Editing Classic Maya language

{{Short description|Oldest attested Mayan language family member}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Classic Maya
| region           = [[Maya Lowlands]]
| era              = 200–900
| familycolor      = Mayan
| fam1             = [[Mayan languages|Mayan]]
| fam2             = Western
| fam3             = [[Chʼolan languages|Cholan–Tzeltalan]]
| fam4             = Cholan
| fam5             = Ch'olti'
| iso3             = emy
| linglist         = emy
| lingname         = Epigraphic Mayan
| glotto           = epig1241
| glottoname       = Epigraphic Mayan
| image            = Palenque glyphs-edit1.jpg
| imagecaption     = Part of an inscription at [[Palenque]]
| script           = [[Maya script| Lowland Maya Hieroglyphs]]
| nativename       = {{lang|emy|Chʼoltiʼ}}
| ethnicity        = [[Maya civilization|Mayans]]
}}

'''Classic Maya''' (or properly '''Classical Chʼoltiʼ''') is the oldest historically attested member of the [[Mayan languages|Mayan language family]]. It is the main language documented in the [[pre-Columbian]] inscriptions of the classical period of the [[Maya civilization]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Houston|first1=Stephen|last2=Robertson|first2=John|last3=Stuart|first3=David|date=2000|title=The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/300142|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=41|issue=3|pages=321–356|doi=10.1086/300142|jstor=10.1086/300142|pmid=10768879|s2cid=741601|issn=0011-3204|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It is also the common ancestor of the [[Chʼolan languages|Cholan branch]] of the Mayan language family. Contemporary descendants of classical Maya include [[Chʼol language|Chʼol]] and [[Ch’orti’ language|Chʼortiʼ]]. Speakers of these languages can understand many Classic Mayan words.

Classic Maya is quite a morphologically [[Agglutination|binding]] language, and most words in the language consist of multiple [[morphemes]] with relatively little irregularity. It shows some regional and temporal variations, which is completely normal considering the long period of use of the language. Even so, the texts make it clear that it is a single, uniform language. Classical Maya shows [[ergative alignment]] in its morphology, as well as syntactically in focus constructs. Although the descendant Cholan languages limit this pattern of ergative alignment to sentences in completive aspect, classical Mayan does not show evidence of [[split ergativity]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stuart|first1=David|last2=Law|first2=Danny|title=Classic Mayan: An overview of language in ancient hieroglyphic script|url=https://www.academia.edu/34169418|journal=In: Aissen, Judith, Nora C. England and Roberto Zavala Maldonado (Eds.) the Mayan Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. New York: Routledge.|date=2017 |page=128 |language=en}}</ref>

Its spoken form, the [[Chʼoltiʼ language|Chʼoltiʼ]], from the [[Manche Chʼol]] region, is known from a manuscript written between 1685 and 1695,<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2024-11-19 |language=es |title=Arte en lengua Cholti que quiere decir lengua de milperos |url=https://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/digital/collection/p15999coll16/id/53802 |website=contentdm.lib.byu.edu}}<!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> first studied by [[Daniel Garrison Brinton]]. This language has become of particular interest for the study of [[Mayan glyphs]], since most of the glyphic texts are written in the classical variety of Chʼoltiʼ,<ref>{{cite web|title=Vocabulary in the Chꞌoltiꞌ language |url=http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/dictionary/boot/cholti_moran1695_revised.pdf}}<!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> known as Classical Maya by [[Epigraphy|epigraphers]],<ref>Houston, Robertson & Stuart (2000).</ref> which is believed to have been spoken as a prestigious language form throughout the [[Maya Region|Maya region]] during the [[classic period]].<ref>Kettunen & Helmke (2006) p. 12.</ref>

== History ==
During the [[Classic period|Classic Period]], the main branches of Proto-Mayan began to diversify into separate languages. The division between Proto-Yucatecan (in the north, the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]) and Proto-Cholan (in the south, the [[Chiapas]] highlands and the [[Petén Basin]]) had already occurred in the Classic, when most of the Mayan inscriptions existing were written. Both variants are attested in hieroglyphic inscriptions at Maya sites of the time, and both are commonly known as the "classical Mayan language".

Although a single prestigious language was by far the most frequently recorded in extant [[Maya script|hieroglyphic]] texts, evidence of at least three different varieties of Maya has been discovered within the hieroglyphic corpus: an Eastern Ch'olan variety found in texts written in the southern Maya area and the highlands, a western Ch'olan variety spread from the [[Usumacinta River|Usumacinta]] region from the mid-7th century onwards, and a Yucatecan variety found in texts from the Yucatan Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mesoweb Resources|url=http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/handbook/index.html|access-date=2021-01-20|website=www.mesoweb.com}}</ref> The reason that only a few linguistic varieties are found in the glyphic texts is probably that they served as prestigious dialects throughout the Maya region; hieroglyphic texts would have been written in the language of the elite.

Stephen Houston, John Robertson, and David Stuart have suggested that the specific variety of Chʼolan found in most southern lowland glyphic texts was a language they called "classical Chʼoltiʼ," the ancestor language of the Chʼortiʼ languages and modern Chʼoltiʼ. They propose that it originated in the western and south-central basin of the [[Petén Basin|Petén]], and that it was used in inscriptions and perhaps also spoken by elites and priests. However, Mora-Marín has argued that the traits shared by the Classic Lowland Maya and Chʼoltian languages are retentions rather than innovations, and that the diversification of Chʼolan is indeed [[Post-Classic]]al. The language of the classical lowland inscriptions would then have been Proto-Cholan.

== Relationships ==
It is now thought that the codices and other Classic texts were written by scribes, usually members of the [[Maya priesthood]], in a literary form of the [[Chʼoltiʼ language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houston |first1=Stephen D. |author-link1=Stephen D. Houston | first2=John |last2=Robertson |author-link3=David Stuart (Mayanist) |first3=David |last3=Stuart |year=2000 |title=The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=321–356 |issn=0011-3204 |doi=10.1086/300142 |pmid=10768879|s2cid=741601 }}</ref><ref name="Kettunen_Helmke_2005_12">Kettunen and Helmke (2005, p.12)</ref>  It is possible that the Maya elite spoke this language as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' over the entire Maya-speaking area, but also that texts were written in other [[Mayan languages]] of the [[Petén Basin|Petén]] and [[Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán]], especially [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec]]. There is also some evidence that the [[Maya script]] may have been occasionally used to write Mayan languages of the [[Guatemalan Highlands]].<ref name="Kettunen_Helmke_2005_12"/> However, if other languages were written, they may have been written by Chʼoltiʼ [[scribe]]s, and therefore have Chʼoltiʼ elements.

== Writing system ==
{{main|Maya script}}
Classic Maya is the principal language documented in the [[writing system]] used by the pre-Columbian Maya, and is particularly represented in inscriptions from the lowland regions in Mexico and the period c. 200—900. The writing system (generally known as the [[Maya script]]) has some similarities in function (but is not related) to other [[list of writing systems|logosyllabic writing systems]] such as the [[cuneiform]] originating in [[Sumer]], in which a combination of [[logogram|logographic]] and [[syllabary|syllabic]] signs ([[grapheme]]s) are used. The script's corpus of graphemes features a core of syllabic signs which reflect the [[phonology]] of the Classic Maya language spoken in the region and at that time, which were also combined or complemented by a larger number of logograms. Thus the expressions of Classic Maya could be written in a variety of ways, represented either as logograms, logograms with [[phonetic complement]]s, logograms plus syllables, or in a purely syllabic combination. For example, in one common pattern many verb and noun roots are given by logographs, while their grammatical [[affix]]es were written syllabically, much like the [[Japanese writing system]].

== Phonology ==
The classical Maya consonant system can be represented as follows:<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Law |first1=Danny |title=Classic Mayan: An overview of language in ancient hieroglyphic script |last2=Stuart |first2=David |publisher=Routledge: London and New York |year=2017 |location=In Judith Aissen, Nora C. England, and Roberto Zavala Maldonado, The Mayan Languages |pages=128–172}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mesoweb.com/resources/vocabulary/Vocabulary-2009.01.pdf|title=The Updated Preliminary Classic Maya-English/English-Classic Maya Vocabulary of Hieroglyphic Readings}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonants
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive]]s
! <small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{angbr|’}}
|-
! <small>[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t’}}
|
| {{IPA link|k’}}
|-
!<small>[[Implosive consonant|implosive]]</small>
|{{IPA link|ɓ}} {{angbr|b}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate]]s
! <small>voiceless</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͡s}} {{angbr|tz}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} {{angbr|ch}}
|
|
|-
! <small>ejective</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͡s’}} {{angbr|tz’}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ’}} {{angbr|ch’}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]s
|
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|x}}
| {{IPA link|x}} {{angbr|j}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]s
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}}|| || {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}}|| || {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || {{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|aː}}||
|}

The Latin alphabet of the classical Maya transliteration is: ’, a, b, ch, ch’, e, h, i, k, k’, l, m, n, o, p, p’, s, t, t’, tz, tz’, u, w, x, y. It is the romanization system currently used by epigraphers to transcribe the language. However, the first alphabet was developed by Fray Francisco Morán in his ''Vocabulario en lengua choltí'', whose most notable difference is the transcription of /k’/ as ⟨ꜫ⟩ and /t͡ʃ’/ as ⟨ꜫh⟩.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2024-11-19 |language=es |title=Arte en lengua Cholti |url=https://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/digital/collection/p15999coll16/id/52754 |website=contentdm.lib.byu.edu}}<!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

In Classic Maya, there are five vowels: a, e, i, o, u. Long vowels are written double: aa, ee, ii, oo, uu. Furthermore, no word begins with a vowel; these actually begin with a [[glottal stop]].<ref name=":0" /> Because of this, the initial [[Saltillo (linguistics)|letter ’]] is often omitted to facilitate transcription and alphabetic structuring.

The most widespread phonological process attested in Maya glyphs is the elimination of the underlying vowels in a trisyllabic word. When a sequence of the form CVCVCVC appears as a single word, the second vowel (the nucleus of the second syllable) is elided to form two CVC syllables. Examples: ''CHUM(mu)-la-ja'' 'he sits' is transcribed ''chumlaj''. ''AJAW-le-le'' 'lordship' is transliterated [[Ajaw|''ajawlel'']]. ''Tu-’u-B’AAH'' 'in itself' is transcribed ''tu’b’aah''. ''Sa-ku-WINIK-ki'' 'elder brother' is transliterated ''saku(n) winik''.

== Grammar ==
Like most other Mayan languages, Classic Maya is [[verb–subject–object]] and is an [[ergative–absolutive language]]. Being [[Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]], it uses both prefixes and suffixes to show grammatical function. Nouns are not inflected for [[Grammatical case|case]] or [[Grammatical gender|gender]]. There is also an entire class of intransitives that convey the object's spatial position. In addition, the language employs [[Classifier (linguistics)|counter]] words when quantifying nouns and uses a [[vigesimal]] number system. 
Verbs are not conjugated according to tense, but rather are semantically altered by a series of [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] particles.

=== Numerals ===
Linguists and epigraphers still debate the accurate reading of classical Maya numerals. Numbers greater than 20 are recorded in classical Mayan inscriptions, as part of the so-called "lunar series", for example, when describing the number of days that a "lunar month" specifically has (for example, "20 + 9"; "20 + 10") or the count or order of dynasties to be counted.<ref name=":0" />

List of numerals:
* {{lang|emy|mih}} (0)
* {{lang|emy|jun}} (1)
* {{lang|emy|cha’}} / {{lang|emy|ka’}} (2)
* {{lang|emy|ox}} / {{lang|emy|ux}} (3)
* {{lang|emy|chan}} / {{lang|emy|kan}} (4)
* {{lang|emy|ho’}} (5)
* {{lang|emy|wak}} (6)
* {{lang|emy|huk}} / {{lang|emy|wuk}} (7)
* {{lang|emy|waxak}} (8)
* {{lang|emy|balun}} / {{lang|emy|bolon}} (9)
* {{lang|emy|lajun}} (10)
* {{lang|emy|buluch}} / {{lang|emy|buluj}} (11)
* {{lang|emy|laj cha’}} / {{lang|emy|laj ka’}} (12)
* {{lang|emy|ox lajun}} / {{lang|emy|ux lajun}} (13)
* {{lang|emy|chan lajun}} / {{lang|emy|kan lajun}} (14)
* {{lang|emy|ho’ lajun}} (15)
* {{lang|emy|wak lajun}} (16)
* {{lang|emy|huk lajun}} / {{lang|emy|wuk lajun}} (17)
* {{lang|emy|waxak lajun}} (18)
* {{lang|emy|balun lajun}} / {{lang|emy|bolon lajun}} (19)
* {{lang|emy|winak}} / {{lang|emy|k'al}} (20).

=== Pronouns ===
Classic Maya pronouns come in two forms, ''dependent'' and ''independent''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Law |first1=Danny |last2=Stuart |first2=David |year=2017 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315192345/mayan-languages-judith-aissen-nora-england-roberto-zavala-maldonado |chapter=Classic Mayan: an overview of language in ancient hieroglyphic script |editor1=Judith Aissen |editor2=Nora C. England |editor3=Roberto Zavala Maldonado |title=The Mayan Languages |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=128-172 }}</ref><ref name=":2">[https://canvas.harvard.edu/courses/2573/files/285067/download?verifier=PIUVjvVyH4aDStgyhmxAGHz3rG18jF54S0nobQp1&wrap=1 GRAMMAR OF HIEROGLYPHIC MAYA, Brussels, October 29–31 2013]</ref>

Independent pronouns stand alone in an utterance, usually to draw focus to one of the sentence's arguments; historically they were constructed from a demonstrative particle *''haʔ'' plus a dependent pronoun of the Absolutive Series, but many of the attested forms display further unpredictable phonological developments.  Dependent pronouns are affixed to their grammatical head (whether noun, adjective, or verb), and come in two separate sets. [[Ergativity|Ergative]] dependent pronouns--which mark the subject of a transitive verb, the possessor in a possessive construction, or the person of a relational noun (see below)--are prefixed to the root, with two allomorphs depending on whether the following root begins with a consonant (C) or with a vowel (V). [[Absolutive]] pronouns, on the other hand, are suffixed to the root; these mark the object of transitive verbs as well as the subject of both intransitive and stative verbs.

Because most major Classic Maya inscriptions take the form of narratives, first- and second-person pronouns are very rare, to the point that some forms - notably second-person plural pronouns - are not known at all. Such unattested forms are marked below with question marks.

{| class="wikitable" style="border: none; background: none;"
|+ Classic Maya pronouns
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="border: none; background: none;" | 
! colspan="2" | Ergative
! rowspan="2" | Absolutive
! rowspan="2" | Independent
|-
! colspan="1" | before C
! colspan="1" | before V
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! singular
| ''ni-''
| ''w-''
| ''-een''
| ''hiin'' ~ ''hin''
|-
! plural
| ''ka-''
| (?)
| ''-oʔn''
| (?)
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! singular
| ''a-''
| ''aw-''
| ''-at''
| ''haʔat'' ~ ''hat''
|-
! plural
| (?)
| (?)
| (?)
| (?)
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! singular
| ''u-''
| ''y-''
| -Ø
| ''haaʔ'' ~ ''haʔ''
|-
! plural
| ''u-''
| ''y-''
| -Ø ~ ''-oob’'' > ''-ob’''
| ''haʔoob’'' ~ ''haʔob’''
|}

=== Verbs ===
Many verbal roots of classical Maya have been attested. Some of these are:<ref name=":0" />
* ''ak''' – give
* ''al'' – speak
* ''cha''' – do
* ''tz'ib'' – write, paint
* ''ch'ab''- / ''kob''' – create
* ''ch'am''  – receive
* ''hul'' – arrive
* ''pok'' – wash
* ''chum'' – sit
* ''jel'' – change
* ''il'' – see
* ''k'at'' – want
* ''och'' – enter, give of eat 
* ''pitz'' – play ball 
* ''way'' – sleep, transform 
* ''k'ay'' – sing 
* ''tal'' – come 
* ''nak'' – conquer 
* ''pas'' – open 
* ''pay'' – guide 
* ''tzutz'' – finish

=== Nouns ===
Unlike verbs and positionals, most nouns do not require [[morphological derivation]]. For these words, the morpheme used to derive non-possessed forms is the suffix -''Vl'', although the vowel for these can vary from word to word, and some words take a suffix -''is'' or -''aas''. Examples: ''u-ch’ahb’'' 'his penance' > ''ch’ahb’-il'' 'penance', ''y-ohl'' 'his heart from him' > ''ohl-is'' 'heart'. On the other hand, other nouns are generally not possessed and require derivation when possessed, usually with the abstract suffix -V (V) l. This is written with the syllabic sign -''li'', but it can have two allomorphs that are mostly phonologically conditioned, -''il'' for CVC roots and -''aal'' for non-CVC roots. The exceptions to this appear to be lexically determined. Example: ''lakam-tuun'' 'wake' > u ''lakam-tuun-il'' 'his wake'.

== Literature ==
Maya literature is among the oldest in the world, spanning two millennia from pre-Columbian antiquity to the present.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520271371/2000-years-of-mayan-literature|title=2000 Years of Mayan Literature|date=November 2011 |isbn=978-0-520-27137-1 |language=en |last1=Tedlock |first1=Dennis |publisher=Univ of California Press }}</ref> The Maya used to draw and write on some surfaces that were not intended to be a means of graphic expression. The most abundant preserved works of this type are found within rooms of buildings whose ceilings and walls are preserved. The only place where significant effort has been made to document writing on surfaces is [[Tikal]], [[Guatemala]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=TEDLOCK|first=DENNIS|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pp1qq|title=2000 Years of Mayan Literature|date=2010|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23221-1|edition=1|jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1pp1qq}}</ref>

From the period of classical Mayan writing, which lasted from the 3rd century BC until the 13th century, the texts that have survived to the present day were painted or carved in stones, bones, resistant wood, ceramics, shells or stucco. It is possible that much more had also been written on paper, but what little has come to this day is illegible. In places dating from the [[Classic period|Classic Period]], remains of books have been found in tombs, which would have been placed in chests or next to the heads of their deceased owners. There are only four still readable books that have survived to the present time.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
{{Portal|Language}}
{{Reflist}}
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
<!--BEGIN biblio format. --> 
*{{cite book |editor-last=Aulie |editor-first=H. Wilbur |editor2=Evelyn W. Aulie |orig-year=1978 |year=1998 |title=Diccionario Chʼol de Tumbalá, Chiapas, con variaciones dialectales de Tila y Sabanilla |trans-title=Chʼol Dictionary of Tumbalá, Chiapas with dialectal variations from Tila and Sabanilla |url=http://www.sil.org/mexico/maya/chol-tumbala/S121a-Diccionario-CTU.htm |others=Emily Stairs |series=Serie de vocabularios y diccionarios indígenas "Mariano Silva y Aceves", No. 121 |edition=electronic reproduction with March 2005 corrections, 2nd |location=Coyoacán, D.F. |publisher=[[Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (Mexico)|Instituto Lingüístico de Verano]] |isbn=968-31-0291-3 |oclc=42692322 }}
* {{cite web |author=Boot, Erik |year=2002 |title=A Preliminary Classic Maya-English/English-Classic Maya Vocabulary of Hieroglyphic Readings |work=Mesoweb Articles |publisher=Mesoweb |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/vocabulary/Vocabulary.pdf |access-date=2007-07-06 }}
* {{cite book |author=Coe, Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |year=1992 |title=Breaking the Maya Code |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-05061-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/breakingmayacode00coem_0 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Hernández de León-Portilla, Ascención |year=2004 |title=Lenguas y escrituras mesoamericanas |url=http://arqueomex.com/S2N3nLENGUA70.html |journal=[[Arqueología Mexicana]] |volume=XII |issue=70 |pages=20–25 |issn=0188-8218 |access-date=2007-07-06 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515150042/http://www.arqueomex.com/S2N3nLENGUA70.html |archive-date=2008-05-15 }}
* {{cite book | author=Houston, Stephen D.  |author-link=Stephen D. Houston |year=1989 |title=Reading the Past: Maya Glyphs |publisher=British Museum Publications |location=London |isbn=0-7141-8069-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Kettunen, Harri |author2=Christophe Helmke |year=2005 |title=Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs |format=[[PDF]] |publisher=Wayeb and Leiden University |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/handbook/index.html |access-date=2007-07-06 }}
* {{cite web |author=Montgomery, John |author2=Peter Mathews |author3=Christophe Helmke |year=2002–2007 |title=Dictionary of Maya Hieroglyphs |url=http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/dictionary/montgomery/index.html |format=online version |work=Maya Hieroglyphic writing: Dictionaries |publisher=Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc (FAMSI) |access-date=2007-07-06 }}
* {{cite conference |author=Stuart, David |author-link=David Stuart (Mayanist) |date=December 1987 |title=Ten Phonetic Syllables |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/bearc/cmr/14.html |format=[[PDF]] |edition=online publication: October 2005 |book-title=Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing, 14 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Center for Maya Research |access-date=2007-07-06 |archive-date=2020-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030162741/http://www.mesoweb.com/bearc/cmr/14.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book | author=Thompson, J. Eric S.  |author-link=J. Eric S. Thompson |year=1971 | title=Maya Hieroglyphic Writing; An Introduction |series=Civilization of the American Indian Series (No. 56) |edition=3rd |location=Norman | publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | isbn=0-8061-0447-3}}
{{refend}}<!-- END biblio format style -->

{{Maya}}
{{Mayan languages}}

[[Category:Mayan languages|Classic Maya]]
[[Category:Classical Mesoamerican languages|Maya]]
[[Category:Classical languages|Maya]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of North America]]
[[Category:Maya Classic Period|C]]