Editing Claudius

{{short description|Roman emperor from AD 41 to 54}}
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{{other people}}
{{distinguish|Claudias}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{stack|{{Infobox royalty
| image        = Claudius crop.jpg
| alt          = Grey bust
| caption      = [[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]], [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]]
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign        = 24 January 41 – 13 October 54
| predecessor  = [[Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus|Caligula]]
| successor    = [[Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus|Nero]]
| birth_name   = Tiberius Claudius Drusus
| birth_date   = 1 August 10 BC
| birth_place  = [[Lugdunum]], [[Gallia Lugdunensis]]
| death_date   = 13 October AD 54 (aged 63)
| death_place  = [[Rome]], [[Roman Italy|Italy]]
| burial_place = [[Mausoleum of Augustus]]
| spouses      = {{ubl|[[Plautia Urgulanilla]]|[[Aelia Paetina]]|[[Valeria Messalina]]|[[Julia Agrippina]]}}
| issue        = {{ubl|[[Claudius Drusus]]|[[Claudia Antonia]]|[[Claudia Octavia]]|[[Britannicus]]|[[Nero]] (adopted)}}
| issue-link   = #Marriages and personal life
| issue-pipe   = {{br entries|among|others}}
| full name    = Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus{{efn|Claudius was born as 'Tiberius Claudius Drusus' and changed his name after his elder brother was adopted into the [[Julii]] following [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]]' death.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 2.1; "Claudius was born at Lugdunum on the Kalends of Augustus in the consulship of [[Iullus Antonius]] and [[Africanus Fabius Maximus|Fabius Africanus]], the very day when an altar was first dedicated to Augustus in that town, and he received the name of Tiberius Claudius Drusus. Later, on the adoption of his elder brother into the Julian family, he took the surname [of] [[Germanicus]]"}} Simpson{{sfn|Simpson|pp=365–366}} and Hurley{{sfn|Hurley|p=68}} suggest that he added the 'Germanicus' in  9 BC by senatorial decree and switched 'Drusus' for 'Nero' when he became head of the family [[Claudii Nerones]] in AD 4. Stuart{{sfn|Stuart|p=318 (note 7)}} and Levick{{sfn|Levick|2015|pp=11, 21–22}} somewhat ignore Suetonius and propose that his name was always Ti. Claudius Nero, and that he added Germanicus only in AD 4.}}
| regnal name  = Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus<!--Not a repository; full name as Roman emperor, no dates.-->
| dynasty      = [[Julio-Claudian]]
| father       = [[Nero Claudius Drusus]]
| mother       = [[Antonia the Younger]]
}}
{{Julio-Claudian dynasty
| image         = [[File:Great Cameo of France-removebg.png|150px]]
| caption       = [[Great Cameo of France]]
}}}}
'''Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus'''{{efn|Sometimes referred to as '''Claudius I''', in reference to the later emperor ([[Claudius II]]).}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|l|ɔː|d|i|ə|s}} {{respell|KLAW|dee|əs}}; {{IPA|la-x-classic|tiˈbɛːrijus ˈkɫaːwdijus ˈkaːjsar awˈɡuːstus ɡɛrˈmaːnikus|lang}}; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), or '''Claudius''', was a [[Roman emperor]], ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], Claudius was born to [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] and [[Antonia Minor]] at [[Lugdunum]] in [[Roman Gaul]], where his father was stationed as a military legate. He was the first Roman emperor to be born outside [[Roman Italy|Italy]].

As he had a limp and slight deafness due to an illness he suffered when young, he was ostracized by his family and was excluded from public office until his [[consulship]] (which was shared with his nephew, [[Caligula]], in 37). Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges throughout the reigns of [[Tiberius]] and Caligula, as potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to him being declared emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard]] after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family.

Despite his lack of experience, Claudius was an able and efficient administrator. He expanded the imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped restore the empire's finances after the excesses of Caligula's reign. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign, the Empire started its successful [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]]. Having a personal interest in [[Roman law|law]], he presided at public trials, and issued edicts daily. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, which resulted in the deaths of many [[Roman Senate|senators]]. Those events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised that opinion. Many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife, [[Agrippina the Younger]]. After his death at the age of 63, his grandnephew and [[Adoption in ancient Rome|legally adopted]] step-son, [[Nero]], succeeded him as emperor.

== Name ==

As a consequence of [[Roman naming conventions|Roman customs]], society, and personal preference, Claudius' full name varied throughout his life:
* '''Tiberius Claudius D. f. Ti. n. Drusus''', the cognomen '''Drusus''' being inherited from his [[Nero Claudius Drusus|father]] as his brother [[Germanicus]], as the eldest son, inherited the cognomen '''Nero''' when their uncle the future Emperor [[Tiberius]] was adopted by [[Augustus]] into the [[Julii Caesares]] and the victory name ([[agnomen]]) '''Germanicus''' from their father.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 2.1; "Claudius was born at Lugdunum on the Kalends of Augustus in the consulship of [[Iullus Antonius]] and [[Africanus Fabius Maximus|Fabius Africanus]], the very day when an altar was first dedicated to Augustus in that town, and he received the name of Tiberius Claudius Drusus. Later, on the adoption of his elder brother into the Julian family, he took the surname [of] [[Germanicus]]"}}
* '''Tiberius Claudius D. f. Ti. n. Nero''', the cognomen '''Nero''' devolved to Claudius as the head of the [[Claudia gens#Claudii Nerones|Claudii Nerones]] after his elder brother was adopted by [[Tiberius]] as required by [[Augustus]] into the [[Julii Caesares]] in AD 9.  Germanicus kept the victory title '''Germanicus''' as a praenomen, becoming Germanicus Julius Caesar.  His son, [[Caligula]], was known as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, keeping the victory title, and later was known as Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.  Some authorities consider that his full name may have been Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus.{{efn|Simpson{{sfn|Simpson|pp=365–366}} and Hurley{{sfn|Hurley|p=68}} suggest that he added the 'Germanicus' in 9 BC by senatorial decree and switched 'Drusus' for 'Nero' when he became head of the family [[Claudii Nerones]] in  AD 4. Stuart{{sfn|Stuart|p=318 (note 7)}} and Levick{{sfn|Levick|2015|pp=11, 21–22}} somewhat ignore Suetonius and propose that his name was always Ti. Claudius Nero, and that he added Germanicus only in  AD 4.}}
* '''Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''' While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother and father. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.{{sfn|Levick|2015|p=51}}

== Family and youth ==

=== Early life ===

{{See also|Julio-Claudian dynasty}}

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|image1=Drusus the Elder, bronze bust, MANN.jpg
|image2=MSR 30005 Antonia Minor.jpg
|footer=Busts of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, Claudius' parents
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Claudius was born on 1 August 10&nbsp;BC at [[Lugdunum]] (modern [[Lyon, France|Lyon]], [[France]]). He had two older siblings, [[Germanicus]] and [[Livilla]]. His mother, [[Antonia Minor]], may have had two other children who died young. Claudius's maternal grandparents were [[Mark Antony]] and [[Octavia Minor]], [[Augustus]]'s sister, and he was therefore the great-great-grandnephew of [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]]. His paternal grandparents were [[Livia]], Augustus's third wife, and [[Tiberius Claudius Nero (father of Tiberius Caesar)|Tiberius Claudius Nero]]. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumour that his father [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius's paternal grandfather.

In 9&nbsp;BC, Claudius's father Drusus died on campaign in Germania from a fall from a horse. Claudius was then raised by his mother, who never remarried. When his disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=60, 2}}

Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless sent Claudius short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a former mule-driver{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 2}} to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of willpower. However, by the time he reached his teenage years, his symptoms apparently waned and his family began to take some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD&nbsp;7, [[Livy]] was hired to tutor Claudius in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter, as well as the philosopher [[Athenodoros Cananites|Athenodorus]]. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius's oratory.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 4}}

=== Public life ===

Claudius' work as a historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, he began work on a history of the [[Roman civil wars|Civil Wars]] that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian,{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|p=39}} then reigning as [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]]. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office, since he could not be trusted to toe the existing [[Party line (politics)|party line]].{{sfn|Stuart}}

When Claudius returned to the narrative later in life, he skipped over the wars of the [[Second Triumvirate]] altogether; but the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When the [[Triumphal arch|Arch]] of [[Pavia]] was erected to honour the Imperial clan in AD 8, Claudius's name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to ''[[pater familias]]'' of the Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge, past the deceased princes, [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar|Lucius]], and Germanicus's children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all.{{sfn|Stuart}}

When Augustus died in AD&nbsp;14, Claudius – then aged 23 – appealed to his uncle [[Tiberius]] to allow him to begin the ''[[cursus honorum]]''. Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life.

Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus's death, the ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'', or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained.

During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius's son, [[Drusus Julius Caesar|Drusus]], Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir to the throne. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of the [[Praetorian Guard]], [[Sejanus]], was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor [[Caligula]] (the son of Claudius's brother [[Germanicus]]) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus.

Despite this, Caligula tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to [[Cassius Dio]], Claudius became sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to [[Psychological stress|stress]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cassius Dio|loc=60, 2}}; {{harvnb|Suhr|1955}} suggests that this must refer to before Claudius came to power.</ref> A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this.

===Assassination of Caligula and Declaration of Claudius as Emperor (AD&nbsp;41)===
[[File:Coin of Herod of Chalcis (obverse).jpg|thumb|left|upright|A coin of [[Herod of Chalcis]], showing him with his brother [[Herod Agrippa I|Agrippa of Judaea]] crowning Claudius, AD 43.]]

On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a [[conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] involving [[Cassius Chaerea]] – a [[military tribune]] in the [[Praetorian Guard]] – and several [[Roman Senate|senators]]. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot – particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered.{{sfn|Major|1992}} However, after the deaths of [[Milonia Caesonia|Caligula's wife]] and [[Julia Drusilla (daughter of Caligula)|daughter]], it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family.<ref name="Josephus">{{harvnb|Josephus|loc=''Antiquitates Iudiacae'' XIX}}. {{harvnb|Cassius Dio|loc=''Historia Romana'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#1 60 1.3]}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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 | image1 = Proclaiming claudius emperor.png
 | caption1 = ''Proclaiming Claudius Emperor'', 1867.

 | image2 = A Roman Emperor AD41 detail.jpg
 | caption2 = Detail from ''A Roman Emperor 41 AD'', {{Circa|1871}}.

 | footer = Two drastically different oil paintings by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] of Claudius being proclaimed emperor by [[Gratus]].
}}
In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the [[Numerus Batavorum|German guard]] cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named [[Gratus]] found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly proclaimed him ''[[princeps]]''.<ref name="Josephus"/> Claudius was spirited away to the [[Castra Praetoria|Praetorian camp]] and put under their protection.

The Senate met and debated a change of government, but this devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new ''princeps''. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly [[Josephus]],{{sfn|Josephus|loc=''Ant. Iud.'' XIX}} claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the [[Iudaea Province|Judaean]] King [[Herod Agrippa]]. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role<ref>[[Josephus]] ''[[Bellum Judaicum]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book II|II]], 204–233.</ref> so it remains uncertain. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in. In return, Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 11}} The actual assassins, including Cassius Chaerea and Julius Lupus, the murderer of Caligula's wife and daughter, were put to death to ensure Claudius's own safety and as a future deterrent.{{sfn|Josephus|loc=''Ant. Iud.'' XIX, 268–269}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=50 3, 4}}

Since Claudius was the first emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]). Moreover, they accused him of being the first emperor to resort to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces,{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 10}} although Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their [[will (law)|wills]] and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coin, Museum No. R1874,0715.4|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1216117&partId=1|website=British Museum Online Collection|access-date=26 February 2018}}</ref>

==Emperor==
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 | image1 = Aureus of emperor Claudius.jpg
 | caption1 = ''[[Aureus]]'' struck at the [[Lugdunum]] (Lyon) mint, AD 41. The reverse commemorates the "reception of the emperor" (''imperator receptus'') at the Praetorian Camp and the protection the [[Praetorian Guard]] afforded him in the days following the assassination of [[Caligula]]. Issued over a number of years in both gold and silver, these type of coins were struck to serve as part of the annual military payments Claudius had promised the Guard in return for their role in raising him to the throne. Caption: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. P. M., TR. P. / IMPER. RECEPT.
 | image2 = Claudius RIC 111.jpg
 | caption2 = This ''[[denarius]]'' emphasizes Claudius' [[clemency]] after Caligula's murder. The depiction of the goddess [[Pax-Nemesis]], representing subdued vengeance, would be used by many later emperors; she is depicted holding a [[Caduceus]] over a serpent. Caption: TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. P. M. TR. P. IMP. P. P. / CONSTANTIAE AVGVSTI. The letters "S C" mean ''[[senatus consultum]]'' ('decree of the senate').
}}
Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudian family]]. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a [[cognomen]], as the name still carried great weight with the populace. To do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero", which he had adopted as ''pater familias'' of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary ''Tiberios Klaudios, [[Autokrator]] Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet'' ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon").<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pharaoh.se/roman-emperor/Claudius |title=Claudius |access-date=12 March 2018 |website=The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt}}</ref>

While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.{{sfn|Levick|2015|p=51}}

[[Pliny the Elder]] noted, according to the 1938 [[Loeb Classical Library]] translation by Harris Rackham, "...&nbsp;many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor."{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=[https://www.loebclassics.com/view/pliny_elder-natural_history/1938/pb_LCL394.21.xml Book 33,6 ]}}

===Senate===
Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of [[Tribune]], (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes since he was a [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]], but this was a power taken by previous rulers, which he continued). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including [[Imperator]]) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also restored the peaceful Imperial provinces of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] and [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] as [[senatorial provinces]].{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 25.3}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=60.24}}

Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech:

{{blockquote|If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'.<ref>English translation of Berlin papyrus by W.D. Hogarth, in {{harvnb|Momigliano|1934}}.</ref>}}

In 47, he assumed the office of ''[[Roman censor|censor]]'' with [[Lucius Vitellius]], which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck out the names of many senators and ''equites'' who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit to the senate eligible men from the provinces. The [[Lyon Tablet]] preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even joked about how the Senate had admitted members from beyond [[Gallia Narbonensis]] ([[Lyons]]), i.e. himself.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}  He also increased the number of patricians by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] and [[Julius Caesar]].

Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperial [[Promagistrate|procurator]] after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor.

===Secretariat and centralization of powers===
Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use [[Freedman|freedmen]] to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He has however become famous for the new extents at which he made use of such men in the administration of the government, forced by the centralization of the powers of the ''princeps'' and not wanting free-born magistrates to serve under him as if they were not peers.

The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman. [[Tiberius Claudius Narcissus|Narcissus]] was the secretary of correspondence. [[Pallas (freedman)|Pallas]] became the secretary of the treasury. [[Gaius Julius Callistus|Callistus]] became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under [[Polybius (freedman)|Polybius]] until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius's stead before the [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]].<ref name="Tac">{{harvnb|Tacitus|loc=XII 65}}. Seneca ''[[s:Of Consolation: To Polybius|Ad Polybium]]''.</ref>

Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves and "well-known [[eunuch]]s".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Scholz|first=Piotr O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KikEAQAAIAAJ|title=Eunuchs and Castrati: A Cultural History|date=2001|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=978-1-55876-200-8|location=|page=119|language=en}}</ref> If freedmen had total control of money, letters and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius.<ref name="Tac"/>

He had shown himself to be similarly appreciative of their help, giving them due credit for policies which they advised; but punished them with just force if they showed treacherous inclinations, as was the case of Polybius and Pallas's brother, [[Antonius Felix|Felix]]. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius's policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout.

Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder describes several of them as being richer than [[Crassus]], the richest man of the [[Roman Republic|Republican era]].{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=XXXIII xlvii 133–137}}

===Expansion of the Empire===
[[File:Head of Claudius or Nero BM 1965,1201.1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Bronze head of Claudius found in the [[River Alde]] at [[Rendham]], near [[Saxmundham]], Suffolk ([[British Museum]]). Potentially looted from the [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|Temple of Claudius]] in [[Camulodunum|Colonia Victricensis]] (now [[Colchester]]) during the [[Boudican revolt]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/b/bronze_head_of_claudius.aspx|title= Head of the Emperor Claudius|publisher=British Museum}}</ref>]]
Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 (adult male) Roman citizens{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=Chap. 7, p. 142}} (women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus's death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]]. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.

Additionally under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major territorial expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of [[Thrace]], [[Noricum]], [[Lycia]], and [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]] were [[annexation|annexed]] (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of [[Mauretania]], begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, as well as the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces.{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=5.1–5.2}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=60.8, 60.9}}

====The British Campaign====
{{See also|Roman conquest of Britain}}
The most far-reaching conquest however was that of Britannia:{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 9}} In 43, Claudius sent [[Aulus Plautius]] with four [[Roman legion|legions]] to Britain (''Britannia'') after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its mines and the potential of slave labor, as well as being a haven for [[Gaul|Gallic]] rebels. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The Roman ''[[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]]'' of ''Colonia Claudia Victricensis'' was established as the provincial capital of the newly established [[Roman Britain|province of Britannia]] at [[Camulodunum]], where a large [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|temple was dedicated in his honour]].

He left Britain after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British general [[Caractacus]] was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander.

===Public works===
[[File:Porta Maggiore 030106.JPG|thumb|The [[Porta Maggiore]] in Rome: remains of aqueducts [[Aqua Claudia]] and [[Aqua Anio Novus]]]]
Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built or finished two [[Aqueduct (Roman)|aqueducts]], the [[Aqua Claudia]], begun by Caligula, and the [[Aqua Anio Novus]].<ref>Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). ''The Twelve Caesars'' (p. 190). Penguin.

"Claudius also completed a task begun by Gaius: he brought cool and abundant springs called the Caerulean and the Curtian or Albudignan, as well as the New Anio, into Rome;..."</ref> These entered the city in 52 and met at the [[Porta Maggiore]]. He also restored a third, the [[Aqua Virgo]].

He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the [[Rhine]] to the sea, as well as [[Via Claudia Augusta|a road from Italy to Germany]] – both begun by his father, [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]]. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the [[Tiber]], leading to [[Portus]], his new port just north of [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]]. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two [[Mole (architecture)|moles]] and a lighthouse at its mouth, reducing flooding in Rome.

The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to [[Insurance|insure]] the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the [[Lex Papia Poppaea]], a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or [[famine]].

The last part of Claudius's plan to avoid famine was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the [[Fucine lake]], also making the nearby river navigable year-round.{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=XII, 57}}<ref>Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). ''The Twelve Caesars'' (p. 190). Penguin.</ref> A serious famine is mentioned in the [[book of Acts]] as taking place during Claudius' reign, and had been prophesied by a Christian called [[Agabus]] while visiting [[Antioch]].<ref>Acts 11:28 KJV https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page%3AKJV_1772_Oxford_Edition%2C_vol._2.djvu/370</ref>

A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the Prince [[Torlonia]] in the 19th century, producing over {{convert|160000|acre|km2}} of new arable land;{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 9, pp. 173–174}} he expanded the [[Tunnels of Claudius|Claudian tunnel]] to three times its original size.

===Religious reforms===
[[File:Bust of the Roman Emperor Claudius, 37-64 CE. Marble. From Acerra near Formia, Italy. Altes Museum, Berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Claudius, [[Altes Museum]], Berlin]]
Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus's religious reforms, thought himself to be in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods; he restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He also re-established old observances and archaic language.

Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as [[haruspices]]) as a replacement. He was especially hard on [[Druidism]], because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] activities.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 25}}

===Judicial and legislative affairs===
Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 15}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=61, 33}} He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 to ensure a more experienced jury pool.{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 6}}

Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of [[Rhodes]] from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium ([[Troy#Classical Ilium (Ilion)|Troy]]) from taxes. Early in his reign, the [[Greeks]] and [[Jews of Alexandria]] each sent him embassies after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to [[Josephus]], he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Jews in the Empire]].{{sfn|Josephus|loc=''Ant. Iud.'' XIX.5.3 (287)}} However, Claudius also [[Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome|expelled Jews from the city of Rome]], following disturbances allegedly instigated by [[Christianity in the 1st century|Christians]]. This expulsion is attested to in [[Acts of the Apostles]] ([[Acts 18:2|18:2]]), and by Roman historians Suetonius and [[Cassius Dio]] along with the fifth-century Christian author [[Paulus Orosius]].<ref name=Reisner13>[[Rainer Riesner]] "Pauline Chronology" in Stephen Westerholm ''The Blackwell Companion to Paul'' (16 May 2011) {{ISBN|1405188448}} pp.13-14</ref><ref name=Cradle110 >Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C&q=claudius The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament]'' (2009) {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} p. 110, 400</ref>

One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the city of Tridentum (modern [[Trento]]) were not in fact citizens.{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 7, p. 129}} The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in the ''[[Tabula clesiana]]'', that they would be allowed to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished the false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of the [[Roman equestrian order]] were to have their property confiscated and selling into slavery, in the words of Suetonius, "such as were ungrateful and a cause of complaint to their patrons".{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|loc=chapter 7}}{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}}

Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius's reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promoting [[Taxus baccata|yew]] juice as a cure for [[snakebite]].{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 16}} Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 32}} One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the [[Temple of Asclepius, Rome|temple of Aesculapius]] on [[Tiber Island]] to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}}

===Public games and entertainments===
According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 12}} Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power he instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday;{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 11}} annual games were also held in honor of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 21}}

Claudius organized a performance of the [[Secular Games]], marking the 800th anniversary of the [[founding of Rome]]. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus's excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 21}} Claudius also presented staged naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the [[Fucine Lake]], as well as many other public games and shows.

At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought an [[orca]] which was trapped in the harbour. The event was witnessed by Pliny the Elder:

{{blockquote|A killer whale was actually seen in the harbour of Ostia in battle with the Emperor Claudius; it had come at the time when he was engaged in completing the structure of the harbour, being tempted by the wreck of a cargo of hides imported from Gaul, and in glutting itself for a number of days had furrowed a hollow in the shallow bottom and had been banked up with sand by the waves so high that it was quite unable to turn round, and while it was pursuing its food which was driven forward to the shore by the waves its back projected far above the water like a capsized boat. Caesar gave orders for a barrier of nets to be stretched between the mouths of the harbour and setting out in person with the praetorian cohorts afforded a show to the Roman public, the soldiery hurling lances from the vessels against the creatures when they leapt up alongside, and we saw one of the boats sunk from being filled with water owing to a beast's snorting.{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=Book IX, 14–15}}}}

Claudius also restored and adorned many public venues in Rome. At the [[Circus Maximus]], the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, and an embankment was probably added to prevent flooding of the track.{{sfn|Humphrey|1986|pp=100–101}} Claudius also reinforced or extended the seating rules that reserved front seating at the Circus for senators. He rebuilt [[Pompey's Theatre]] after it had been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication, which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 21}}

=== Plots and coup attempts ===
Several coup attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. [[Appius Silanus]] was executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}} Shortly after this, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator [[Lucius Annius Vinicianus|Vinicianus]] and [[Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus|Scribonianus]] - governor of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] - and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators.

Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-law [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (husband of Claudia Antonia)|Pompeius Magnus]] was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father [[Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi (consul 27)|Crassus Frugi]]. Another plot involved the consulars [[Quintus Futius Lusius Saturninus|Lusius Saturninus]], [[Cornelius Lupus]], and Pompeius Pedo.

In 46, [[Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus#Family|Asinius Gallus]], grandson of [[Gaius Asinius Pollio (consul 40 BC)|Asinius Pollio]], and [[Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus]] were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen. [[Valerius Asiaticus]] was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. Ancient sources say the charge was [[adultery]], and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious.

Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term as [[Roman censor|Censor]], and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of [[Gaius Silius]] in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in book 11 of Tacitus' Annals. This section of Tacitus' history narrates the alleged conspiracy of Claudius's third wife, [[Messalina]]. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}}

==Marriages and personal life==
Suetonius and the other ancient authors accused Claudius of being dominated by women and wives, and of being a [[Womanizing|womanizer]].{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 25.5, 29.1}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=60.2.4}}

Claudius married four times, after two failed betrothals. The first betrothal was to his distant cousin [[Aemilia Lepida (fiancee of Claudius)|Aemilia Lepida]], but was broken for political reasons. The second was to [[Livia Medullina Camilla]], which ended with Medullina's sudden death on their wedding day.

===Plautia Urgulanilla===
[[Plautia Urgulanilla]] was the granddaughter of Livia's confidant [[Urgulania]]. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, [[Claudius Drusus]]. Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to Junilla, daughter of [[Sejanus]].

Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius [[repudiate]]d the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was allegedly one of his own freedmen. Later, this action made him the target of criticism by his enemies.

===Aelia Paetina===
Soon after, (possibly in 28) Claudius married [[Aelia Paetina]], a relative of Sejanus, if not Sejanus's adoptive sister. During their marriage, Claudius and Paetina had a daughter, [[Claudia Antonia]]. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability. One version suggests that it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Paetina.{{sfn|Leon|1948}}

===Valeria Messalina===
[[File:Messalinaandbritannicus.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Messalina holding her son Britannicus, [[Louvre]]]]
Some years after divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39, Claudius married [[Valeria Messalina]], who was his first cousin once removed (Claudius's grandmother, Octavia the Younger, was Valeria's great-grandmother on both her mother and father's side) and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter, [[Claudia Octavia]]. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as [[Britannicus]], was born just after Claudius's accession.

This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a [[Hypersexuality|nymphomaniac]] who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius—[[Tacitus]] states she went so far as to compete with a prostitute to see who could have more sexual partners in a night<ref>{{harvnb|Tacitus|loc=IX 10}}; {{harvnb|Cassius Dio|loc=61.31}}; {{harvnb|Pliny the Elder|loc=X 172}}.</ref>{{snd}}and manipulated his policies to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her lover [[Gaius Silius (consul designatus 49 AD)|Gaius Silius]] in a public ceremony while Claudius was at [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]].

[[File:Georges Antoine Rochegrosse The Death of Messalina 1916.jpg|thumb|''The Death of Messalina'' by Georges-Antoine Rochegrosse, 1916]]
Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the Emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Under Roman law, the spouse needed to be informed that he or she had been divorced before a new marriage could take place; the sources state that Claudius was in total ignorance until after the marriage.{{sfn|Levick|2015|p=74}} Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining her rank and protecting her children.{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|p=90}}{{sfn|Momigliano|1934|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Levick|2015|p=73}} The historian Tacitus suggests that Claudius's ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point, after which she was executed.{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=XI. 25–38.}}

===Agrippina the Younger===
Claudius married once more. Ancient sources tell that his freedmen put forward three candidates, Caligula's third wife [[Lollia Paulina]], Claudius's divorced second wife [[Aelia Paetina]] and Claudius's niece [[Agrippina the Younger]]. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles. She gradually seized power from Claudius and successfully conspired to eliminate his son's rivals, opening the way for her son to become emperor.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 26}}
[[File:Nerón y Agripina.jpg|thumb|upright|Sculpture of Agrippina crowning her young son Nero (c. AD&nbsp;54–59)]]

The truth is probably more political. The attempted [[coup d'état]] by Silius and Messalina probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian (but not the Julian) family. This weakness was compounded by the fact that he did not yet have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son [[Nero|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]] (the future [[Nero]]) was one of the last males of the Imperial family. Coup attempts might rally around the pair and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage, an attempt to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches.<ref>{{harvnb|Scramuzza|1940|pp=91–92}}. See also {{harvnb|Tacitus|loc=XII 6, 7}} and {{harvnb|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 26}}</ref> This feud dated back to Agrippina's [[Agrippina the Elder|mother's]] actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband [[Germanicus]] (Claudius's brother), actions that Tiberius had punished.

Another reason was to bring in Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus as a candidate for the succession. His prestige as the descendent of Augustus and Germanicus made him popular, and marking him as an heir would have helped the survival of Claudius' regime.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barrett|first=Anthony|title=Agrippina: Mother of Nero |date=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-61863-7|pages=109–111}}</ref> In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina and later adopted the mature Ahenobarbus as his son, renaming him as 'Nero Claudius Caesar'.

Nero was married to Claudius's daughter Octavia, made joint heir with the underage [[Britannicus]], and promoted; Augustus had similarly named his grandson [[Postumus Agrippa]] and his stepson [[Tiberius]] as joint heirs,<ref>{{harvnb|Levick|2015|pp=80–81}}. See also {{harvnb|Scramuzza|1940|p=92}}</ref> and Tiberius had named Caligula as his joint heir with his grandson [[Tiberius Gemellus]]. [[Adoption in ancient Rome|Adoption]] of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable, as was the case during Britannicus's minority. Claudius may have previously looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign.{{sfn|Oost|1958}}

[[Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix]], who was married to Claudius's daughter [[Claudia Antonia]], was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side&nbsp;– not close enough to the Imperial family to ensure his right to be Emperor (although that did not stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later), besides being the half-brother of [[Valeria Messalina]], which told against him. Nero was more popular with the general public as both the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus.

==Affliction<!-- !  check for tone --> and personality==
[[File:Cameo Claudius Cdm Paris Chab220.jpg|thumb|181x181px|'''Cameo of Claudius''']]
The historian [[Suetonius]] describes the physical manifestations of Claudius's condition.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 30}} His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. The [[Stoicism|Stoic]] [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] states in his ''[[Apocolocyntosis]]'' that Claudius's voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well.{{sfn|Seneca the Younger|loc=5, 6}}

[[File:Claudius as Jupiter, 1st C. AD, Round Hall by Michelangelo Simonetti, Vatican Museum (48465336326).jpg|thumb|upright|Claudius depicted as the [[Jupiter (mythology)|Roman god Jupiter]]]]
However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of ''[[Dignitas (Roman concept)|dignitas]]''.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 30}} When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this condition improved upon his accession to the throne.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 31}} Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his life.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 38}}

Modern assessments of his health have changed several times in the past century. Prior to [[World War II]], [[infantile paralysis]] (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in [[Robert Graves]]'s [[Claudius (novel)|Claudius novels]], first published in the 1930s. ''[[The New York Times]]'' wrote in 1934 that Claudius suffered from infantile paralysis (which led to his limp state) and [[measles]] (which made him deaf) at seven months of age, among several other ailments.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jack |first1=Peter Monro |title=Robert Graves's Story of a Flagrant Age in Rome: 'I, Claudius' Is a Brilliant Picture of Rome During the Reigns of Augustus, Tiberius and Caligula |url=https://proquest.com/docview/100916416 |access-date=30 May 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=10 June 1934 |page=BR4 |url-access=registration |id={{ProQuest|100916416 }}}}</ref> Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates [[cerebral palsy]] as the cause.{{sfn|Leon|1948}} [[Tourette syndrome]] has also been considered a possibility.<ref>Burden, George. [http://www.mentalhealth.com/mag1/p5m-tor1.html The Imperial Gene] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010611131717/http://www.mentalhealth.com/mag1/p5m-tor1.html |date=11 June 2001 }}, ''The Medical Post'', 16 July 1996. Retrieved 24 June 2007.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi= 10.1080/09647040902872775| pmid= 20628951|title= A Neurological Mystery from History: The Case of Claudius Caesar|year= 2010|last1= Murad|first1= Ali|journal= Journal of the History of the Neurosciences|volume= 19|issue= 3|pages= 221–227| s2cid= 205664150}}</ref>

As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who sometimes lunched with the [[plebeians]].{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 5, 21, 40}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=50.2, 5, 12, 31}} They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, over-fond of [[gladiator]]ial combat and executions, and very quick to anger; Claudius himself acknowledged the latter trait, and apologized publicly for his temper.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 34, 38}}{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=XII 20}} According to the ancient historians he was also excessively trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen,{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 29}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=50.2,8}} but at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius, 35–37, 39–40}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=50, 2–3}}

==Scholarly works and their impact==
Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. [[Arnaldo Momigliano]] states that during the reign of Tiberius, which covers the peak of Claudius's literary career,  it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was either to write about the new empire or about obscure antiquarian topics. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both.{{sfn|Momigliano|1934|pp=4–6}}

Besides his history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included ''[[Tyrrhenika]]'', a twenty-book [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] history, and ''Carchedonica'', an eight-volume history of [[Carthage]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harvey Sir Paul|title=The Oxford Companion To Classical Literature |date=1937 |publisher=Oxford At The Clarendon Press|chapter=Claudius|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont030316mbp/page/106|page=107}}</ref> as well as an [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] dictionary. He also wrote a [[De arte aleae|book on dice-playing]].  Despite the general avoidance of the topic of the Republican era, he penned a defense of [[Cicero]] against the charges of [[Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus|Asinius Gallus]]. Modern historians have used this to determine the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history.

[[File:Claudian letters.svg|thumb|The [[Claudian letters]]]]
He proposed a reform of the [[Latin alphabet]] by the addition of [[Claudian letters|three new letters]]; he officially instituted the change during his censorship but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive [[Interpunct|the old custom of putting dots]] between successive words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 41}} Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) harshly criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches.<ref>See Claudius's ''[[Tabula clesiana]]'', in which he refers to the "obstinate retirement" of Tiberius. See also {{harvnb|Josephus|loc=''Ant Iud.'' XIX}}, where an edict of Claudius refers to Caligula's "madness and lack of understanding."</ref>

None of the works survived, but other sources' reference to him provide material for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius's autobiography once and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius's arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of Pliny's ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.<ref>See {{harvnb|Momigliano|1934|loc=Chap.&nbsp;1, note&nbsp;20 (p.&nbsp;83)}}. {{harvnb|Pliny the Elder}} credits him by name in Book VII 35.</ref>

The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy, his tutor in adolescence. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by [[Julius Caesar]]. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies.{{sfn|Levick|1978}}

His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly [[Appius Claudius Caecus]], and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect; also, his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (as most Romans did) that Caecus had used the power of the censorship office to introduce [[R|the letter "R"]] and so used his own term to introduce his new letters.<ref>{{harvnb|Ryan|1993}} refers to the historian [[Varro]]'s account of the introduction</ref>

==Death==
[[File:Claudius Domus Romana Mdina.jpg|thumb|A statue of Claudius at the [[Domvs Romana]], Malta]]
Ancient historians agree that Claudius was murdered by poison – possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather (ostensibly put down his throat to induce vomiting) – and died in the early hours of 13 October 54.{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=XII 66–67}}

Nearly all implicate his final and powerful wife, [[Agrippina the Younger|Agrippina]], as the instigator. Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment on [[Britannicus]]' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 43}}

Some implicate either his taster [[Halotus]], his doctor [[Gaius Stertinius Xenophon|Xenophon]], or the infamous poisoner [[Locusta]] as the administrator of the fatal substance.<ref>Accounts of his death: {{harvnb|Suetonius|loc=Claudius 43, 44}}; {{harvnb|Tacitus|loc=XII 64, 66–67}}; {{harvnb|Josephus|loc=''Ant. Iud.'' 19.148, 151}}; {{harvnb|Cassius Dio|loc=61, 34}}; {{harvnb|Pliny the Elder|loc=II xxiii 92, XI lxxiii 189, XXII xlvi 92}}</ref> Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=44}} Among his contemporary sources, [[Seneca the Younger]] ascribed the emperor's death to natural causes, while Josephus only spoke of rumors of his poisoning.{{sfn|Josephus|loc=''Ant Iud.'' 19:67; 20:148}}

Some historians have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely died from illness or old age.{{efn|{{harvnb|Scramuzza|1940|pp=92–93}} says that tradition makes every emperor the victim of foul play, so we can't know if Claudius was truly murdered. The Emperor appears to have been seriously ill since at least 53. {{harvnb|Levick|2015|pp=76–77}} raises the possibility that Claudius was killed by the stress of fighting with Agrippina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause.}} Evidence against his murder include his serious illnesses in his last years, his unhealthy lifestyle and the fact that his taster Halotus continued to serve in the same position under Nero. Claudius had been so ill the year before that Nero vowed games for his recovery and the year of 54 seems to have been such an unhealthy year that one sitting member of each magistracy died within the span of a few months.  He may even have died by eating a naturally poisonous mushroom, possibly ''[[Amanita muscaria]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Aveline|2004|pp=473–474}}</ref>  On the other hand, some modern scholars claim the near universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends credence to the crime.<ref>{{harvnb|Levick|2015}} also as opposed to the murder of Augustus, which is only found in Tacitus and Dio where he quotes Tacitus. Suetonius, an inveterate gossip, doesn't mention it at all.</ref> Claudius's ashes were interred in the [[Mausoleum of Augustus]] on 24 October 54, after a funeral similar to that of his great-uncle Augustus 40 years earlier.

==Legacy==

===Divine honours===
[[File:6828_-_Claudio_(Museo_Pio-Clementino)_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_10_june_2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Bust of Claudius, circa 50 AD, [[Museo Pio-Clementino]]]]
Already, while alive, he received the widespread private worship of a living ''[[princeps]]''<ref>Gradel I. ''Emperor worship and Roman religion''. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-19-927548-9}}{{page needed|date=January 2023}}</ref> and was worshipped in [[Britannia]] in his own [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|temple in Camulodunum]].

Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html Nero, 9]}}

===Views of the new regime===
Agrippina had sent [[Tiberius Claudius Narcissus|Narcissus]] away shortly before Claudius's death, and now had the freedman murdered.

The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius's correspondence – most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius's private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in official edicts, Nero often criticized the deceased Emperor, and many Claudian laws and edicts were disregarded under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html Nero, 33]}}

[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]'s [[Apocolocyntosis]] mocks the deification of Claudius and reinforces the view of Claudius as an unpleasant fool; this remained the official view for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all. Claudius's temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero's [[Domus Aurea|Golden House]].{{sfn|Levick|2015}}

===Flavian and later perspectives===
The [[Flavians]], who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were associated with a good regime. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his son [[Britannicus]], who had been a friend of Emperor [[Titus]] (Titus was born in 39, Britannicus was born in 41). When Nero's [[Domus Aurea|Golden House]] was burned, the [[Temple of Claudius]] was finally completed on the Caelian Hill.{{sfn|Levick|2015}}

However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was lumped with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. His state-cult in Rome probably continued until the abolition of all cults of dead Emperors by [[Maximinus Thrax]] in 237–238.<ref name="Gradel">Gradel I. ''Emperor worship and Roman religion''. Clarendon Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-927548-9}} pp. 356–341, 367</ref> The ''[[Feriale Duranum]]'', probably identical to the festival calendars of every regular army unit, assigns him a sacrifice of a [[Cattle#Terminology|steer]] on his birthday, the [[Kalends]] of August.<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6mce147Z_EEC&q=Feriale+Duranum&pg=PA127 | title = Rome and Its Empire, AD 193–284 | isbn = 978-0-7486-2304-4 | last1 = Hekster | first1 = Olivier | year = 2008}}</ref> And such commemoration (and consequent feasting) probably continued until the Christianization and disintegration of the army in the late 4th century.<ref name="Gradel"/>

===Views of ancient historians===
The ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius (in ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]''), and [[Cassius Dio]] all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators or ''equites''. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus's letters, which had been gathered earlier). Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and crediting his good works to his retinue.{{sfn|Scramuzza|1940|p=29}}

Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing.{{sfn|Vessey|1971}} He wrote of Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot in affairs relating to the palace and public life. During his Censorship of 47–48 Tacitus allows the reader a glimpse of a Claudius who is more statesmanlike (XI.23–25), but it is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to have 'hidden' his use of Claudius's writings and to have omitted Claudius's character from his works.{{efn|[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 11|''Annales'' XI 14]] is often thought to be a good example: the digression on the history of writing is actually Claudius's own argument for his new letters, and fits in with his personality and extant writings. Tacitus makes no explicit attribution – and so there exists the possibility that the digression is Tacitus's own work or derivative of another source.{{sfn|Griffin|1990}}}} Even his version of Claudius's Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus, the conception of Claudius as a weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages.

As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians' accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the 2nd century, [[Pertinax]], who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius.{{sfn|Levick|2015|p=229}}

==In modern media==
* The best known fictional representation of the Emperor Claudius was contained in the books ''[[I, Claudius]]'' and ''[[Claudius the God]]'' (published in 1934 and 1935, respectively) by [[Robert Graves]], both written in the [[Grammatical person|first-person]] to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius's autobiography. Graves employed a fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius's writings. Claudius's extant letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly in the second book, ''Claudius the God''), to add authenticity.
** In 1937, director [[Josef von Sternberg]] attempted a film version of ''[[I, Claudius (film)|I, Claudius]]'', with [[Charles Laughton]] as Claudius. However, the lead actress, [[Merle Oberon]], had a near-fatal car accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were featured in the BBC documentary ''The Epic That Never Was'' (1965). The motion picture rights for a new film eventually passed to producer [[Scott Rudin]] (b. 1958).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.msn.com/movies/movie-synopsis/i-claudius.1/|title=I, Claudius (2009)&nbsp;– Synopsis|access-date=21 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105213022/http://movies.msn.com/movies/movie-synopsis/i-claudius.1/|archive-date=5 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
** Graves's two books were the basis for a British television adaptation ''[[I, Claudius (TV series)|I, Claudius]]'', produced by the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]. The series starred [[Derek Jacobi]] as Claudius and was broadcast in 1976 on [[BBC Two|BBC2]].<ref>{{Citation|title=I, Claudius|date=6 November 1977|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074006/|access-date=14 April 2016}}</ref> It was a substantial critical success, and won several [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA]] awards. The series was later broadcast in the United States on ''[[Masterpiece Theatre]]'' in 1977. The 1996 7-VHS release and the later DVD release of the television series, include ''The Epic That Never Was'' documentary.
** A radio adaptation of the Graves novels by [[Robin Brooks]] and directed by [[Jonquil Panting]], was broadcast in six one-hour episodes on [[BBC Radio 4]] beginning 4 December 2010. The cast featured [[Tom Goodman-Hill]] as Claudius, [[Derek Jacobi]] as Augustus, [[Harriet Walter]] as Livia, [[Tim McInnerny]] as Tiberius and [[Samuel Barnett (actor)|Samuel Barnett]] as Caligula.
** In 2011, it was announced rights for a miniseries adaptation passed to HBO and BBC Two.  Anne Thomopoulos and Jane Tranter, producers of the popular HBO–BBC2 ''[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]'' miniseries, were attached to the ''I, Claudius'' project.  However, as of 2018, it has yet to be produced, and no release date is pending.
* The 1954 film ''[[Demetrius and the Gladiators]]'' also portrayed him sympathetically, played by [[Barry Jones (actor)|Barry Jones]].
* In the 1960 film ''[[Messalina (1960 film)|Messalina]]'', Claudius is portrayed by [[Mino Doro]].
* On television, [[Freddie Jones]] portrayed Claudius in the 1968 British television series ''[[The Caesars (TV series)|The Caesars]]''.
* The 1975 TV Special ''Further Up Pompeii!'' (based on the [[Frankie Howerd]] sit-com ''[[Up Pompeii!]]'') featured [[Cyril Appleton]] as Claudius.
* In the 1979 motion picture ''[[Caligula (film)|Caligula]]'', where the role was performed by [[Giancarlo Badessi]], Claudius is depicted as an idiot, in contrast to [[Robert Graves]]' portrait of Claudius as a cunning and deeply intelligent man, who is perceived by others to be an idiot.
* In the 1981 Franco-Italian film ''Caligula and Messalina'', he was portrayed by Gino Turini (as John Turner).
* The 1985 made-for-television [[miniseries]] ''A.D.'' features actor [[Richard Kiley]] as Claudius.  Kiley portrays him as thoughtful, but willing to cater to public opinion as well as being under the influence of Agrippina.
* In the 2004 TV film ''[[Nero (2004 film)|Imperium: Nero]]'', Claudius is portrayed by [[Massimo Dapporto]].
* He is portrayed in Season 3 of the [[Netflix]] documentary series ''[[Roman Empire (TV series)|Roman Empire]]'', which focused on the reign of Caligula, by Kelson Henderson. The series concludes with Claudius's accession.
* There is also a reference to Claudius's suppression of a coup in the movie ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'', though that incident is entirely fictional.
* In the series Britannia (2018), Claudius visits Britannia, played by [[Steve Pemberton]] as a fool who is drugged by [[Aulus Plautius]].
* He is portrayed by [[Derek Jacobi]] in the 2019 BBC film [[Horrible Histories: The Movie – Rotten Romans|Horrible Histories: The Movie - Rotten Romans]]

In literature, Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel ''[[The Roman]]'' by [[Mika Waltari]]. Canadian-born science fiction writer [[A. E. van Vogt]] reimagined Robert Graves's Claudius story, in his two novels, ''[[Empire of the Atom]]'' and ''[[The Wizard of Linn]]''.

The historical novel&nbsp;''Chariot of the Soul'' by&nbsp;[[Linda Proud]]&nbsp;features Claudius as host and mentor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome. When Togidubnus returns to Britain in advance of the Roman army, it is with a mission given to him by Claudius.

==See also==
* [[Julio-Claudian family tree]]
* [[List of Roman emperors]]
* [[Temple of Claudius]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
===Ancient sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger]]|title=[[Apocolocyntosis divi Claudii]]|translator-last=Allan Perley Ball|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year=1902|ref={{sfnref|Seneca the Younger}}|orig-date=1st century}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[Gaius Plinius Secundus]]|title=[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]|translator1=H. Rackham |translator2=W.H.S. Jones |translator3=D.E. Eichholz|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=1961|ref={{sfnref|Pliny the Elder}}|orig-date={{circa}} 77 AD}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[Josephus]]|chapter=Chapters XIX–XX|title=[[Antiquities of the Jews]]|translator-last=[[William Whiston]]|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=1737|ref={{sfnref|Josephus}}|orig-date={{circa}} 96 AD|chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XIX}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[Publius Cornelius Tacitus]]|title=[[The Annals]]|translator-last=Frederick W. Shipley|publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]]|year=1924|url=|ref={{sfnref|Tacitus}}|orig-date={{circa}} AD 110|chapter=Books 11–11|chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_11}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus]]|chapter=Life of Claudius|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html|title=[[The Twelve Caesars]]|translator-last=[[John Carew Rolfe]]|publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]]|year=1914|url=|ref={{sfnref|Suetonius}}|orig-date={{circa}} AD 121}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[Lucius Cassius Dio]]|chapter=Books 60–61|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html|title=[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]|translator-last=Earnest Cary|publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]]|year=1927|ref={{sfnref|Cassius Dio}}|orig-date={{circa}} 230}}
{{Refend}}

===Modern sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Aveline |first=John |date=2004 |title=The Death of Claudius |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436743 |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=453–475 |jstor= 4436743 |issn=0018-2311}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Griffin |first=Miriam |date=1990 |title=Claudius in Tacitus |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/639107 |journal=The Classical Quarterly |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=482–501 |doi=10.1017/S0009838800043056 |jstor=639107 |s2cid=170810972 |issn=0009-8388|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Humphrey |first=John H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=couetXBQO9AC |title=Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing |date=1986|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04921-5}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Hurley |year=2001 |editor-first=Donna W. |title=Suetonius: Diuus Claudius |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-59325-5 |url={{googlebooks|9yVR5Fac278C|plainurl=y}} |ref={{sfnref|Hurley}} }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Levick |first=B. M. |date=1978 |title=Antiquarian or Revolutionary? Claudius Caesar's Conception of His Principate |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/293870 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=79–105 |doi=10.2307/293870 |jstor=293870 |issn=0002-9475|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Levick |year=2015 |first=Barbara |title=Claudius |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |place=London |orig-year=1990 |isbn=978-0-415-70357-4 |url={{googlebooks|6mVSu05jH1MC|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Barbara Levick }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Leon |first=Ernestine F. |date=1948 |title=The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/283354 |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association |volume=79 |pages=79–86 |doi=10.2307/283354 |jstor=283354 |issn=0065-9711|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal|last=Major|first=Ann|date=1992|title=Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power|journal=Ancient History|volume=22|pages=25–31|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/13ad054c1076778faf69fcb69e9dedd4/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1976614 |id={{ProQuest|<!-- insert ProQuest data here --> }}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Momigliano |first=Arnaldo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gq7PAAAAMAAJ|title=Claudius, the Emperor and His Achievement |date=1934 |publisher=W. Heffer and Sons|translator=W.D. Hogarth}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Oost |first=Stewart Irvin |date=1958 |title=The Career of M. Antonius Pallas |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/292103 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=113–139 |doi=10.2307/292103 |jstor=292103 |issn=0002-9475|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJigAAAAMAAJ|publisher= Johns Hopkins University|title=The problem of Claudius: Some aspects of a character study|year=1916|last=Ruth|first=Thomas De Coursey }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ryan |first=F. X. |date=1993 |title=Some Observations on the Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, A.D. 47-48 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/295428 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=114 |issue=4 |pages=611–618 |doi=10.2307/295428 |jstor=295428 |issn=0002-9475|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book|last=Scramuzza|first=Vincent|date=1940|title=The Emperor Claudius|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780598740687}}
* {{cite journal |last=Simpson |year=1981 |first=C.J. |title=The Early Name of the Emperor Claudius |journal=Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume=29 |pages=363–368 |url=http://real-j.mtak.hu/424/1/ACTAANTIQUA_29.pdf |ref={{sfnref|Simpson}} }}
* {{cite journal |last=Stuart |year=1936 |first=Meriwether |title=The Date of the Inscription of Claudius on the Arch of Ticinum |journal=[[American Journal of Archaeology]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=314–322 |doi=10.2307/498692 |jstor=498692 |s2cid=191396418 |ref={{sfnref|Stuart}} }}
* {{cite journal|last=Suhr|first=Elmer G.|title=A Portrait of Claudius|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|year=1955|volume=59|issue=4|pages=319–322|doi=10.2307/500799|jstor=500799|s2cid=192971087}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Vessey |first=D. W. T. C. |date=1971 |title=Thoughts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/292801 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=385–409 |doi=10.2307/292801 |jstor=292801 |issn=0002-9475|url-access=subscription }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{EB1911 poster|Claudius}}
* '''Works by Claudius'''
** [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/claualex.html Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians]
** [[Lyon Tablet]]
*** [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/48claudius.html Second half of the Lyons Tablet]
*** [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/tacitus-ann11a.html Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech]
** [[Tabula clesiana|Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent]]. Full Latin text [[:it:Tabula clesiana|here]].
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudius.htm Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091019213016/http://geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7094/claudius.html  Claudius Page]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/claudius.shtml Claudius I] at [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ BBC History]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]|1 August|10 BC|13 October|AD 54}}
{{S-roy|rm}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Caligula]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]|years=41–54}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Nero]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Gnaeus Acerronius Proculus|Gn. Acerronius Proculus]] |before2=[[Gaius Petronius Pontius Nigrinus|G. Petronius Pontius Nigrinus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]]|regent1=[[Caligula]]|years = 37 (suffect)}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Aulus Caecina Paetus|A. Caecina Paetus]] |after2=[[Gaius Caninius Rebilus (consul 37)|G. Caninius Rebilus]]}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Caligula]] |before2=[[Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus (consul 41)|Gn. Sentius Saturninus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]] II|regent1=[[Gaius Caecina Largus (consul 42)|G. Caecina Largus]] (42)|regent2=[[Lucius Vitellius (consul 34)|L. Vitellius]] II (43)|years = 42–43}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Titus Statilius Taurus (consul 44)|T. Statilius Taurus]] |after2=[[Gaius Sallustius Passienus Crispus|G. Sallustius Passienus Crispus]]}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Marcus Junius Silanus (consul 46)|M. Junius Silanus]] |before2=[[Gaius Terentius Tullius Geminus|G. Terentius Tullius Geminus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]] III|regent1=[[Lucius Vitellius (consul 34)|L. Vitellius]] III|years = 47}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Vitellius|A. Vitellius]] |after2=[[Lucius Vipstanus Poplicola|L. Vipstanus Poplicola Messalla]]}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Camerinus Antistius Vetus]] |before2=[[Marcus Suillius Nerullinus|M. Suillius Nerullinus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]] IV|regent1=[[Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus (consul 51)|Ser. Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus]]|years = 51}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix]] |after2=[[Lucius Salvius Otho Titianus|L. Salvius Otho Titianus]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
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{{Authority control}}

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