpke (theoloog) |first=Jörg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xO_8AwAAQBAJ&dq=Accensi+Velati&pg=PA32 |title=From Jupiter to Christ: On the History of Religion in the Roman Imperial Period |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-870372-3 |language=en}}</ref> formed a [[Collegium (ancient Rome)|collegium]] dedicated to managing the streets,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Giroire |first1=Cécile |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnIbg00BQ14C&dq=Accensi+Velati&pg=PA192 |title=Roman Art from the Louvre |last2=Roger |first2=Daniel |date=2007 |publisher=Hudson Hills |isbn=978-1-55595-283-9 |language=en}}</ref> and had a [[Centuriate Assembly|centuriate assembly]] dedicated to them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Botsford |first=George Willis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2SyF2kmJOxYC&dq=Accensi+Velati&pg=PA207 |title=The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic |date=2001 |publisher=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-58477-165-4 |language=en}}</ref>

===== Carnifex =====
The carnifex punished slaves and foreigners, unlike lictores who punished Romans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LacusCurtius • Public Executioners in Ancient Rome (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Carnifex.html |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

===== Coactor =====
They were the tax collectors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LacusCurtius • The Roman Civil Service (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Apparitores.html#Coactor |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> The name coactor is derived from its latin meaning: "to compel, to force".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Olivetti |first=Olivetti Media Communication-Enrico |title=ONLINE LATIN DICTIONARY - Latin - English |url=https://www.online-latin-dictionary.com/latin-english-dictionary.php?parola=coactor |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=online-latin-dictionary.com |language=en}}</ref>

==== Lictores ====
Similarly to accensi, [[Lictor|lictores]] were public officers tasked to assist magistrates since the times of the [[Roman Kingdom|Roman kingdom]] (753 BC – 509 BC) or even earlier Etruscan times. The number of lictores a magistrate had was proportional to status. Lictores were in charge of punishing Roman citizens.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LacusCurtius • The Roman Lictor (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Lictor.html |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

==== Praecones ====
They were generally employed to make announcements in public and crowds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LacusCurtius • Praeco — The Roman Crier (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Praecones.html |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

===== Scriba =====
The [[Scriba (ancient Rome)|scriba]] were civil servants working as public notaries as well as general bureaucracy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |date=1949 |title=The Roman Civil Service (Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/roman-civil-service-clerical-and-subclerical-grades/384B50535ADE1A802DFD73DC6BFA0BC3 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |language=en |volume=39 |issue=1–2 |pages=38–55 |doi=10.2307/297706 |jstor=297706 |issn=1753-528X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=LacusCurtius • Roman Scribes (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Scribae.html |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> Greek cities had a similar figure, however the job was done by slaves.<ref name=":1" />

===Modern civil service===
In the 18th century, in response to economic changes and the growth of the [[British Empire]], the bureaucracy of institutions such as the [[Office of Works]] and the [[Navy Board]] greatly expanded. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase. By the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short. "The origins of the British civil service are better known. During the eighteenth century a number of Englishmen wrote in praise of the Chinese examination system, some of them going so far as to urge the adoption for England of something similar. The first concrete step in this direction was taken by the British East India Company in 1806."<ref name=Bodde/> In that year, the [[Honourable East India Company]] established a college, the [[East India Company College]], near London to train and examine administrators of the company's territories in India.<ref name=Bodde/> "The proposal for establishing this college came, significantly, from members of the East India Company's trading post in Canton, China."<ref name=Bodde/> Examinations for the Indian "civil service"—a term coined by the Company—were introduced in 1829.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/highercivilservi0000hudd|url-access=registration|title=The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform|author=Mark W. Huddleston, William W. Boyer|year=1996|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|isbn=978-0822974734}}</ref>

British efforts at reform were influenced by the [[imperial examination]]s system and [[Meritocracy|meritocratic system]] of China. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in [[Guangzhou]], China argued in his ''Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China'', published in 1847, that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only", and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic.<ref name=Bodde>{{cite web|last=Bodde|first=Derke|title=China: A Teaching Workbook|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_ideas.htm|publisher=Columbia University|access-date=2012-08-05|archive-date=2012-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104040501/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_ideas.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> On the other hand, John Browne, in the 1854 debate mentioned above, 'argued that elegant writing had become an end in itself, and the stultifying effect of this on the Chinese civil service had contributed in no small measure to China's failure to develop its early lead over Western civilisations': Coolican, p. 107.

[[File:Charles Edward Trevelyan.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet|Charles Trevelyan]], an architect of [[Her Majesty's Civil Service]], established in 1855 on his recommendations.]]
In 1853 the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]], commissioned Sir [[Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh|Stafford Northcote]] and [[Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet|Charles Trevelyan]] to look into the operation and organisation of the Civil Service. Influenced by the Chinese imperial examinations, the [[Northcote–Trevelyan Report]] of 1854 made four principal recommendations: that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, that candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, that recruits should be graded into a hierarchy and that promotion should be through achievement, rather than "preferment, patronage or purchase". It also recommended a clear division between staff responsible for routine ("mechanical") work, and those engaged in policy formulation and implementation in an "administrative" class.<ref name= "APH">{{cite book|editor1-last=Kazin|editor2-last= Edwards|editor3-last= Rothman |date=2010|page= 142|title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History|publisher= Princeton University Press|isbn = 9780691129716}}</ref>

The report was well-timed, because bureaucratic chaos during the [[Crimean War]] was causing a clamour for the change. The report's conclusions were immediately implemented, and a permanent, unified and politically neutral civil service was introduced as [[Her Majesty's Civil Service]]. A [[Civil Service Commission (United Kingdom)|Civil Service Commission]] was also set up in 1855 to oversee open recruitment and end patronage, and most of the other Northcote–Trevelyan recommendations were implemented over some years.<ref>{{cite news|last=Walker|first=David|title=Fair game|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2003-07-09|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/jul/09/publicsector.guardiansocietysupplement|access-date=2003-07-09|location=London|archive-date=2013-12-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228032309/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/jul/09/publicsector.guardiansocietysupplement|url-status=live}}</ref> 

The same model, the [[Imperial Civil Service]], was implemented in [[British India]] from 1858, after the demise of the [[East India Company]]'s rule in India through the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] which came close to toppling British rule in the country.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmyVKwxmeyUC |title=In quest of Indian folktales: Pandit Ram Gharib Chaube and William Crooke |first=Sadhana |last=Naithani |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2006 |page=6 |isbn=978-0-253-34544-8 |access-date=2015-10-14 |archive-date=2016-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512113605/https://books.google.com/books?id=DmyVKwxmeyUC |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Northcote–Trevelyan model remained essentially stable for a hundred years. This was a tribute to its success in removing corruption, delivering public services (even under the stress of two world wars), and responding effectively to political change. It also had a great international influence and was adapted by members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. The [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]] established a modern civil service in the United States, and by the turn of the 20th century almost all Western governments had implemented similar reforms.

== Civil service independence ==
{{See also|Central bank independence|Civil control of the military|Judicial independence|Accountability}}

[[Autocracy|Autocratic]] systems of government (such as [[monarchies]]) can favour appointments to administrative positions on the basis of [[nepotism]], [[patronage]] and [[In-group favoritism|favoritism]], with [[cronyism|close relationships between political and administrative figures]]. Early [[Roman emperor]]s, for example, set their [[slavery in ancient Rome|household slaves]] and [[freedmen]] much of the task of administering the [[Roman Empire|Empire]],<ref>Compare:
{{cite book
| last1 = Boardman
| first1 = John
| title = The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2pPxAAAAMAAJ
| volume = 11
| edition = 2
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| date = 2000
| page = 195
| isbn = 978-0521228046
| quote = Members of higher social groups, such as senators or ''equites'', necessarily had more of an opportunity to influence the emperor, yet men of lower social status, for instance freedmen or slaves, could also make their mark on account of their constant proximity to the emperor.
| access-date = 2018-05-01
| archive-date = 2020-02-28
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200228172843/https://books.google.com/books?id=2pPxAAAAMAAJ
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
sidelining the [[Cursus honorum|elected officials]] who continued the traditions of the [[Roman Republic]]. But the political appointment of bureaucrats can run the risk of tolerating [[inefficiency]] and [[political corruption|corruption]], with officials feeling secure in the protection of their political masters and possibly immune from prosecution for [[bribe taking|bribe-taking]]. [[Song dynasty|Song-dynasty]] China (960–1279) standardised [[imperial examination|competitive examinations]] as a basis for civil-service recruitment and promotion, and in the 19th century administrations in France and Britain followed suit. Agitation against the [[spoils system]] in the [[United States]] resulted in increasing the independence of the civil service—seen as an important principle in modern times.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Verheijen
| first1 = Tony
| chapter = Independent Civil Service Systems: a Contested Value?
| editor1-last = Grotz
| editor1-first = Florian
| editor2-last = Toonen
| editor2-first = Th. A. J.
| title = Crossing Borders: Constitutional Development and Internationalisation: Essays in Honour of Joachim Jens Hesse
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=97ZRNDkH-00C
| location = Berlin
| publisher = Walter de Gruyter
| date = 2008
| page = 249
| isbn = 978-3899495874
| access-date = 2018-04-30
| quote = The importance of a professional and impartial civil service has been a virtually uncontested notion ever since ''Woodrow Wilson''{{'s}} seminal work on the topic at the end of the 19th century. [...] An additional point highlighted by ''Joachim Jens Hesse'' in his frequent publications on the issue is the need to clearly enshrine the principle of an independent civil service in legislation [...].
| archive-date = 2020-07-29
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200729131843/https://books.google.com/books?id=97ZRNDkH-00C
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

Some governmental structures include a
[[civil service commission]] (or equivalent) whose functions include maintaining the work and rights of civil servants at arm's length from potential politicisation or political interference.<ref>Compare:
{{cite book
| editor1-last = Peters
| editor1-first = B. Guy
| editor2-last = Pierre
| editor2-first = Jon
| title = The Politicization of the Civil Service in Comparative Perspective: A Quest for Control
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KYCTAgAAQBAJ
| series = Routledge Studies in Governance and Public Policy
| location = London
| publisher = Routledge
| date = 2004
| isbn = 978-1135996260
| access-date = 2018-05-01
| archive-date = 2020-07-29
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200729133626/https://books.google.com/books?id=KYCTAgAAQBAJ
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
Compare the governance-administrative integration of [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]'s [[Orgburo]].

==By country==

=== Americas ===

====Brazil====
{{Main|Brazilian Civil Service}}

Brazil started to move away from a patronage based public service starting in the second half of the 19th century, but written tests and merit only became the norm towards the end of the 1930s, as a result from reforms introduced during [[Getúlio Vargas]] first term as the nation's President.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Maia, B.)) | journal=Revista do Serviço Público | title=A institucionalização do concurso público no Brasil: uma análise sócio-histórica | volume=72 | issue=3 | pages=663–684 | date=30 September 2021 | doi=10.21874/rsp.v72.i3.4639 | s2cid=247648128 | issn=2357-8017| doi-access=free }}</ref>

Civil servants in Brazil ({{langx|pt|servidores públicos}}) are those working in the [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches of the [[Brazil|Federal]], [[States of Brazil|state]], [[Federal District (Brazil)|Federal District]] or [[Municipalities of Brazil|municipal]] governments, including [[congressmen]], [[Senate of Brazil|senators]], [[mayors]], [[Minister (government)|ministers]], the [[President of Brazil|president]] of the [[republic]], and workers in [[government-owned corporation]]s.

Career civil servants (not temporary workers or politicians) are hired only externally on the basis of [[Civil service entrance examination|entrance examinations]] ({{langx|pt|concurso público}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/concurso-publico-in-brazil|title=Concurso Público In Brazil|website=The Brazil Business|date=24 July 2014 |access-date=2021-09-12|archive-date=2021-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912213039/https://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/concurso-publico-in-brazil|url-status=live}}</ref> It usually consists of a written test; some posts may require physical tests (such as policemen), or oral tests (such as professors, judges, prosecutors and attorneys). The rank according to the examination score is used for filling the vacancies.

Entrance examinations are conducted by several institutions with a government mandate, such as CESPE (which belongs to the [[University of Brasília]]) and the [[:pt:Fundação Cesgranrio|Cesgranrio]] Foundation (which is part of the [[Federal University of Rio de Janeiro]]).

The labor laws and social insurance for civil servants are different from private workers; even between government branches (like different states or cities), the law and insurance differ.

The posts usually are ranked by titles, the most common are ''technician'' for high school literates and ''analyst'' for undergraduates. There's also higher post ranks like auditor, fiscal, chief of police, prosecutor, judge, attorney, etc.

The law does not allow servants to upgrade or downgrade posts internally; they need to be selected in separate external entrance examinations.

====Canada====
{{Main|Public Service of Canada}}
Historians have explored the powerful role of civil service since the 1840s.<ref>R. MacGregor Dawson,  ''The Civil Service of Canada'' (1929); Jack Granatstein, ''The Ottawa Men: The Civil Service Mandarins, 1935–1957'' (Oxford UP, 1982); J.E. Hodgetts, ''Pioneer Public Service: An Administrative History of United Canada, 1841–1867. '' (U of Toronto Press, 1955).</ref>

In Canada, the civil service at the federal level is known as the [[Public Service of Canada]], with each of the ten provincial governments as well as the three territorial governments also having their own separate civil services. The federal civil service consists of all employees of the [[The Crown|crown]]. Ministers' exempt staff and members of the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] or [[Canadian Armed Forces]] are not civil servants.<ref name="pop">{{cite web | url=http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/psm-fpfm/modernizing-modernisation/stats/ssen-ane-eng.asp | title=Population of the Federal Public Service | publisher=Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada | access-date=25 June 2016 | author=Government of Canada | date=2011-04-18 | archive-date=2016-06-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622062031/http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/psm-fpfm/modernizing-modernisation/stats/ssen-ane-eng.asp | url-status=live }}</ref> There are approximately 357,000 federal civil servants (2023),<ref name="pop" /> and more than 350,000 employees at the provincial and territorial levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etatscanadiens-canadiangovernments.enap.ca/en/nav.aspx?sortcode=2.0.2.1|title=ENAP – Canadian governments compared > Provincial|website=etatscanadiens-canadiangovernments.enap.ca|access-date=2011-07-27|archive-date=2011-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913174916/http://etatscanadiens-canadiangovernments.enap.ca/en/nav.aspx?sortcode=2.0.2.1|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== United States ====
{{Main|Government employees in the United States|United States federal civil service}}
In the United States, the federal civil service was established in 1871. The Civil Service is defined as "all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services." ({{UnitedStatesCode|5|2101}}). In the early 19th century, government jobs were held at the pleasure of the president—a person could be fired at any time. The [[spoils system]] meant that jobs were used to support the political parties. This was changed in slow stages by the [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]] of 1883 and subsequent laws. By 1909, almost two-thirds of the U.S. federal work force was appointed based on merit, that is, qualifications measured by tests. Certain senior civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies, are filled by [[Political appointments in the United States|political appointees]]. Under the [[Hatch Act of 1939]], civil servants are not allowed to engage in political activities while performing their duties.

The U.S. civil service includes the [[competitive service]] and the [[excepted service]]. The majority of civil service appointments in the U.S. are made under the competitive service, but the [[U.S. Foreign Service|Foreign Service]], the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], and other National Security positions are made under the excepted service. (U.S. Code Title V)

As of January 2007, the federal government, excluding the Postal Service, employed about 1.8 million civilian workers. The federal government is the nation's single largest employer, although it employs only about 12% of all government employees, compared to 24% at the state level and 63% at the local level.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 March 2014|title=2012 Census of Governments: Employment Summary Report|url=http://www2.census.gov/govs/apes/2012_summary_report.pdf|access-date=8 December 2014|publisher=United States Census Bureau|archive-date=28 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328123045/http://www2.census.gov/govs/apes/2012_summary_report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Although most federal agencies are based in the [[Washington, D.C.]] region, only about 16% (or about 284,000) of the federal government workforce is employed in this region.<ref>{{cite web|date=March 12, 2008|title=Federal Government, Excluding the Postal Service|url=http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs041.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114201419/http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs041.htm|archive-date=2009-01-14|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> As of 2014, there are currently 15 federal executive branch agencies and hundreds of subagencies.<ref>{{cite web|date=2009-09-15|title=Louisiana State University Libraries – Federal Agency Index|url=http://www.lib.lsu.edu/gov/faq.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924110119/http://www.lib.lsu.edu/gov/faq.html|archive-date=2014-09-24|access-date=2014-02-18|publisher=Lib.lsu.edu}}</ref>

In the early 20th century, most cities in the US had a spoils system.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Anzia |first1=Sarah F. |last2=Trounstine |first2=Jessica |date=2024 |title=Civil Service Adoption in America: The Political Influence of City Employees |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/civil-service-adoption-in-america-the-political-influence-of-city-employees/29DBF25076D5A7E175FDECA2C85CC001 |journal=American Political Science Review |pages=1–17 |language=en |doi=10.1017/S0003055424000431 |issn=0003-0554|doi-access=free }}</ref> Over the next few decades, the spoils system was replaced with a civil service system.<ref name=":0" /> U.S. state and local government entities often have competitive civil service systems that are modeled on the national system, in varying degrees.

=== Asia ===

====Brunei====
The Civil Service ({{langx|ms|Perkhidmatan Awam}}) of Brunei. The role of the civil service is as the government's administrative machinery to uphold the supreme authority of His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam, uphold the National Philosophy – MIB, Melayu Islam Beraja, ensure the development of the country and ensure the welfare of the people as well as its traditional role as the peacekeeper, law enforcer, regulator and service providers. However, the adjudication system is separate from the civil service to maintain its independence and impartiality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yunos |first1=Rozan |title=Origins of Modern Civil Service in Brunei |url=https://www.academia.edu/35609069 |journal=The Brunei Times |date=January 2010 |publisher=Academia |access-date=11 July 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001120957/https://www.academia.edu/35609069 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Cambodia====
The Civil Service ({{langx|km|សេវាកម្មស៊ីវិល}}, ''Sevakamm Civil'') of Cambodia is the policy implementing arm of the [[Royal Government of Cambodia]]. In executing this important role, each civil servant ({{langx|km|មន្រ្តីរាជការ}}, ''Montrey Reachkar'') is
obligated to act according to the law and is guided by public policy pronouncements. The ''Common Statute of Civil Servants'' is the primary legislative framework for the Civil Service in Cambodia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mcs.gov.kh/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Handbook-For-Civil-Servents_2010-12-03.pdf |title=Handbook For Civil Servants |access-date=2020-02-20 |archive-date=2020-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220201129/http://www.mcs.gov.kh/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Handbook-For-Civil-Servents_2010-12-03.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

====China====

===== History =====
One of the oldest examples of a civil service based on [[meritocracy]] is the Imperial bureaucracy of China, which can be traced as far back as the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–207 BC).
However, the civil service examinations were practiced on a much smaller scale in comparison to the stronger, centralized bureaucracy of the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279). In response to the regional military rule of [[jiedushi]] and the loss of civil authority during the late Tang period and [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|Five Dynasties]] (907–960), the Song emperors were eager to implement a system where civil officials would owe their social prestige to the central court and gain their salaries strictly from the central government. This ideal was not fully achieved since many scholar officials were affluent landowners and were engaged in many anonymous business affairs in an age of [[Economy of the Song dynasty|economic revolution in China]]. Nonetheless, gaining a degree through three levels of examination—prefectural exams, provincial exams, and the prestigious palace exams—was a far more desirable goal in society than becoming a merchant. This was because the mercantile class was traditionally regarded with some disdain by the [[scholar-official]] class.

This class of state bureaucrats in the Song period were far less aristocratic than their Tang predecessors. The examinations were carefully structured in order to ensure that people of lesser means than what was available to candidates born into wealthy, landowning families were given a greater chance to pass the exams and obtain an official degree. This included the employment of a bureau of [[copyist]]s who would rewrite all of the candidates' exams in order to mask their handwriting and thus prevent favoritism by graders of the exams who might otherwise recognize a candidate's handwriting. The advent of widespread [[printing]] in the Song period allowed many more examination candidates access to the [[Chinese classics|Confucian texts]] whose mastery was required for passing the exams.

===== Current =====
{{main|Civil Service of the People%27s Republic of China|}}

Hong Kong and Macau have separate civil service systems:
* [[Hong Kong Civil Service]]
* [[Secretariat for Administration and Justice (Macau)|Secretariat for Administration and Justice]] is responsible for the civil service in [[Macau]]

====India====
{{Main|Civil Services of India}}
In India, civil servants are selected as per the [[Constitution of India]]. Civil servants serve at the pleasure of the [[President of India]]. The civil services of India can be classified into two types—the [[All India Services]] and the [[Central Civil Services]] (Group A and B). The recruits are university graduates selected through three phase exams such as the [[Civil Services Examination]] (CSE) or the [[Engineering Services Examination]] (ESE) among others, conducted by the [[Union Public Service Commission]] (UPSC). Additionally, there are also [[Civil Services of India#State Services|State Civil Services]]. The state civil servants are selected through an examination conducted by [[Public service commissions in India|state public service commissions]]. State civil servants serve at the pleasure of the [[Governor (India)|Governor]].

==== Japan ====
{{main|Civil service of Japan}}

====Pakistan====
{{Main category|Civil service of Pakistan}}
{{Main|Central Superior Services of Pakistan}}
In Pakistan the [[Federal Public Service Commission|FPSC]] (Federal Public Service Commission) conducts a [[competitive examination]] for the [[Central Superior Services of Pakistan]] and other civil-service posts; Pakistan inherited this system from the [[British Raj]]-era [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|Indian Civil Service]].

Pakistan has federal civil servants serving in federal government offices, with staff selected through the Federal Public Service Commission. Similarly, Pakistani provinces select their own public servants through provincial Public Service Commissions. The federal services have some quota against provincial posts, while provincial services have some quota in federal services.

====Taiwan====
The [[Taiwan|ROC]] [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China|constitution]] specifies that public servant cannot be employed without examination. The employment is usually lifelong (that is, until age about retirement).

=== Australasia ===

==== Australia ====
{{main|Australian Public Service}}

==== New Zealand ====
{{main|New Zealand public service}}

=== Europe ===

====France====
{{Main|French Civil Service}}
The civil service in France (''fonction publique'') is often incorrectly considered to include all government employees including employees of public corporations, such as [[SNCF]].

Public sector employment is classified into three services; State service, Local service and Hospital service. According to government statistics there were 5.5 million public sector employees in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATnon03141|title=Résultats de la recherche|website=www.insee.fr|access-date=2015-04-03|archive-date=2015-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426115106/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATnon03141|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectivites-locales.gouv.fr/files/files/BIS_96.pdf|title=Local Government employment statistics|access-date=2015-04-03|archive-date=2015-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205833/http://www.collectivites-locales.gouv.fr/files/files/BIS_96.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:85%;"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Category !!Central Government!! Local Government !! Health service !! Total
|-
| Education||1,360.6||||||1,360.6
|-
| Police||284.4||40||||324.4
|-
| Defence||280.7||||||280.7
|-
| Health & Social||||241||1,153||1,394.0
|-
| Other||516.1||1,631||||2,147.1
|-
| Total||2,441.8||1,912||1,153||5,506.8
|-
| % Civil servants<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1496|title=L'emploi dans la fonction publique en 2012 – Insee Première – 1496|website=www.insee.fr|access-date=2015-06-20|archive-date=2015-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924225514/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1496|url-status=live}}</ref>||62%||75%||72%||-
|}

====Germany====
The '''Public Service in Germany''' (''[[:de:Öffentlicher Dienst|Öffentlicher Dienst]]'') employed 4.6 million persons {{as of | 2011 | lc = on}}.<ref>[http://www.dgb.de/themen/++co++01027f58-f007-11e0-51a9-00188b4dc422 Index Gute Arbeit: Sonderauswertung Öffentlicher Dienst 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206081127/http://www.dgb.de/themen/++co++01027f58-f007-11e0-51a9-00188b4dc422 |date=2017-12-06 }} DGB (PDF, German)</ref> Public servants are organized<ref>{{cite web |title=Beschäftigte im öffentlichen Dienst |url=https://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/themen/oeffentlicher-dienst/zahlen-daten-fakten/zahlen-daten-fakten-node.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911093250/https://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/themen/oeffentlicher-dienst/zahlen-daten-fakten/zahlen-daten-fakten-node.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 September 2019 |publisher=Bundesministerium des Innern, für Bau und Heimat |access-date=11 September 2019}}</ref> into hired salaried employees (''Arbeitnehmer''), appointed civil servants (''[[Beamter|Beamte]]''), judges, and soldiers. They are employed by public bodies (''Körperschaften des öffentlichen Rechts''), such as [[Districts of Germany|counties (''Kreise'')]], [[states of Germany|states]], the [[politics of Germany|federal government]], etc. In addition to employees directly employed by the state another 1.6 million persons are employed by state owned enterprises<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/OeffentlicheFinanzenSteuern/OeffentlicherDienst/Personal/Tabellen/Gesamthaushalt.html|title=State employees as of June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221103425/https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/OeffentlicheFinanzenSteuern/OeffentlicherDienst/Personal/Tabellen/Gesamthaushalt.html|archive-date=2015-02-21}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:85%;"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Category !!Federal Government!! Regional Government!!Municipal Government !! Social Security !! Total
|-
| State employees||458||2,114.4||1,220.7||378.6||4,171.7
|-
| government owned enterprises||240.4||387.1||950.2||24.5||1,602.1
|-
| Total||698.4||2,501.5||2,170.9||403.1||5,733.8
|}

[[Beamter|''Beamte'']] has been a title for government employees for several centuries in German states, but became a standardized group in 1794.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Soldiers other than [[Conscription in Germany|conscripted soldiers]] are not Beamte but have similar rights. Judges are not Beamte but have similar rights too.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beihilferatgeber.de/service/faq/beihilfe-fuer-richter|title=Beihilfe für Richter gilt wie für Beamte – beihilferatgeber.de|website=www.beihilferatgeber.de|access-date=2015-11-21|archive-date=2015-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122085112/http://www.beihilferatgeber.de/service/faq/beihilfe-fuer-richter|url-status=live}}</ref> Public attorneys are all Beamte, whereas most (but not all) professors are Beamte. The group of Beamte have the most secure employment, and the amount they are paid is set by national pay regulations (''Besoldungsordnungen'').<!-- The actual payment varies by employer. --> Beamte are prohibited from [[strike action|striking]].

''Arbeitnehmer'' have work contracts, whereas ''Beamte'' are appointed, employed, and removed in accordance with the Public Sector Service and Loyalty law (''öffentlich-rechtliches Dienst- und Treueverhältnis''). Most tasks can be either done by ''Arbeitnehmer'' or ''Beamte'', however some specific tasks of official nature are supposed to be handled by ''Beamte'' since they are subject to a special loyalty obligation.

''Beamte'' are divided into four levels:
* ''Einfacher Dienst'': ordinary civil service, corresponding to [[enlisted ranks]] in the military, now largely obsolete
* ''Mittlerer Dienst'': medium-level civil service, corresponding to [[non-commissioned officer]]s in the military
* ''Gehobener Dienst'': senior civil service, including civil servant positions such as ''Inspektor'' and above, corresponding to [[commissioned officer]]s from [[Second lieutenant|lieutenant]] to [[captain (armed forces)|captain]] in the military
* ''Höherer Dienst'': higher civil service, including civil servant positions such as ''Rat'' (Councillor) and above as well as academic employees such as Professors, corresponding to [[Major (rank)|major]] and above in the military

''Gehobener Dienst'' and ''Höherer Dienst'' both require a university education or equivalent, at the very least a bachelor's or master's degree, respectively.

====Ireland====
{{Main|Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland}}
The civil service of Ireland includes the employees of the [[Department of state (Ireland)|Departments of State]] (excluded are [[Government of Ireland|government]] [[Minister (government)|ministers]] and a small number of paid political advisors) as well as a small number of core state agencies such as the [[Office of the Revenue Commissioners]], the [[Office of Public Works]], and the Public Appointments Service. The organisation of the Irish Civil Service is very similar to the traditional organization of the British Home Civil Service, and indeed the grading system in the Irish Civil Service is nearly identical to the traditional grading system of its British counterpart. In Ireland, public sector employees such as teachers or members of the country's [[Police|police force]], the ''[[Garda Síochána]]'' are not considered to be civil servants, but are rather described as "public servants" (and form the [[public service of the Republic of Ireland]]).

==== Russia ====
{{Main| Civil Service of the Russian Federation}}

==== Spain ====
The [[Secretariat of State for the Civil Service|civil service]] in Spain (''función pública'') is usually considered to include all the employees at the different levels of the Spanish public administration: [[Government of Spain|central government]], [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]], as well as [[Municipalities of Spain|municipalities]]. There are three main categories of Spanish public positions: temporary political posts ("personal eventual"), which require a simple procedure for hiring and dismissal and is associated to top level executives and advisors, statutory permanent posts ("funcionarios de carrera"), which require a formal procedure for access that usually involves a competition among candidates and whose tenants are subject to a special statutory relationship of work with their employers, and non statutory permanent posts ("personal laboral"), which also require a formal procedure for entry similar to the procedure required for the "funcionarios de carrera", but whose tenants are subject to normal working conditions and laws. Competitions differ notably among the state, the 17 autonomous communities and the city councils, and the "funcionarios de carrera" and "personal laboral" examinations vary in difficulty from one location to another.

As of 2013,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seap.minhap.gob.es/dms/es/publicaciones/centro_de_publicaciones_de_la_sgt/Periodicas/parrafo/Boletin_Estadis_Personal/BE_ENE2013.pdf|title=Portales SEAT y SEFP:: Secretaría de Estado para las Administraciones Territoriales :: Secretaría de Estado de Función Pública|website=www.seap.minhap.gob.es|access-date=2015-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621021442/http://www.seap.minhap.gob.es/dms/es/publicaciones/centro_de_publicaciones_de_la_sgt/Periodicas/parrafo/Boletin_Estadis_Personal/BE_ENE2013.pdf|archive-date=2015-06-21|url-status=dead}}</ref> there were 2.6 million public employees in Spain, of which 571,000 were civil servants and 2 million were non-civil servants.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:85%;"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Category !! Employee type!!Central Government!! Regional Government !! Municipal !! University!! Total
|-
| Police||Civil servants||147||25||||||172
|-
| Defence||Civil servants||124||||||||124
|-
| Health & Social||Civil servants||||321||||||321
|-
| ||other public employees||||170||||||170
|-
| Other||Civil servants||180||562||218||74||1034
|-
| ||other public employees||119||229||330||75||753
|-
| Total||Civil servants||451||908||218||74||1651
|-
| ||other public employees||119||399||330||75||923
|-
| ||Total||570||1307||548||149||2574
|}

More recent figures can be found at SEAT.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seat.mpr.gob.es/dam/es/portal/funcionpublica/funcion-publica/ep-pp/empleo_publico/Triptico_2018_CASTELLANO.pdf.pdf |title=El empleo público en España |language=es |date= |website=www.seat.mpr.gob.es |access-date=2020-02-25 |archive-date=2020-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225150446/http://www.seat.mpr.gob.es/dam/es/portal/funcionpublica/funcion-publica/ep-pp/empleo_publico/Triptico_2018_CASTELLANO.pdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2011, the government of Rajoy announced that civil servants have to serve a minimum 37.5 working hours per week regardless of their place or kind of service.<ref name="politica.elpais.com">{{cite news |url=http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2011/12/30/actualidad/1325267082_718015.html |title=Los funcionarios trabajarán 37,5 horas y su sueldo sigue congelado &#124; Política |publisher=Politica.elpais.com |date=2011-12-30 |access-date=2014-02-18 |newspaper=El País |last1=Calvo |first1=Vera Gutiérrez |archive-date=2014-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823190526/http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2011/12/30/actualidad/1325267082_718015.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====United Kingdom====
<!--[[List of metonyms]] links here-->
{{main|Civil Service (United Kingdom)|His Majesty's Diplomatic Service|Northern Ireland Civil Service}}
The civil service in the United Kingdom only includes Crown (i.e. central government) employees, not parliamentary employees or [[local government]] employees. [[Public sector]] employees such as those in education and the [[National Health Service|NHS]] are not considered to be civil servants. Police officers and staff are also not civil servants. Total employment in the public sector in the UK was 6.04 million in 2012 according to the UK's [[Office for National Statistics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/pse/public-sector-employment/q2-2011/stb-public-sector-employment---q2-2011.html#tab-Public-and-private-sector-employment--headcount--Table-5-|title=Public Sector Employment, Q2 2011|first=David Matthews, Office for National|last=Statistics|website=www.ons.gov.uk|date=2011-09-14|access-date=2015-04-03|archive-date=2015-04-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010728/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/pse/public-sector-employment/q2-2011/stb-public-sector-employment---q2-2011.html#tab-Public-and-private-sector-employment--headcount--Table-5-|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- 
! Category !!Central government!! Local government !! Health service !! Total
|-
| Police||||278,000||||278,000
|-
| Defence||193,000||||||193,000
|-
| Health & Social||||364,000||1,565,000||1,929,000
|-
| Other||1,989,000||42,000||||2,031,000
|-
| Total||2,182,000||2,290,000||1,565,000||6,037,000
|}

Civil servants in the devolved government in Northern Ireland are not part of the [[Civil Service (United Kingdom)|Home Civil Service]], but constitute the separate [[Northern Ireland Civil Service]]. Some employees of the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] are members of [[HM Diplomatic Service]], which is associated with but separate from the Civil Service.

====European Union====
{{Main|European Civil Service}}
The European Civil Service administers the [[institutions of the European Union]], of which the largest employer is the [[European Commission]].

Civil servants are recruited directly into the institutions after being selected by competitions set by [[European Personnel Selection Office|EPSO]], the official selection office. They are allocated to departments, known as [[Directorate-General|Directorates-General]] (DGs), each covering one or more related policy areas.

==See also==
===General===
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* [[Civic technology]]
* [[Civil service commission]]
* [[Civil service examination]]
* [[Civil service organisation]]
* [[Community service]]
* [[Public service]]
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===By continent or region===
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<!----------- Alphabetical by continent/region: ----------->
* [[Civil service reform in developing countries]] e.g. Nigeria, Congo, etc.

====Africa====
* [[Nigerian Civil Service]]
** [[Civil Service Commission of Nigeria]]
** [[Rivers State Civil Service]]

* [[Civil Service Commission (Somaliland)]]

====Asia====
<!---------- Alphabetical by country: ----------->
* <!--(China)--> [[Civil Service of the People's Republic of China]]
**[[Hong Kong Civil Service|Civil Service of Hong Kong]]
* [[Bangladesh Civil Service]]
* [[Civil Services of India]]
** [[Civil Service in early India]]
** [[Civil Services of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[Civil service of Japan]]
* [[Civil service in Malaysia]]
* [[Civil Services of Pakistan]]
* [[Civil Service Commission (Philippines)]]
* [[Civil Service of Singapore]]

====Europe====
* [[Civil Service of the European Union]]
<!---------- Alphabetical by country: ----------->
* [[Civil Service of Germany]]
* [[Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland]]
* [[Civil Service (United Kingdom)|Civil Service of the United Kingdom]]
** [[Civil Service Commission (United Kingdom)|Civil Service Commission]]
** [[Civil Service Commission (Isle of Man)]]
* [[Civil Service Restoration Act]]

====North America====
<!---------- Alphabetical by country: ----------->
* [[Public Service of Canada]]
** [[Minister responsible for the Civil Service (Manitoba)|Minister responsible (Manitoba)]]
* [[Civil service in the United States]]
** [[Civil Service Commission (United States)|Civil Service Commission]]
* [[U.S. Civil Service Reform|Civil service reform]]
* [[Civil service reform act]]
* [[Civil Service Reform Act of 1978]]

====Oceania====
* [[Australian Public Service]]
* [[New Zealand public service|New Zealand Public Service Departments]]

====South America====
* [[Civil service in Brazil]]
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===Pay and benefits===
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* [[Performance-related pay]]
* [[Pay-for-Performance (Federal Government)]]
** [[Pay for performance (healthcare)]]<!--[lengthy:], an emerging movement in British and American health insurance where providers are rewarded for the quality of healthcare services which they provide or for which they are responsible.-->
** [[Pay to play]]
* [[Incentive program]]

====United States====
* [[Civil Service Retirement System]]
* [[Merit pay]]&nbsp;([[Merit pay#Federal Government Merit Pay|Federal Government Merit Pay]])
* [[Pay-for-Performance (Federal Government)]]
* [[Pay for performance (human resources)]]
* [[Veterans Health Administration scandal of 2014|2014 Veterans Health Administration scandal]]
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== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* Albrow, M., ''Bureaucracy'' (1970)
* Armstrong, J. A., ''The European Administrative Elite'' (1973)
* Bodde, D., [http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/web/s10/ideas.pdf ''Chinese Ideas in the West'']
* Brownlow, Louis, Charles E. Merriam, and Luther Gulick, ''Report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management.'' (1937)
* Coolican, Michael, No Tradesmen and No Women: The Origins of the British Civil Service (2018)
* du Gay, P., ''In Praise of Bureaucracy: Weber, Organisation, Ethics'' (2000)
* du Gay, P., ed., ''The Values of Bureaucracy'' (2005)
* Hoogenboom, Ari, ''Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865–1883.'' (1961)
* Mathur, P.N., ''The Civil Service of India, 1731–1894: a study of the history, evolution and demand for reform'' (1977)
* Rao, S. 2013. [http://www.gsdrc.org/docs/open/CSR_TopicGuide_2013.pdf ''Civil service reform: Topic guide'']. Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham. http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/civil-service-reform
* Schiesl, Martin, ''The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1880–1920.'' (1977)
* Sullivan, Ceri, ''Literature in the Public Service: Sublime Bureaucracy'' (2013)
* Theakston, Kevin, ''The Civil Service Since 1945'' (Institute of Contemporary British History, 1995)
* Van Riper, Paul. ''History of the United States Civil Service'' (1958).
* White, Leonard D., ''Introduction to the Study of Public Administration.'' (1955)
* White, Leonard D., Charles H. Bland, Walter R. Sharp, and [[Fritz Morstein Marx]]; ''Civil Service Abroad, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20050105221433/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10192814 (1935) online]

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Civil services}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Civil Service}}
* [http://www.civilservice.gov.uk/ The UK Civil Service official website]
* [http://www.servidor.gov.br/ Brazilian Civil Servants official website]
* {{cite NIE|wstitle=Civil Service |year=1905 |short=x}}

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{{Civil service}}

{{Authority control}}

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