Editing Cloud forest

{{Short description|Type of rainforest}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}

[[File:Cloud forest mount kinabalu.jpg|thumb|[[Tree fern]]s in a cloud forest on [[Mount Kinabalu]], [[Borneo]]]]
[[File:Ella Gap (Valley), mountains of Sri Lanka.jpg|thumb|Stratus silvagenitus clouds in [[Uva Province]], [[Sri Lanka]]]]

A '''cloud forest''', also called a '''water forest''',  '''primas forest''', or '''tropical montane cloud forest''', is a generally [[tropical]] or [[subtropical]], evergreen, [[Montane forest|montane]], [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|moist forest]] characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level [[cloud]] cover, usually at the canopy level, formally described in the ''[[International Cloud Atlas]]'' (2017) as '''silvagenitus'''.<ref name="Hostettler"/><ref>{{cite news| last1=Sutherland|first1=Scott|title=Cloud Atlas leaps into 21st century with 12 new cloud types |url=https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/cloud-atlas-leaps-into-21st-century-with-12-new-cloud-types/80685/ |access-date=24 March 2017|work=The Weather Network |agency=Pelmorex Media|date=March 23, 2017}}</ref> Cloud forests often exhibit an abundance of [[moss]]es covering the ground and vegetation, in which case they are also referred to as '''mossy forests'''. Mossy forests usually develop on the [[mountain pass|saddles]] of mountains, where moisture introduced by settling clouds is more effectively retained.

Cloud forests are among the most biodiversity-rich ecosystems in the world, with a large number of species directly or indirectly depending on them.<ref name=":0" />

Other moss forests include [[black spruce]]/[[feathermoss]] [[Climax community|climax forest]], with a moderately dense canopy and a [[forest floor]] of [[feathermoss]]es, including ''[[Hylocomium splendens]]'', ''[[Pleurozium schreberi]]'', and ''[[Ptilium crista-castrensis]]''.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111005174426/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=44751 ''Black Spruce: Picea mariana''], GlobalTwitcher.com, Nicklas Stromberg, ed.</ref> These weft-form mosses grow in boreal moss forests.<ref name="world">{{cite web |last1=Poller |first1=Sonya |title=Alberta's Wonderful World of Bryophytes |url=http://blog.abmi.ca/2015/01/22/albertas-wonderful-world-of-bryophytes/ |website=Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute Blog |publisher=Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute |date=22 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="horti">{{cite web |last1=Cullina |first1=William |title=Gardening with Moss |url=https://www.hortmag.com/plants/gardening-with-moss |website=Horticulture |date=10 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

== Climate ==
[[File:Costa rica santa elena skywalk.jpg|thumb|One of the hanging bridges of the Sky walk at the [[Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve]] in [[Monteverde, Costa Rica]] disappearing into the clouds]]
The presence of cloud forests is dependent on local climate (which is affected by the distance to the sea), the exposition and the latitude (typically from 25°N to 25°S), and the elevation (which varies from 500 m to 4000 m above sea level). Typically, there is a relatively small band of elevation in which the atmospheric environment is suitable for cloud forest development. This is characterized by persistent fog at the vegetation level, resulting in the reduction of direct sunlight and thus of [[evapotranspiration]].{{sfn|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}} Within cloud forests, much of the moisture available to plants arrives in the form of [[fog drip]], where [[fog]] [[Condensation|condenses]] on tree leaves and then drips onto the ground below.

Annual rainfall can range from 500 to 10,000&nbsp;mm/year and mean temperature between 8 and 20 °C (46.4 and 68&nbsp;°F).{{sfn|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}

While cloud forest today is the most widely used term, in some regions, these ecosystems or special types of cloud forests are called mossy forest, [[elfin forest]], montane thicket, and dwarf cloud forest.{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}

The definition of cloud forest can be ambiguous, with many countries not using the term (preferring such terms as [[Afromontane]] forest and upper montane rain forest, montane [[laurel forest]], or more localised terms such as the Bolivian ''[[yungas]]'', and the ''[[laurisilva]]'' of the Atlantic Islands),{{sfn|García-Santos| Bruijnzeel|Dolman|2009}}{{sfn|García-Santos|2007|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} and occasionally subtropical and even temperate forests in which similar meteorological conditions occur are considered to be cloud forests.

== Characteristics ==
[[File:Forest Enchantment.jpg|thumb|Bryophyte-covered mossy forest at [[Mount Dulang-dulang]], [[Philippines]]]]
[[File:Papillaria Cloudforest-Mt Budawang.jpg|thumb|Hanging moss in a cool temperate rainforest at [[Budawang National Park]], [[Australia]]]]
In comparison with lower-altitude tropical moist forests, cloud forests show a reduced tree stature combined with increased stem density and generally, a lower diversity of woody plants.{{sfn|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}} Trees in these regions are generally shorter and more heavily stemmed than in lower-altitude forests in the same regions, often with gnarled trunks and branches, forming dense, compact crowns. Their leaves become smaller, thicker and harder with increasing altitude.<ref>{{harvnb|Bruijnzeel|Proctor|1995}} quote from {{harvnb|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}</ref> The high moisture promotes the development of a high [[biomass]] and [[biodiversity]] of [[epiphyte]], particularly [[bryophyte]]s, [[lichen]]s, [[fern]]s (including [[filmy ferns]]), [[bromeliads]] and [[orchid]]s.{{sfn|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}} The number of [[Endemism|endemic]] plants can be very high.{{sfn|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}

An important feature of cloud forests is the tree crowns that intercept the wind-driven cloud moisture, part of which drips to the ground. This [[fog drip]] occurs when water droplets from the fog adhere to the needles or leaves of trees or other objects, coalesce into larger drops and then drop to the ground.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fog drip – AMS Glossary |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |url=http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Fog_drip |access-date=2014-12-15 }}</ref> It can be an important contribution to the [[hydrologic cycle]].{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}

Cloud forests are often [[peatland]]s, showcasing many classic peatland attributes. Due to the high water content of the soil, the reduced [[solar radiation]] and the low rates of [[decomposition]] and [[mineralization (soil)|mineralization]], the [[soil acidity]] is very high,{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}{{sfn|van Steenis|1972|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}{{sfn|Grubb|Tanner|1976}} with more humus and [[peat]] often forming the upper soil layer.{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}

Stadtmüller (1987) distinguishes two general types of tropical montane cloud forests:
* Areas with a high annual precipitation due to a frequent cloud cover in combination with heavy and sometimes persistent orographic rainfall; such forests have a perceptible canopy strata, a high number of epiphytes, and a thick peat layer which has a high storage capacity for water and controls the runoff;
* In drier areas with mainly seasonal rainfall, cloud stripping can amount to a large proportion of the moisture available to plants.

==Distribution of tropical montane cloud forests==
[[File:Distribution of tropical cloud forests.png|thumb|Distribution of tropical montane cloud forests in 2016<ref name=":0" />.]]
Only 1% of the global woodland consists of cloud forests.{{sfn|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} They were estimated to be 11% of all tropical forests in the 1970s. A total of around 736 cloud forest sites have been identified in 59 countries by the [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]], with 327 of them legally [[protected area]]s as of 2002. Important areas of cloud forest are in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] (mainly [[Costa Rica]], [[Venezuela]], [[Honduras]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Mexico]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Colombia]]), [[East Africa|East]] and [[Central Africa]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Hawaii]], [[Papua New Guinea]], and in the [[Caribbean]].<ref name="Hostettler">{{cite journal |last1=Hostettler |first1=Silvia |title=Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: A Challenge for Conservation |journal=Bois et Forets des Tropiques |date=2002 |volume=274 |issue=4 |pages=19–31 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299537628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/|title=Resources Data – UNEP-WCMC|work=unep-wcmc.org|access-date=12 December 2006|archive-date=11 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411205118/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The 1997 version of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre's database of cloud forests found a total of 605 tropical montane cloud forest sites in 41 countries. 280 sites, or 46% of the total, were located in [[Latin America]], known in [[biogeography]] as the [[Neotropical realm]]. Twelve countries had tropical montane cloud forest sites, with the majority in Venezuela (64 sites), Mexico (64), Ecuador (35) and Colombia (28). Southeast Asia and [[Australasian realm|Australasia]] had 228 sites in 14 countries – 66 in Indonesia, 54 in Malaysia, 33 in Sri Lanka, 32 in the Philippines, and 28 in Papua New Guinea. 97 sites were recorded in 21 African countries, mostly scattered on isolated mountains. Of the 605 sites, 264 were in protected areas.<ref>Mark Aldrich, Clare Billington, Mary Edwards and Ruth Laidlaw (1997) "Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: An Urgent Priority for Conservation" WCMC Biodiversity Bulletin No. 2, World Conservation Monitoring Centre.</ref>

== Conservation status ==
Cloud forests occupied 0.4% of the global land surface in 2001 and harboured ~3,700 species of birds, mammal, amphibians and tree ferns (~15% of the global diversity of those groups), with half of those species entirely restricted to cloud forests.<ref name=":0" /> Worldwide, ~2.4% of cloud forests (in some regions, more than 8%) were lost between 2001 and 2018, especially in readily accessible places. While protected areas have slowed this decline, a large proportion of loss in TCF cover is still occurring despite formal protection.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Karger |first1=Dirk Nikolaus |last2=Kessler |first2=Michael |last3=Lehnert |first3=Marcus |last4=Jetz |first4=Walter |date=2021 |title=Limited protection and ongoing loss of tropical cloud forest biodiversity and ecosystems worldwide |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01450-y |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=854–862 |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01450-y|pmid=33927369 |bibcode=2021NatEE...5..854K |s2cid=256726846 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

== Temperate cloud forests ==
Although far from being universally accepted as true cloud forests, several forests in temperate regions have strong similarities with tropical cloud forests. The term is further confused by occasional reference to cloud forests in tropical countries as "temperate" due to the cooler climate associated with these misty forests.

[[File:Forest Los Tilos.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Temperate cloud forest on [[La Palma]], [[Canary Islands]] ]]

=== Distribution of temperate cloud forests ===
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2013}}

*[[Argentina]] – [[Salta Province|Salta]], [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]], [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]] and [[Tucumán Province|Tucumán]] ([[Southern Andean Yungas]])
*[[Australia]] – [[Lamington National Park]], [[Springbrook National Park]], [[Mount Bartle Frere]] and [[Mount Bellenden Ker]] ([[Queensland]]) and [[Mount Gower]] ([[Lord Howe Island]])
*[[Brazil]] – [[Serra do Mar coastal forests]]
*[[Canada]] – Coastal [[British Columbia]]
*[[Chile]] – [[Bosque de Fray Jorge National Park]]
*[[China|People's Republic of China]] – [[Yunnan Plateau]], mountains of southern and eastern China
*[[Costa Rica]] – Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. 10,500 Hectares of Cloud Forest. There are 2500 plant species (most species of orchids in a single place on earth), 100 species of mammals, 400 species of birds, 120 species of reptiles, and thousands of insects.  
*[[Ethiopia]] – [[Harenna Forest]], [[Bale Mountains National Park]] and [[Kafa Biosphere Reserve]] in [[South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region]]
*Fiji Islands - Tropical Montane cloud forests of Taveuni [Ash, J., 1987. Stunted cloud-forest in Taveuni, Fiji.], Gau Island  [Keppel, G. and Thomas, N.T., 2009. Composition and structure of the cloud forest on Mt Delaco, Gau, Fiji. The South Pacific Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, 27(1), pp.28-34.]
*[[Iran]] – Eastern part of [[Alborz]] mountains, north of Iran, [[Golestan Province]]<ref>{{Cite news| date=2019-01-30| title=Jangal-e Abr (Cloud Forest) is one of the oldest and most beautiful forests| url=https://iranparadise.com/jangal-e-abr-cloud-forest/|access-date=2020-08-24|website=IRAN Paradise |language=en-US}}</ref>
*[[Japan]] – parts of [[Yakushima|Yakushima Island]]
*[[New Zealand]] – parts of [[Fiordland]], [[Mount Taranaki]], and [[Mount Cargill]]<ref>"[https://otmc.co.nz/skylinewalk.html Dunedin Skyline Walk (Flagstaff – Swampy – Mt Cargill)]", Otago Camping and Mountaineering Club website. Retrieved 20 December 2020.</ref>
*[[Pakistan]] – [[Shogran|Shoghran Forest]] in the [[Kaghan Valley]], and regions of Upper [[Swat, Pakistan|Swat]] in the northwest of Pakistan
*[[Peru]] – [[Bosques Nublados de Udima Wildlife Refuge]] (Cloud Forests of Udima) 
*[[Portugal]] – [[Azores]] and [[Madeira Island|Madeira]] (often refers to the wetter, higher altitude expanse of ''[[laurisilva]]'')<ref>{{cite web |title=Exposição Ecossistemas Naturais dos Açores – Laurissilva: Resumo de Tópicos |url=http://centrocienciaah.com/pagina/laurissilva |website=centrocienciaah.com |access-date=7 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Elias |first1=Rui Bento |last2=Dias |first2=Eduardo |title=Ecologia das Florestas de Juniperus dos Açores |date=2008 |location=Angra do Heroísmo |isbn=978-989-630-978-7 |url=https://islandlab.uac.pt/fotos/publicacoes/publicacoes_ELIAS08_EcologiaFlorestasJuniperusAcores.pdf |access-date=16 September 2023}}</ref>
*[[Spain]] – [[Canary Islands]] (''[[laurisilva]]'') and very locally in Los Llanos del Juncal ([[Parque Natural de Los Alcornocales|Alcornocales Natural Park]]) in the [[Province of Cádiz]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/medioambiente/portal/web/ventanadelvisitante/detalle-buscador-mapa/-/asset_publisher/Jlbxh2qB3NwR/content/los-alcornocales-8/255035 |title=Parque Natural Los Alcornocales |publisher=[[Junta de Andalucía]] |website=juntadeandalucia.es |language=es-ES |access-date=2021-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://institutoecg.es/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/15manuelbecerra.pdf |title=CONTRIBUCIÓN AL CONOCIMIENTO DE LA MICOBIOTA DE LOS BOSQUES DE NIEBLA DEL PARQUE NATURAL DE LOS ALCORNOCALES (CÁDIZ) |publisher=Instituto de Estudios Campogibraltareños |author= Manuel Becerra Parra, Manuel and Estrella Robles Domínguez |website=institutoecg.es |language=es-ES |access-date=2021-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.europasur.es/campo-de-gibraltar/fotos-Bosque-Niebla_3_1566773312.html |title=Un día en el Bosque de Niebla |publisher=Europa Sur |website=europasur.es |language=es-ES |date=2021-05-08 |access-date=2022-01-05}}</ref>
*[[Sri Lanka]] - Upper slopes of the [[Knuckles Mountain Range]], [[Matale District|Matale]].
*[[Taiwan]] – [[Yuanyang Lake Nature Reserve]], [[Chatianshan Nature Reserve]], and [[Fuxing District, Taoyuan|Fuxing District]] in [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|Taoyuan]]
*[[United States]] – [[Pacific temperate rainforests|Pacific Northwest]] and in the [[Appalachian temperate rainforest|Southern Appalachians]].

== Importance ==
[[File:DirkvdM cloudforest.jpg|thumb|At the edge of the Panamanian side of the [[Parque Internacional la Amistad]]]]
* Watershed function: Because of the cloud-stripping strategy, the effective rainfall can be doubled in dry seasons and increase the wet season rainfall by about 10%.<ref>{{harvnb|Vogelmann|1973}} and {{harvnb| Bruijnzeel|1990|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} quote by {{harvnb|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}</ref>{{sfn|García-Santos|2007|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Köhler| first1=Lars| last2=Tobón| first2=Conrado|last3=Frumau|first3=K. F. Arnoud| last4=Bruijnzeel|first4=L. A. (Sampurno)| date=2007-12-01| title=Biomass and water storage dynamics of epiphytes in old-growth and secondary montane cloud forest stands in Costa Rica|journal=Plant Ecology| language=en| volume=193| issue=2| pages=171–184| doi=10.1007/s11258-006-9256-7| bibcode=2007PlEco.193..171K|s2cid=1032485|issn=1573-5052}}</ref> Experiments of Costin and Wimbush (1961){{psc|date=December 2017}} showed that the tree canopies of non-cloud forests intercept and evaporate 20 percent more of the precipitation than cloud forests, which means a loss to the land component of the hydrological cycle.{{fact|date=December 2017}}
* Vegetation: Tropical montane cloud forests are not as species-rich as tropical lowland forests, but they provide the habitats for many species found nowhere else.{{sfn|Bruijnzeel|Hamilton|2000|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}{{sfn|García-Santos|2007|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} For example, the [[Cerro de la Neblina]], a cloud-covered mountain in the south of [[Venezuela]], accommodates many shrubs, orchids, and [[insectivorous]] plants which are restricted to this mountain only.{{sfn|Bruijnzeel|Hamilton|2000|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}
* Fauna: The endemism in animals is also very high. In [[Peru]], more than one-third of the 270 endemic birds, mammals, and frogs are found in cloud forests.{{sfn|Bruijnzeel|Hamilton|2000|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} One of the best-known cloud forest mammals is the [[spectacled bear]] (''Tremarctos ornatus''). Many of those endemic animals have important functions, such as seed dispersal and forest dynamics in these ecosystems.{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}

== Current situation ==
[[File:Nimbosilva de Fray Jorge.jpg|thumb|left|Seaborne moisture is vital to the cloud forest of [[Bosque de Fray Jorge National Park|Fray Jorge]] that is surrounded by the arid southern reaches of the [[Atacama Desert]].]]
In 1970, the original extent of cloud forests on the Earth was around 50 million [[hectare]]s. [[Population growth]], [[poverty]] and uncontrolled land use have contributed to the loss of cloud forests. The 1990 Global Forest Survey found that 1.1% of tropical mountain and highland forests were lost each year, which was higher than in any other tropical forests.{{sfn|Bruijnzeel|Hamilton|2000|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} In Colombia, one of the countries with the largest area of cloud forests, only 10–20% of the initial cloud forest cover remains.{{sfn|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} Significant areas have been converted to [[plantation]]s, or for use in [[agriculture]] and [[pasture]]. Significant crops in montane forest zones include [[tea]] and [[coffee]], and the [[logging]] of unique species causes changes to the forest structure.{{sfn|Hamilton|Juvik|Scatena|1995}}

In 2004, an estimated one-third of all cloud forests on the planet were protected at that time.<ref>{{harvnb|Kappelle|2004}} quote by {{harvnb|Häger|2006|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}}</ref>

== Impact of climate change ==
Because of their delicate dependency on local climates, cloud forests will be strongly affected by global [[climate change]]. Results show that the extent of environmentally suitable areas for cloud forest in Mexico will sharply decline in the next 70 years.{{sfn|Ponce-Reyes|Nicholson|Baxter|Fuller|2013}} A number of climate models suggest low-altitude cloudiness will be reduced, which means the optimum climate for many cloud forest habitats will increase in altitude.{{sfn|Foster|2001}}{{sfn|Bubb|May|Miles|Sayer|2004|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} Linked to the reduction of cloud moisture immersion and increasing temperature, the hydrological cycle will change, so the system will dry out.{{sfn|Bubb|May|Miles|Sayer|2004|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} This would lead to the wilting and the death of epiphytes, which rely on high humidity.{{sfn|Foster|2001}} Frogs and lizards are expected to suffer from increased drought.{{sfn|Bubb|May|Miles|Sayer|2004|p={{pn|date=December 2017}}}} Calculations suggest the loss of cloud forest in Mexico would lead to extinction of up to 37 [[vertebrates]] specific to that region.{{sfn|Ponce-Reyes|Reynoso-Rosales|Watson|Vanderwal|2012}} In addition, climate changes can result in a higher number of [[hurricane]]s, which may increase damage to tropical montane cloud forests. All in all, the results of climate change will be a loss in biodiversity, altitude shifts in species ranges and community reshuffling, and, in some areas, complete loss of cloud forests.{{sfn|Foster|2001}}

== In botanical gardens ==
Cloud-forest conditions are hard and expensive to replicate in a glasshouse because it is necessary to maintain very high humidity. Day temperatures have to be between {{convert|70-75|F|C|order=flip}} while night temperatures have to be maintained between {{convert|55-60|F|C|order=flip}}. In most cases, sophisticated refrigeration equipment has to be used to provide night temperatures below {{convert|60|F|C|order=flip}}. Such displays are usually quite small, but there are some notable exceptions. In the United States, the Atlanta Botanical Garden has a large tropical cloud forest greenhouse with a large collection of cloud forest epiphytes from around the world. It implements a refrigeration system to decrease the temperature at night. For many years, the [[Singapore Botanic Gardens]] had a so-called coolhouse. The [[Gardens by the Bay]] features a {{convert|0.8|ha|acre|frac=8|adj=on}} coolhouse that is simply named "[[Gardens by the Bay#Cloud Forest|Cloud Forest]]". The latter features a {{convert|35|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} artificial mountain clad in [[epiphyte]]s such as [[orchid]]s, ferns, [[clubmoss]]es, [[bromeliad]]s and others.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.gardensbythebay.com.sg/en/attractions/cloud-forest/facts-and-figures.html|title=Cloud Forest Facts and Figures}}</ref> Due to a relatively mild climate and summer fog, the [[San Francisco Botanical Garden]] has three outdoor cloud forest collections, including a {{convert|2|acre|ha|order=flip|sigfig=1|adj=on}} [[Mesoamerican]] Cloud Forest established in 1985.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sfbg.org/plant-collections|title=SFBG Plant Collections}}</ref> The [[Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens]] contains a "[[Panama]] Cloud Forest" garden in House 11.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020|title=Our Gardens|url=https://www.buffalogardens.com/pages/our-gardens| website=Buffalo Botanical Gardens}}</ref>

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
*{{cite book |last1=Bruijnzeel |first1=L. A. |year=1990 |title=Hydrology of Moist Tropical Forests and Effects of Conversion: A State of Knowledge Review |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/Ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=97405&set=0058484084_0_425&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1 |oclc=222853422 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bruijnzeel |first1=L.A. |last2=Hamilton |first2=L.S. |year=2000 |title=Decision Time For Cloud Forests: Water-Related Issues And Problems Of The Humid Tropics And Other Warm Humid Regions |publisher=UNESCO's IHP Humid Tropics Programme Series No.13 |location=Paris, France |url=http://www.hydrology.nl/ihppublications/141-decision-time-for-cloud-forests.html }}
*{{cite book |last1=Bruijnzeel |first1=L. A |last2=Proctor |first2=J |year=1995 |chapter=Hydrology and Biogeochemistry of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: What Do We Really Know? |pages=38–78 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-2500-3_3 |editor1-first=Lawrence S. |editor1-last=Hamilton |editor2-first=James O. |editor2-last=Juvik |editor3-first=F. N. |editor3-last=Scatena |title=Tropical Montane Cloud Forests |volume=110 |series=Ecological Studies |isbn=978-1-4612-7564-0 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Bubb |first1=Philip |last2=May |first2=Ian |last3=Miles |first3=Lera |last4=Sayer |first4=Jeff |year=2004 |title=Cloud Forest Agenda |url=http://old.unep-wcmc.org/biodiversity-series-20_105.html |isbn=92-807-2399-5 |access-date=2017-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226234858/http://old.unep-wcmc.org/biodiversity-series-20_105.html |archive-date=2017-12-26 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=Pru |year=2001 |title=The potential negative impacts of global climate change on tropical montane cloud forests |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=55 |issue=1–2 |pages=73–106 |doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00056-3 |bibcode=2001ESRv...55...73F }}
*{{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Charles |year=1997 |title=[[Nepenthes of Borneo]] |isbn=978-983-812-015-9 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=García-Santos |first1=G |last2=Marzol |first2=M. V |last3=Aschan |first3=G |year=2004 |title=Water dynamics in a laurel montane cloud forest in the Garajonay National Park (Canary Islands, Spain) |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=1065–75 |bibcode=2004HESS....8.1065G |doi=10.5194/hess-8-1065-2004 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite thesis |last1=García-Santos |first1=G. |year=2007 |title=An ecohydrological and soils study in a montane cloud forest in the National Park of Garajonay, La Gomera (Canary Islands, Spain) |publisher=By-Print |type=PhD Thesis |hdl=1871/12697 }}
*{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.03.008 |title=Modelling canopy conductance under wet and dry conditions in a subtropical cloud forest |journal=Agricultural and Forest Meteorology |volume=149 |issue=10 |pages=1565–72 |year=2009 |last1=García-Santos |first1=G |last2=Bruijnzeel |first2=L.A |last3=Dolman |first3=A.J |bibcode=2009AgFM..149.1565G }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Grubb |first1=PJ |last2=Tanner |first2=EVJ |date=July 1976 |title=The montane forests and soils of Jamaica: a reassessment |journal=Journal of the Arnold Arboretum |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=313–68 |doi=10.5962/p.185865 |jstor=43794514 |s2cid=134572910 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite book |last1=Häger |first1=Achim |year=2006 |title=Einfluss von Klima und Topographie auf Struktur, Zusammensetzung und Dynamik eines tropischen Wolkenwaldes in Monteverde, Costa Rica |doi=10.53846/goediss-2265 |trans-title=Influence of climate and topography on the structure, composition and dynamics of a tropical cloud forest in Monteverde, Costa Rica |language=de |type=Dissertation |hdl=11858/00-1735-0000-0006-B0EE-1 |s2cid=247019823 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Lawrence S |last2=Juvik |first2=James O |last3=Scatena |first3=F. N |year=1995 |chapter=The Puerto Rico Tropical Cloud Forest Symposium: Introduction and Workshop Synthesis |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-2500-3_1 |editor1-first=Lawrence S. |editor1-last=Hamilton |editor2-first=James O. |editor2-last=Juvik |editor3-first=F. N. |editor3-last=Scatena |title=Tropical Montane Cloud Forests |volume=110 |series=Ecological Studies |isbn=978-1-4612-7564-0 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Kappelle |first1=M |year=2004 |chapter=Tropical Montane Forests |pages=1782–92 |doi=10.1016/B0-12-145160-7/00175-7 |editor1-first=Jeffery |editor1-last=Burley |title=Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences |isbn=978-0-12-145160-8 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Ponce-Reyes |first1=Rocío |last2=Reynoso-Rosales |first2=Víctor-Hugo |last3=Watson |first3=James E. M |last4=Vanderwal |first4=Jeremy |last5=Fuller |first5=Richard A |last6=Pressey |first6=Robert L |last7=Possingham |first7=Hugh P |year=2012 |title=Vulnerability of cloud forest reserves in Mexico to climate change |journal=[[Nature Climate Change]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=448–52 |doi=10.1038/nclimate1453 |bibcode=2012NatCC...2..448P |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:276739/UQ276739_OA.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Ponce-Reyes |first1=Rocio |last2=Nicholson |first2=Emily |last3=Baxter |first3=Peter W. J |last4=Fuller |first4=Richard A |last5=Possingham |first5=Hugh |year=2013 |title=Extinction risk in cloud forest fragments under climate change and habitat loss |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=19 |issue=5–6 |pages=518–29 |doi=10.1111/ddi.12064 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2013DivDi..19..518P }}
*{{cite book |first1=Cornelis Gijsbert Gerrit Jan |last1=van Steenis |author-link1=Cornelis Gijsbert Gerrit Jan van Steenis |year=1972 |title=The Mountain Flora of Java |publisher=Brill |oclc=741884105 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Vogelmann |first1=H. W |year=1973 |title=Fog Precipitation in the Cloud Forests of Eastern Mexico |journal=BioScience |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=96–100 |doi=10.2307/1296569 |jstor=1296569 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Cloud forests}}
* [http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/english/homepage.htm Tropical Montane Cloud Forest Initiative] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405190824/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/english/homepage.htm |date=5 April 2008 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141219044133/http://www.monteverdetours.com/monteverde-cloud-forest.html Monteverde Cloud Forest Ecology]
* Roach, John (August 13, 2001). [https://web.archive.org/web/20010822080328/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/08/0813_cloudforest.html "Cloud Forests Fading in the Mist, Their Treasures Little Known"]. [[National Geographic Magazine|National Geographic News]]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20211207052320/https://cloudforestsunited.org/ Cloud Forests United]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012114114/http://www.ambiotek.com/cloudforests/ Tropical hydrology and cloud forests project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071118105731/http://www.ambiotek.com/fiesta/ Hydrology of tropical cloud forests project]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tLZmFDqIEOk Cloud Forest Video – Rara Avis CR]
* [http://www.hydrology.nl/ihppublications/290-tropical-montane-cloud-forests-new-benchmark-book-by-bruijnzeel-scatena-and-hamilton.html Tropical Montane Cloud Forests – Science for Conservation and Management (L.A. Bruijnzeel, F.N. Scatena and L.S. Hamilton, 2011)]
* [http://www.andesconservation.org/ Andes Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research Group]
*{{cite book |first1=A.B. |last1=Costin |first2=D.J. |last2=Wimbush |year=1961 |title=Studies in catchment hydrology in the Australian Alps. IV, Interception by trees of rain, cloud, and fog |oclc=822214607 }}
*{{cite book |first1=Thomas |last1=Stadtmüller |year=1987 |title=Cloud Forests in the Humid Tropics: A Bibliographic Review |isbn=978-92-808-0670-0 }}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Montane forests]]
[[Category:Temperate rainforests]]
[[Category:Subtropical rainforests]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]
[[Category:Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]]