Editing Classical Armenian

{{Short description|Oldest attested form of the Armenian language}}
{{redirect|Grabar}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Classical Armenian
| altname          = Old Armenian
| nativename       = {{lang|hy|գրաբար}}
| region           = [[Armenian Highlands]]
| era              = developed into [[Middle Armenian]]
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Armenian language|Proto-Armenian]]
| script           = [[Armenian alphabet]] ([[Classical Armenian orthography]])
| iso3             = xcl
| glotto           = clas1249
| glottorefname    = Classical-Middle Armenian
| linglist         = xcl
| lingua           = 57-AAA-aa
| notice           = IPA
}}
{{History of the Armenian language}}
'''Classical Armenian''' ({{Langx|hy|գրաբար|translit=grabar}}, {{IPA|hy|ɡəɾɑˈpʰɑɾ|label=[[Eastern Armenian]] pronunciation|small=no}}, {{IPA|hy|kʰəɾɑˈpʰɑɾ||label=[[Western Armenian]] pronunciation|small=no}}; meaning "literary [language]"; also '''Old Armenian''' or '''Liturgical Armenian''') is the oldest attested form of the [[Armenian language]]. It was first written down at the beginning of the 5th century, and most Armenian literature from then through the 18th century is in Classical Armenian. Many ancient manuscripts originally written in [[Ancient Greek]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and [[Latin]] survive only in Armenian translation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenian Language Program {{!}} Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations |url=https://nelc.uchicago.edu/language-study/armenian-language-program#:~:text=Many%20ancient%20manuscripts%20originally%20written,separated%20by%20geography%20or%20politics. |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=nelc.uchicago.edu}}</ref> Classical Armenian itself, in turn, was heavily influenced by the [[Iranian languages]], in particular by [[Parthian language|Parthian]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Robin Meyer |title=Iranian Syntax in Classical Armenian: The Armenian Perfect and Other Cases of Pattern Replication |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/55800 |isbn=9780191885839 |year=2024 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref>

Classical Armenian continues to be the [[liturgical language]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] and the [[Armenian Catholic Church]] and is often learned by [[Bible|Biblical]], [[Intertestamental period|Intertestamental]], and [[Patristics|Patristic]] scholars dedicated to textual studies. Classical Armenian is also important for the reconstruction of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]].

==Phonology==


[[File:Epitafium Minasowiczów kościół św. Jacka w Warszawie.JPG|thumb|left|Epitaph in Classical Armenian for Jakub and Marianna Minasowicz at [[St. Hyacinth's Church, Warsaw|St. Hyacinth's Church]] in [[Warsaw]]]]

===Vowels===
There are seven [[monophthongs]]: 
* {{IPA|/a/}} (Ա), {{IPA|/i/}} (Ի), {{IPA|/ə/}} (Ը), {{IPA|/ɛ/}} or open ''e'' (Ե), {{IPA|/e/}} or closed ''e'' (Է), {{IPA|/o/}} (Ո), and {{IPA|/u/}} (ՈՒ) (transcribed as ''a'', ''i'', ''ə'', ''e'', ''ē'', ''o'', and ''u'' respectively). The vowel transcribed ''u'' is spelled using the Armenian letters for ''ow'' (ՈՒ) but it is not actually a [[diphthong]].

There are also traditionally six diphthongs:
* ''ay'' (ԱՅ), ''aw'' (ԱՒ, later Օ), ''ea'' (ԵԱ), ''ew'' (ԵՒ), ''iw'' (ԻՒ), ''oy'' (ՈՅ).

===Consonants===
In the following table is the Classical Armenian consonantal system. The [[stop consonant|stops]] and [[affricate consonant]]s have, in addition to the more common [[voice (phonetics)|voiced and unvoiced]] series, also a separate [[aspirated consonant|aspirated series]], transcribed with the notation used for Ancient Greek [[rough breathing]] after the letter: ''p῾'', ''t῾'', ''c῾'', ''č῾'', ''k῾''. Each phoneme has two symbols in the table. The left indicates the pronunciation in [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA); the right one is the corresponding symbol in the [[Armenian alphabet]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 
! rowspan="2" | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[velar consonant|Velar]] /<br>[[uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" | [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- 
! {{small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Velarization|velar.]]}}
|-
! colspan="2"| [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]
|<big>{{IPA|/m/}} &nbsp; Մ &nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/n/}} &nbsp; Ն &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! rowspan="3"| [[Stop consonant|Stops]]
! <small>voiced</small>
|<big>{{IPA|/b/}} &nbsp; Բ &nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/d/}} &nbsp; Դ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/ɡ/}} &nbsp; Գ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! <small>unvoiced</small>
|<big>{{IPA|/p/}} &nbsp; Պ &nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/t/}} &nbsp; Տ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/k/}} &nbsp; Կ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! <small>aspirated</small>
|<big>{{IPA|/pʰ/}} &nbsp; Փ &nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/tʰ/}} &nbsp; Թ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/kʰ/}} &nbsp; Ք &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! rowspan="3"| [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]
! <small>voiced</small>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/dz/}} &nbsp; Ձ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/dʒ/}} &nbsp; Ջ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! <small>unvoiced / ejective</small>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/ts/}} &nbsp; Ծ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/tʃ/}} &nbsp; Ճ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! <small>aspirated</small>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/tsʰ/}} &nbsp; Ց &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/tʃʰ/}} &nbsp; Չ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! rowspan="2"|[[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]
! <small>voiced</small>
| <big>{{IPA|/v/}} &nbsp; Վ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>{{IPA|/z/}} &nbsp; Զ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>{{IPA|/ʒ/}} &nbsp; Ժ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! <small>unvoiced</small>
|<big>{{IPA|/f/}} &nbsp; Ֆ &nbsp;{{efn|The letter ''f'' (or Ֆ) was introduced in the Medieval Period to represent the foreign sound {{IPA|/f/}}, the [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]; it was not originally a letter in the alphabet.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dum-Tragut |first=Jasmine |year=2009 |title=Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGyop5guXDkC&pg=PA18 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |page=18 |isbn=9789027238146 |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref>}}</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/s/}} &nbsp; Ս &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/ʃ/}} &nbsp; Շ &nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/χ/}} &nbsp; Խ &nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/h/}} &nbsp; Հ &nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! rowspan="2"| [[Approximant consonant|Approximants]]
! <small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/l/}} &nbsp; Լ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>{{IPA|/ɫ/}} &nbsp; Ղ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! <small>[[Central consonant|central]]</small>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/ɹ/}} &nbsp; Ր &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/j/}} &nbsp; Յ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|- align="center"
! colspan="2"| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|<big>{{IPA|/r/}} &nbsp; Ռ &nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
| <big>&nbsp;</big>
|}

{{notelist}}

== Numbers in Old Armenian ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Number
!Old Armenian
![[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]]
|-
|''One''
|<big>մի (mi)</big>
|*sémih₂ < feminine of *sḗm ("one")
|-
|''Two''
|<big>երկու (erku)</big>
|*dwoy- < *dwóh₁ (then {{Clarify|reason=Can't be found as a linguistics term on Wikipedia or Wiktionary, meaning is unclear.|text=fully re-elaborated|date=January 2025}})
|-
|''Three''
|<big>երեք (erekʻ)</big>
|*tréyes
|-
|''Four''
|<big>չորք (čʻorkʻ)</big>
<big>քառ (kʻaṙ)</big>
|*kʷtwr̥(s?) < zero-grade of *kʷetwóres
|-
|''Five''
|<big>հինգ (hing)</big>
|*pénkʷe
|-
|''Six''
|<big>վեց (vecʻ)</big>
|*suwéḱs < *swéḱs
|-
|''Seven''
|<big>եօթն (eōtʻn)</big>
|*septḿ̥
|-
|''Eight''
|<big>ութ (utʻ) < [[Proto-Armenian language|proto-Armenian]] *owtu</big>
|*(h₁)oḱtṓw
|-
|''Nine''
|<big>ինն (inn) < proto-Armenian *enun-</big>
|*h₁nuno- < zero-grade of *h₁néwn̥
|-
|''Ten''
|<big>տասն (tasn)</big>
|*déḱm̥
|}

== Personal pronouns in Old Armenian ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Pronoun
!Old Armenian
!PIE
|-
|''I''
|<big>ես (es)</big>
|*éǵh₂
|-
|''You''
|<big>դու (du)</big>
|*túh₂
|-
|''He, she, it''
|<big>նա (na) < *no-</big>
<big>նոյն (noyn) < *no-ēn (adverbial suffix)</big>
|*h₁nós ("over there")
<nowiki>*</nowiki>h₁nó-eyni- ("over there" +"that")
|-
|''We''
|<big>մեք (mekʻ) < *mes</big>
|*wéy
|-
|''You (all)''
|<big>դուք (dukʻ)</big>
|*túh₂ with pluralization suffix -k'
|-
|''They''
|<big>նոքա (nokʻa)</big>
|*h₁nós +pluralization suffix
|}
The pluralization suffix -k', which since Old Armenian was used form the nominative plural, could be linked to the final -s in PIE *tréyes > Old Armenian երեք (erekʻ) and չորք (čʻorkʻ), which then can point to a pre-Armenian *kʷtwr̥s (< *kʷetwóres). Otherwise, it derives from the number "two", երկու (erku) and was originally used as a mark for the dual number.

There are no dual prefixes or dual plurals in Old Armenian.

== Two examples of verb in Old Armenian ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+բերել (berel, "to bear")
!Pronoun
!Old Armenian
!PIE
|-
|''I''
|<big>բեր'''եմ''' (ber'''em''')</big>
|*bʰér'''oh₂'''
|-
|''You''
|<big>բեր'''ես''' (ber'''es''')</big>
|*bʰér'''esi'''
|-
|''He, she, it''
|<big>բեր'''է''' (ber'''ē''')</big>
|*bʰér'''eti'''
|-
|''We''
|<big>բեր'''եմք''' (ber'''emkʻ''')</big>
|*bʰér'''omos'''
|-
|''You (all)''
|<big>բեր'''էք''' (ber'''ēkʻ''')</big>
|*bʰér'''ete'''
|-
|''They''
|<big>բեր'''են''' (ber'''en''')</big>
|*bʰér'''onti'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+կարդալ (kardal, "to write")
!Pronoun
!Old Armenian
!PIE
|-
|''I''
|<big>կարդ'''ամ''' (kard'''am''')</big>
|*gʷr̥Hdʰh₁'''oh₂'''
|-
|''You''
|<big>կարդ'''աս''' (kard'''as''')</big>
|*gʷr̥Hdʰh₁'''ési'''
|-
|''He, she, it''
|<big>կարդ'''այ''' (kard'''ay''')</big>
|*gʷr̥Hdʰh₁'''éti'''
|-
|''We''
|<big>կարդ'''ամք''' (kard'''amkʻ''')</big>
|*gʷr̥Hdʰh₁'''omos'''
|-
|''You (all)''
|<big>կարդ'''այք''' (kard'''aykʻ''')</big>
|*gʷr̥Hdʰh₁'''éte'''
|-
|''They''
|<big>կարդ'''ան''' (kard'''an''')</big>
|*gʷr̥Hdʰh₁'''onti'''
|}
The pluralization suffix -k' can again be seen in the forms of the first and second person plural. The first person suffix -em comes from the PIE suffix in athematic verbs ''*-mi''.

== An example of noun in Old Armenian ==
Nouns in Old Armenian can belong to three models of declinations: o-type, i-type and i-a-type. Nouns can show more than one model of conjugation and retain all cases from PIE except for the vocative, which merged with the nominative and the accusative. All the strong cases lost their suffix in the singular; by contrast, almost every weak case in the singular keep a suffix. The cases are: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative and instrumental. The o-type model shows an extremely simplified paradigm with many instances of syncretism and the constant use of the pluralization suffix -k' in the plural; not only do strong cases tend to converge in the singular, but most of the weak cases converge into -oy, perhaps from the PIE dative *-oey. There is no suffix for the dual number.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+արտ (art, "field"), o-type
!Case
!Old Armenian (singular)
!Old Armenian (plural)
|-
|''Nominative''
|<big>արտ (art) < [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] *h₂éǵr'''os'''</big>
|<big>արտք (art'''kʻ''') < [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] *h₂éǵr'''oes'''</big>
|-
|''Genitive''
|<big>արտոյ (art'''oy''') < *h₂éǵr'''oey'''?</big>
|<big>արտոց (art'''ocʻ''') < *h₂éǵr'''oHom'''</big>
|-
|''Dative''
|<big>արտոյ (art'''oy''') < *h₂éǵr'''oey'''</big>
|<big>արտոց (art'''ocʻ''') < *h₂éǵr'''omos'''</big>
|-
|''Accusative''
|<big>արտ (art) < *h₂éǵr'''om'''</big>
|<big>արտս (art'''s''') < *h₂éǵr'''oms'''</big>
|-
|''Ablative''
|<big>արտոյ (art'''oy''') < *h₂éǵr'''oey'''?</big>
|<big>արտոց (art'''ocʻ''') < *h₂éǵr'''omos'''</big>
|-
|''Locative''
|<big>արտ (art) < *h₂éǵr'''ey/oy'''</big>
|<big>արտս (art'''s''') < *h₂éǵr'''oysu'''</big>
|-
|''Instrumental''
|<big>արտով (art'''ov''') < *h₂éǵr'''oh₁'''</big>
|<big>արտովք (art'''ovkʻ''') < *h₂éǵr'''ōys'''</big>
|}

== An example of adjective in Old Armenian ==
Adjectives in Old Armenian have at least two models of declension: i-a-type and i-type. An adjective, provided that it is not indeclinable, can show both models. Most of the declension show a great deal of syncretism and the plural shows again the pluralization suffix -k'. The instrumental plural has two possible forms.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+երկար (erkar, "long")
!Case
!Old Armenian (singular)
!Old Armenian (plural)
|-
|''Nom.''
|<big>երկար (erkar) < [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] *dweh₂r'''ós'''</big>
|<big>երկարք (erkar'''kʻ''') < [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] *dweh₂r'''óes'''</big>
|-
|''Gen.''
|<big>երկարի (erkar'''i''') < *dweh₂r'''ósyo'''?</big>
|<big>երկարաց (erkar'''acʻ''') < *dweh₂r'''óHom'''</big>
|-
|''Dat.''
|<big>երկարի (erkar'''i''') < *dweh₂r'''óey'''</big>
|<big>երկարաց (erkar'''acʻ''') < *dweh₂r'''ómos'''</big>
|-
|''Acc.''
|<big>երկար (erkar) < *dweh₂r'''óm'''</big>
|<big>երկարս (erkar'''s''') < *dweh₂r'''óms'''</big>
|-
|''Abl.''
|<big>երկարէ (erkar'''ē''') < *dweh₂r'''éad'''</big>
|<big>երկարաց (erkar'''acʻ''') < *dweh₂r'''ómos'''</big>
|-
|''Loc.''
|<big>երկարի (erkar'''i''') < *dweh₂r'''éy/óy'''</big>
|<big>երկարաւք (erkar'''awkʻ''') < *dweh₂r'''óysu'''</big>
<big>երկարօք (erkar'''ōkʻ''') < *dweh₂r'''óysu'''</big>
|-
|''Instr.''
|<big>երկարաւ (erkar'''aw''') < *dweh₂r'''óh₁'''</big>
|<big>երկարս (erkar'''s''') < *dweh₂r'''ṓys'''</big>
|}
The adjective "long" shows the same sound changes of the numeral "two": PIE ''*dweh₂rós / *dwoy-'' > ''erkar / erku.''

==See also==
*[[List of Armenian writers]]
*[[Proto-Armenian language]]
*[[Armenian alphabet]]

== Bibliography ==
* [[Hrachia Acharian|Adjarian, Hrachia]]. (1971–9) ''[http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=7 Etymological Root Dictionary of the Armenian Language]''. Vol. I – IV. Yerevan: Yerevan State University.
* [[:de:Robert Godel|Godel, Robert]]. (1975) ''An Introduction to the Study of Classical Armenian''. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag ({{ISBN|9783920153377}})
* [[Antoine Meillet|Meillet, Antoine]]. (1903) ''Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique'' [Outline of a comparative grammar of classical Armenian].
* [[Rüdiger Schmitt|Schmitt, Rüdiger]]. (1981) ''Grammatik des Klassisch-Armenischen mit sprachlichen Erläuterungen'' [Grammar of Classical Armenian with linguistic explications]. (1981, second edition 2007).
* Thomson, Robert W. (1989) ''An Introduction to Classical Armenian''. Caravan Books. ({{ISBN|0-88206-072-4}})

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary category|type=Old Armenian language|category=Old Armenian language}}{{Commons}}

* [https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/armol Classical Armenian Online] by Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the [https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc Linguistics Research Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
*[http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=26 New Dictionary of the Armenian Language] (Nor Bargirk Haekazian Lezvi, Նոր Բառգիրք Հայկազեան Լեզուի), Venice 1836–1837. The seminal dictionary of Classical Armenian.  Includes Armenian to Latin, and Armenian to Greek.
*[http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=34 Pocket Dictionary of the Armenian Language] (Arrdzern Barraran Haekazian Lezvi, Առձեռն Բառարան Հայկազնեան Լեզուի), Venice 1865 (second edition).
*[http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=16 New Dictionary Armenian-English] (Նոր Բառգիրք Հայ-Անգլիարէն), Venice, 1875-9.
*[http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=28 Grabar Dictionary] (Գրաբարի Բառարան), Ruben Ghazarian, Yerevan, 2000.
*[http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=36 Grabar Thesaurus] (Գրաբարի Հոմանիշների Բառարան), Ruben Ghazarian, Yerevan, 2006.
*[https://archive.org/details/grammerarmeniane00awgerich A grammar, Armenian and English by Paschal Aucher and Lord Byron. Venice 1873]
*[https://www.magaghat.ai/grabar Brief introduction to Classical Armenian also known as Grabar]
* [https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-xcl.html glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online], an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen 

{{Armenian language}}
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[[Category:Medieval languages|Armenian, Classical]]
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[[Category:Languages attested from the 5th century]]