Editing Cognitive neuroscience

{{short description|Scientific field}}
{{For|the academic journal|Cognitive Neuroscience (journal){{!}}Cognitive Neuroscience}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=December 2012}}
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'''Cognitive neuroscience''' is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the [[Biology|biological]] processes and aspects that underlie [[cognition]],<ref>Gazzaniga, Ivry and Mangun 2002, cf. title{{full|date=March 2025}}</ref> with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in [[mental process]]es.<ref name="Butler 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=Michael J.R. |last2=Senior |first2=Carl |title=Toward an Organizational Cognitive Neuroscience |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=November 2007 |volume=1118 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1196/annals.1412.009 |pmid=17717101 |bibcode=2007NYASA1118....1B }}</ref><ref name="Boone 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Boone |first1=Worth |last2=Piccinini |first2=Gualtiero |title=The cognitive neuroscience revolution |journal=Synthese |date=May 2016 |volume=193 |issue=5 |pages=1509–1534 |doi=10.1007/s11229-015-0783-4 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/BOOTCN }}</ref> It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both [[neuroscience]] and [[psychology]], overlapping with disciplines such as [[behavioral neuroscience]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[physiological psychology]] and [[affective neuroscience]].<ref name="Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv">Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv</ref><ref name="Butler 2007" /><ref name="Boone 2016" /> Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in [[cognitive science]] coupled with evidence from [[neurobiology]], and [[Computational neuroscience|computational modeling]].<ref name="Butler 2007" /><ref name="Boone 2016" /><ref name="Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv"/>

Parts of the brain play an important role in this field. [[Neuron]]s play the most vital role, since the main point is to establish an understanding of cognition from a neural perspective, along with the different lobes of the [[cerebral cortex]].

Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental procedures from [[psychophysics]] and [[cognitive psychology]], [[functional neuroimaging]], [[electrophysiology]], [[cognitive genomics]], and [[behavioral genetics]].

Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain [[lesion]]s constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience. The damages in lesioned brains provide a comparable starting point on regards to healthy and fully functioning brains. These damages change the neural circuits in the brain and cause it to malfunction during basic cognitive processes, such as [[memory]] or [[learning]]. People have learning disabilities and such damage, can be compared with how the healthy neural circuits are functioning, and possibly draw conclusions about the basis of the affected cognitive processes. Some examples of learning disabilities in the brain include places in [[Wernicke's area]], the left side of the [[temporal lobe]], and [[Broca's area]] close to the frontal lobe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Learning Disabilities {{!}} BRAIN |url=https://brainaacn.org/learning-disabilities/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=brainaacn.org}}</ref>

Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of [[developmental cognitive neuroscience]]. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences.

Theoretical approaches include [[computational neuroscience]] and [[cognitive psychology]].

==Historical origins==
[[File:Historycognitiveneuroscience.jpg|thumb|alt=Timeline of development of field of cognitive neuroscience|Timeline showing major developments in science that led to the emergence of the field cognitive neuroscience.|400px]]

Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that has emerged from [[neuroscience]] and [[psychology]].{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}} There are several stages in these disciplines that have changed the way researchers approached their investigations and that led to the field becoming fully established.

Although the task of cognitive neuroscience is to describe the neural mechanisms associated with the mind, historically it has progressed by investigating how a certain area of the brain supports a given mental faculty. However, early efforts to subdivide the brain proved to be problematic. The phrenologist movement failed to supply a scientific basis for its theories and has since been rejected. The aggregate field view, meaning that all areas of the brain participated in all behavior,<ref name="Erickson-Davis">{{cite thesis |last1=Erickson-Davis |first1=Cordelia |title=Neurofeedback Training for Parkinsonian Tremor and Bradykinesia |date=16 February 2011 |hdl=10166/626 }}{{pn|date=March 2025}}</ref> was also rejected as a result of brain mapping, which began with [[Hitzig]] and [[Gustav Fritsch|Fritsch]]'s experiments<ref name="Fritsch & Hitzig 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Fritsch |first1=G. |last2=Hitzig |first2=E. |title=Electric excitability of the cerebrum (Über die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns) |journal=Epilepsy & Behavior |date=June 2009 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=123–130 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.03.001 |pmid=19457461 }}</ref> and eventually developed through methods such as [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) and [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI).<ref name="Raichle 2009">{{cite journal | last1 = Raichle | first1 = Marcus E. | year = 2009 | title = A brief history of human brain mapping | journal = Trends in Neurosciences | volume = 32 | issue = 2| pages = 118–126 | doi=10.1016/j.tins.2008.11.001| pmid = 19110322 }}</ref> [[Gestalt psychology|Gestalt theory]], [[neuropsychology]], and the [[cognitive revolution]] were major turning points in the creation of cognitive neuroscience as a field, bringing together ideas and techniques that enabled researchers to make more links between behavior and its neural substrates.

While the Ancient Greeks [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]], [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]] in the 5th and 4th centuries BC,<ref>Guthri WKC (1971). ''A History of Greek Philosophy''. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 348.</ref> and then the Roman physician [[Galen]] in the 2nd century AD<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lloyd |first1=Geoffrey |title=Pneuma between body and soul |journal=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |date=April 2007 |volume=13 |issue=s1 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00409.x }}</ref> already argued that the brain is the source of mental activity, scientific research into the connections between brain areas and cognitive functions began in the second half of the 19th century. The founding insights in the Cognitive neuroscience establishment were:

* In 1861, French neurologist [[Paul Broca]] discovered that a damaged area of the posterior inferior frontal gyrus (pars triangularis, BA45, also known as [[Broca's area]]) in patients caused an inability to speak.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dronkers |first1=N. F. |last2=Plaisant |first2=O. |last3=Iba-Zizen |first3=M. T. |last4=Cabanis |first4=E. A. |title=Paul Broca's historic cases: high resolution MR imaging of the brains of Leborgne and Lelong |journal=Brain |date=2 April 2007 |volume=130 |issue=5 |pages=1432–1441 |doi=10.1093/brain/awm042 |pmid=17405763 }}</ref> His work "Localization of Speech in the Third Left Frontal Cultivation" in 1865 inspired others to study brain regions linking them to sensory and motor functions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schiller |first1=F |date=1979 |title=Paul Broca, Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-03744-1 |pages=192–197 }}</ref>

* In 1870, German physicians [[Eduard Hitzig]] and [[Gustav Fritsch]] stimulated the cerebral cortex of a dog with electricity, causing different muscles to contract depending on the areas of the brain involved. This led to the suggestion that individual functions are localized to specific areas of the brain.<ref name="Fritsch & Hitzig 2009" />

* Italian neuroanatomist professor [[Camillo Golgi]] discovered in the 1870s that nerve cells could be colored using silver nitrate allowing Golgi to argue that all the nerve cells in the nervous system are a continuous, interconnected network.<ref>"Camillo Golgi – Facts". ''NobelPrize.org''. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2025. Tue. 14 Jan 2025. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1906/golgi/facts/ </ref>

* In 1874,  German neurologist and psychiatrist [[Carl Wernicke]] hypothesized an association between the left posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus and the reflexive mimicking of words and their syllables.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wernicke |first1=K |date=1995 |chapter=The aphasia symptom-complex: A psychological study on an anatomical basis (1875) |editor1-first=Paul |editor1-last=Eling |title=Reader in the History of Aphasia: From Franz Gall to Norman Geschwind |volume=4 |location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins Pub Co |pages=69–89 |isbn=978-90-272-1893-3 }}</ref>

* In 1878, Italian professor of pharmacology and physiology [[Angelo Mosso]] associated blood flow with brain functions. He invented the first neuroimaging technique, known as 'human circulation balance'. Angelo Mosso is a forerunner of more refined techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sandrone |first1=Stefano |last2=Bacigaluppi |first2=Marco |last3=Galloni |first3=Marco R. |last4=Cappa |first4=Stefano F. |last5=Moro |first5=Andrea |last6=Catani |first6=Marco |last7=Filippi |first7=Massimo |last8=Monti |first8=Martin M. |last9=Perani |first9=Daniela |last10=Martino |first10=Gianvito |title=Weighing brain activity with the balance: Angelo Mosso's original manuscripts come to light |journal=Brain |date=February 2014 |volume=137 |issue=2 |pages=621–633 |doi=10.1093/brain/awt091 |pmid=23687118 |hdl=2318/141932 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

* In 1887, Spanish neuroanatomist professor [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] (1852–1934) improved the Golgi's method of visualizing nervous tissue under light microscopy by using a technique he termed "double impregnation". He discovered a number of facts about the organization of the nervous system: the nerve cell as an independent cell, insights into degeneration and regeneration, and ideas on [[Neuroplasticity|brain plasticity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rozo |first1=Jairo A. |last2=Martínez-Gallego |first2=Irene |last3=Rodríguez-Moreno |first3=Antonio |title=Cajal, the neuronal theory and the idea of brain plasticity |journal=Frontiers in Neuroanatomy |date=19 February 2024 |volume=18 |doi=10.3389/fnana.2024.1331666 |doi-access=free |pmid=38440067 |pmc=10910026 }}</ref>

* In 1894, neurologist and psychiatrist [[Edward Flatau]] published a human brain atlas “Atlas of the Human Brain and the Course of the Nerve-Fibres” which consisted of long-exposure photographs of fresh brain sections. It contained an overview of the knowledge of the time on the fibre pathways in the central nervous system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freud |first1=S |date=1894 |title=Kritische Besprechungen und literarische Anzeigen: Atlas des menschlichen Gehirns und des Faserverlaufes von Ed. Flatau |journal=Int Klin Rundsch |volume=8 |pages=1131–1132 }}</ref>

* In 1909, German anatomist [[Korbinian Brodmann]] published his original research on brain mapping in the monograph Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Großhirnrinde (Localisation in the cerebral cortex), defining 52 distinct regions of the cerebral cortex, known as [[Brodmann area|Brodmann areas]] now, based on regional variations in structure. These Brodmann areas were associated with diverse functions including sensation, motor control, and cognition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guillery |first1=R. W. |title=Brodmann's ' Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex '. Translated and edited by L AURENCE J. G AREY . (Pp. xviii+300; illustrated; £28 hardback; ISBN 1 86094 176 1.) London: Imperial College Press. 1999. |journal=Journal of Anatomy |date=April 2000 |volume=196 |issue=3 |pages=493–496 |doi=10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.196304931.x |pmc=1468084 }}</ref>
* In 1924, German physiologist and psychiatrist [[Hans Berger]] (1873–1941) recorded the first human [[Electroencephalography|electroencephalogram EEG]], discovering the electrical activity of the brain (called [[Neural oscillation|brain waves]]) and, in particular, the [[Alpha wave|alpha wave rhythm]], which is a type of brain wave.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haas |first1=L F |title=Hans Berger (1873-1941), Richard Caton (1842-1926), and electroencephalography |journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry |date=2003 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=9 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.74.1.9 |pmid=12486257 |pmc=1738204 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=İnce |first1=Rümeysa |last2=Adanır |first2=Saliha Seda |last3=Sevmez |first3=Fatma |title=The inventor of electroencephalography (EEG): Hans Berger (1873–1941) |journal=Child's Nervous System |date=September 2021 |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=2723–2724 |doi=10.1007/s00381-020-04564-z |pmid=32140776 }}</ref>
* A first clinical positron imaging device, a prototype of a modern [[Positron emission tomography|Positron Emission Tomography]] (PET), was invented in 1953 by Dr. Brownell and Dr. Aronow.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brownell |first1=GL |last2=Sweet |first2=WH |date=1953 |title=Localization of brain tumors with positron emitters |journal=Nucleonics |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=40–45 }}</ref> American scientists specializing in nuclear medicine David Edmund Kuhl, Luke Chapman and Roy Edwards developed this new method of tomographic imaging and constructed several tomographic instruments in the late 1950s. Ph.D. in Chemistry Michael E. Phelps was able to invent their insights into the first PET scanner in 1973.<ref>Michael E. Phelps, the Enrico Fermi Award 1998. US Department of energy. Retrieved 18.01.2025 from https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1990s/phelps </ref> PET became a valuable research tool to study brain functioning. This technique can indirectly measure radioactivity signal that indicates increased blood flow associated with increased brain activity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cherry |first1=Simon R. |last2=Sorenson |first2=James A. |last3=Phelps |first3=Michael E. |title=Physics in Nuclear Medicine |date=2012 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |location=60 |isbn=978-1-4557-3367-5 }}</ref>
* In 1971, American chemist and physicist [[Paul Lauterbur|Paul Christian Lauterbur]] invented the idea of MR imaging ([[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]]). In 2003, he received the Nobel Prize. MRI is the investigative tool for contrasting grey and white matter, which makes MRI the choice to study many conditions of the central nervous system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Filler |first1=Aaron |title=The History, Development and Impact of Computed Imaging in Neurological Diagnosis and Neurosurgery: CT, MRI, and DTI |journal=Nature Precedings |date=July 2009 |doi=10.1038/npre.2009.3267.4 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This method contributed to the development of [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] (fMRI), which has been used in many studies in cognitive neuroscience since 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glover |first1=Gary H. |title=Overview of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging |journal=Neurosurgery Clinics of North America |date=April 2011 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=133–139 |doi=10.1016/j.nec.2010.11.001 |pmid=21435566 |pmc=3073717 }}</ref>

===Origins in philosophy===
Philosophers have always been interested in the mind: "the idea that explaining a phenomenon involves understanding the mechanism responsible for it has deep roots in the History of Philosophy from atomic theories in 5th century B.C. to its rebirth in the 17th and 18th century in the works of Galileo, Descartes, and Boyle. Among others, it's Descartes' idea that machines humans build could work as models of scientific explanation."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sirgiovanni|first1=Elisabetta|title=The Mechanistic Approach to Psychiatric Classification|journal=Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences|date=2009|volume=2|issue=2|pages=45–49|url=http://www.crossingdialogues.com/Ms-C09-02.pdf}}</ref>
For example, [[Aristotle]] thought the brain was the body's cooling system and the [[cardiocentric hypothesis|capacity for intelligence was located in the heart]]. It has been suggested that the first person to believe otherwise was the Roman physician [[Galen]] in the second century AD, who declared that the brain was the source of mental activity,<ref name=Uttal2011>{{cite book |last1=Uttal |first1=William R. |title=Mind and Brain: A Critical Appraisal of Cognitive Neuroscience |date=2011 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-29803-2 }}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref> although this has also been accredited to [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gross |first1=Charles G. |title=Aristotle on the Brain |journal=The Neuroscientist |date=July 1995 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=245–250 |doi=10.1177/107385849500100408 }}</ref> However, Galen believed that personality and emotion were not generated by the brain, but rather by other organs. [[Andreas Vesalius]], an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=C.U.M. |title=Cardiocentric Neurophysiology: The Persistence of a Delusion |journal=Journal of the History of the Neurosciences |date=January 2013 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=6–13 |doi=10.1080/0964704X.2011.650899 |pmid=23323528 }}</ref> [[Psychology]], a major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hatfield |first1=Gary |title=Psychology, Philosophy, and Cognitive Science: Reflections on the History and Philosophy of Experimental Psychology |journal=Mind & Language |date=June 2002 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.1111/1468-0017.00196 }}</ref>

===19th century===

====Phrenology====
[[File:Phrenology journal (1848).jpg|thumb|right|upright|A page from the ''American Phrenological Journal'']]
{{Main|Phrenology}}
One of the predecessors to cognitive neuroscience was [[phrenology]], a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] approach that claimed that behavior could be determined by the shape of the [[scalp]]. In the early 19th century, [[Franz Joseph Gall]] and [[J. G. Spurzheim]] believed that the human brain was localized into approximately 35 different sections. In his book, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, Gall claimed that a larger bump in one of these areas meant that that area of the brain was used more frequently by that person. This theory gained significant public attention, leading to the publication of phrenology journals and the creation of phrenometers, which measured the bumps on a human subject's head. While phrenology remained a fixture at fairs and carnivals, it did not enjoy wide acceptance within the scientific community.{{sfn|Bear|Connors|Paradiso|2007|pp=10–11}} The major criticism of phrenology is that researchers were not able to test theories empirically.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}}

====Localizationist view====
The localizationist view was concerned with mental abilities being localized to specific areas of the brain rather than on what the characteristics of the abilities were and how to measure them.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}} Studies performed in Europe, such as those of [[John Hughlings Jackson]], supported this view. Jackson studied patients with [[brain damage]], particularly those with [[epilepsy]]. He discovered that the epileptic patients often made the same [[clonus|clonic]] and tonic movements of muscle during their seizures, leading Jackson to believe that they must be caused by activity in the same place in the brain every time. Jackson proposed that specific functions were localized to specific areas of the brain,<ref>Enersen, O. D. 2009</ref> which was critical to future understanding of the [[brain lobes]].

====Aggregate field view====
According to the aggregate field view, all areas of the brain participate in every mental function.<ref name="Erickson-Davis"/>

[[Pierre Flourens]], a French experimental psychologist, challenged the localizationist view by using animal experiments.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}} He discovered that removing the [[cerebellum]] (brain) in rabbits and pigeons affected their sense of muscular coordination, and that all cognitive functions were disrupted in pigeons when the [[cerebral hemisphere]]s were removed. From this he concluded that the [[cerebral cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and [[brainstem]] functioned together as a whole.<ref name = "Boring, E.G. (1957). A history of experimental psychology. New York. ">Boring, E.G. (1957). A history of experimental psychology. New York.{{pn|date=March 2025}}</ref> His approach has been criticised on the basis that the tests were not sensitive enough to notice selective deficits had they been present.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}}

====Emergence of neuropsychology====
Perhaps the first serious attempts to localize mental functions to specific locations in the brain was by [[Paul Broca|Broca]] and [[Carl Wernicke|Wernicke]]. This was mostly achieved by studying the effects of injuries to different parts of the brain on psychological functions.<ref name=Uttal2011/> In 1861, French neurologist Paul Broca came across a man with a disability who was able to understand the language but unable to speak. The man could only produce the sound "tan". It was later discovered that the man had damage to an area of his left frontal lobe now known as [[Broca's area]]. Carl Wernicke, a [[Germany|German]] [[neurologist]], found a patient who could speak fluently but non-sensibly. The patient had been the victim of a [[stroke]], and could not understand spoken or written language. This patient had a lesion in the area where the left parietal and temporal lobes meet, now known as [[Wernicke's area]]. These cases, which suggested that lesions caused specific behavioral changes, strongly supported the localizationist view. Additionally, Aphasia is a learning disorder which was also discovered by Paul Broca. According to, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Aphasia is a language disorder caused by damage in a specific area of the brain that controls language expression and comprehension.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aphasia |url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/aphasia |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.hopkinsmedicine.org |language=en}}</ref> This can often lead to the person speaking words with no sense known as "word salad" <ref>{{Cite web |title=Wernicke area {{!}} Definition, Location, Function, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Wernicke-area |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

====Mapping the brain====
In 1870, German physicians [[Eduard Hitzig]] and [[Gustav Fritsch]] published their findings of the behavior of animals. Hitzig and Fritsch ran an electric current through the cerebral cortex of a dog, causing different muscles to contract depending on which areas of the brain were electrically stimulated. This led to the proposition that individual functions are localized to specific areas of the brain rather than the cerebrum as a whole, as the aggregate field view suggests.<ref name="Fritsch & Hitzig 2009"/> [[Korbinian Brodmann|Brodmann]] was also an important figure in brain mapping; his experiments based on Franz Nissl's tissue staining techniques divided the brain into fifty-two areas.

===20th century===

====Cognitive revolution====
{{Main|Cognitive revolution}}
At the start of the 20th century, attitudes in America were characterized by pragmatism, which led to a preference for [[behaviorism]] as the primary approach in [[psychology]]. [[John B. Watson|J.B. Watson]] was a key figure with his stimulus-response approach. By conducting experiments on animals he was aiming to be able to predict and control behavior. Behaviorism eventually failed because it could not provide realistic psychology of human action and thought – it focused primarily on stimulus-response associations at the expense of explaining phenomena like thought and imagination. This led to what is often termed as the "cognitive revolution".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mandler |first1=George |title=Origins of the cognitive (r)evolution |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |date=2002 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=339–353 |doi=10.1002/jhbs.10066 |pmid=12404267 |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/22s8x969 }}</ref>

====Neuron doctrine====
{{Main|Neuron doctrine}}
In the early 20th century, Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Camillo Golgi began working on the structure of the neuron. Golgi developed a [[Golgi's method|silver staining method]] that could entirely stain several cells in a particular area, leading him to believe that neurons were directly connected with each other in one cytoplasm. Cajal challenged this view after staining areas of the brain that had less myelin and discovering that neurons were discrete cells. Cajal also discovered that cells transmit electrical signals down the neuron in one direction only. Both Golgi and Cajal were awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for this work on the neuron doctrine.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/|title= The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906}}</ref>

===Mid-late 20th century ===
Several findings in the 20th century continued to advance the field, such as the discovery of [[ocular dominance columns]], recording of single nerve cells in animals, and coordination of eye and head movements. Experimental psychology was also significant in the foundation of cognitive neuroscience. Some particularly important results were the demonstration that some tasks are accomplished via discrete processing stages, the study of attention,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carrasco |first1=Marisa |title=Visual attention: The past 25 years |journal=Vision Research |date=2011 |volume=51 |issue=13 |pages=1484–1525 |doi=10.1016/j.visres.2011.04.012|pmid=21549742 |pmc=3390154 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kastner |first1=Sabine |last2=Ungerleider |first2=Leslie G. |title=Mechanisms of visual attention in the human cortex |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |date=2000 |volume=23 |pages=315–41|pmid=10845067 |doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.315 }}</ref> and the notion that behavioural data do not provide enough information by themselves to explain mental processes. As a result, some experimental psychologists began to investigate neural bases of behaviour. 
Wilder Penfield created maps of primary sensory and motor areas of the brain by stimulating the cortices of patients during surgery. The work of [[Roger Wolcott Sperry|Sperry]] and [[Michael Gazzaniga|Gazzaniga]] on split brain patients in the 1950s was also instrumental in the progress of the field.<ref name=Uttal2011/> The term cognitive neuroscience itself was coined by Gazzaniga and cognitive psychologist [[George Armitage Miller]] while sharing a taxi in 1976.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gazzaniga|first=Michael |author-link=Michael S. Gazzaniga|date=1984|title=Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience|pages=vii|chapter=Preface}}</ref>

====Brain mapping ====
New brain mapping technology, particularly [[functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] and [[positron emission tomography|PET]], allowed researchers to investigate experimental strategies of [[cognitive psychology]] by observing brain function. Although this is often thought of as a new method (most of the technology is relatively recent), the underlying principle goes back as far as 1878 when blood flow was first associated with brain function.<ref name="Raichle 2009" /> [[Angelo Mosso]], an Italian psychologist of the 19th century, had monitored the pulsations of the adult brain through neurosurgically created bony defects in the skulls of patients. He noted that when the subjects engaged in tasks such as mathematical calculations the pulsations of the brain increased locally. Such observations led Mosso to conclude that blood flow of the brain followed function.<ref name="Raichle 2009" />

Commonly the cerebrum is divided into 5 sections: the frontal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobes, parietal lobe, and the insula.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Casillo |first1=Stephanie M. |last2=Luy |first2=Diego D. |last3=Goldschmidt |first3=Ezequiel |title=A History of the Lobes of the Brain |journal=World Neurosurgery |date=February 2020 |volume=134 |pages=353–360 |doi=10.1016/j.wneu.2019.10.155 |pmid=31682988 }}</ref> The brain is also divided into fissures and sulci.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Ribas |first=Guilherme Carvalhal |date=February 2010 |title=The cerebral sulci and gyri |journal=Neurosurgical Focus |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=E2 |doi=10.3171/2009.11.FOCUS09245 |pmid=20121437 }}</ref> The lateral sulcus called the Sylvian Fissure separates the frontal and temporal lobes. The insula is described as being deep to this lateral fissure. The longitudinal fissure separates the lobes of the brain length-wise. Lobes are considered to be distinct in their distribution of vessels.<ref name=":2" /> The overall surface consists of sulci and gyri which are necessary to identify for neuroimaging purposes.<ref name=":3" />

== Notable experiments ==
Throughout the history of cognitive neuroscience, many notable experiments have been conducted. For example, the mental rotation experiment conducted by Kosslyn et al., 1993,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Kosslyn |first1=Stephen M. |last2=Digirolamo |first2=Gregory J. |last3=Thompson |first3=William L. |last4=Alpert |first4=Nathaniel M. |date=1998 |title=Mental rotation of objects versus hands: Neural mechanisms revealed by positron emission tomography |journal=Psychophysiology |language=en |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=151–161 |doi=10.1111/1469-8986.3520151 |pmid=9529941 }}</ref> indicated that the time it takes to mentally rotate an object via imagination takes the same amount of time as actually rotating it; they found that mentally rotating an object activates parts of the brain involved in motor functioning, which may explain this similarity.<ref name=":1" />

Another experiment is describes the two mechanisms of processing visual attention: bottom-up attention, and top-down attention.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Itti |first1=L. |last2=Koch |first2=C. |date=March 2001 |title=Computational modelling of visual attention |journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=194–203 |doi=10.1038/35058500 |pmid=11256080 |url=https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechAUTHORS:20130816-103152921 }}</ref> They define bottom-up attention is the brain visually processing salient images first, and then the surrounding information, while top-down attention involves focusing on task-relevant objects first. The researchers found that the ventral stream focuses on visual recognition, the dorsal stream is involved in the spatial information concerning the object.

As experiments in cognitive neuroscience, what these have in common is that the researchers are measuring activities or behaviors that we can see, and then determining the neural basis of the function and what part of the brain is involved.

==Emergence of a new discipline==

===Birth of cognitive science===
On September 11, 1956, a large-scale meeting of [[Cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivists]] took place at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. [[George Armitage Miller|George A. Miller]] presented his "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two]]" paper<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |doi=10.1037/h0043158 |pmid=13310704|year=1956 |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }}</ref> while [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Allen Newell|Newell]] & [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]] presented their findings on [[computer science]]. [[Ulric Neisser]] commented on many of the findings at this meeting in his 1967 book ''Cognitive Psychology''. The term "psychology" had been waning in the 1950s and 1960s, causing the field to be referred to as "cognitive science". Behaviorists such as Miller began to focus on the representation of language rather than general behavior. [[David Marr (psychologist)|David Marr]] concluded that one should understand any cognitive process at three levels of analysis. These levels include computational, algorithmic/representational, and physical levels of analysis.<ref name="weebly.com">{{cite web|url=http://jungminded.weebly.com/7/post/2013/01/approaches-in-cognitive-psychology.html|title=Approaches in Cognitive Psychology|website=JungMinded}}</ref>

===Combining neuroscience and cognitive science===
Before the 1980s, interaction between neuroscience and cognitive science was scarce.<ref name="petemandik.com">{{cite web | url=http://www.petemandik.com/philosophy/papers/brookmadik.com.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120082225/http://www.petemandik.com/philosophy/papers/brookmadik.com.pdf | archive-date=20 January 2022 | title=The Philosophy of Neuroscience }}</ref> Cognitive neuroscience began to integrate the newly laid theoretical ground in cognitive science, that emerged between the 1950s and 1960s, with approaches in experimental psychology, neuropsychology and neuroscience. (Neuroscience was not established as a unified discipline until 1971<ref>Society for Neuroscience. Date of the first meeting of the Society for Neuroscience</ref>). In the late 1970s, neuroscientist Michael S. Gazzaniga and cognitive psychologist George A. Miller were said to have first coined the term "cognitive neuroscience."<ref>{{cite web |title=About CNS |url=https://www.cogneurosociety.org/background/ |website=Cognitive Neuroscience Society |access-date=25 June 2023}}</ref> In the very late 20th century new technologies evolved that are now the mainstay of the methodology of cognitive neuroscience, including [[Transcranial magnetic stimulation|TMS]] (1985) and [[fMRI]] (1991). Earlier methods used in cognitive neuroscience include [[EEG]] (human EEG 1920) and [[Magnetoencephalography|MEG]] (1968). Occasionally cognitive neuroscientists utilize other brain imaging methods such as [[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[SPECT]]. An upcoming technique in neuroscience is [[Near infrared spectroscopy|NIRS]] which uses light absorption to calculate changes in oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin in cortical areas. In some animals [[Single-unit recording]] can be used. Other methods include [[microneurography]], facial [[Electromyography|EMG]], and [[eye tracking]]. [[Integrative neuroscience]] attempts to consolidate data in databases, and form unified descriptive models from various fields and scales: biology, psychology, anatomy, and clinical practice.<ref name="boundless.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.boundless.com/psychology/history-psychology/origin-psychology/growth-of-psychology-as-a-science--31/ |title=Growth of Psychology as a Science - Origin of Psychology |website=www.boundless.com |access-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130628193855/https://www.boundless.com/psychology/history-psychology/origin-psychology/growth-of-psychology-as-a-science--31/ |archive-date=28 June 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Image:ARTMAP.png|thumb|ARTMAP overview]]
{{Main| Adaptive resonance theory}}
'''Adaptive resonance theory''' ('''ART''') is a cognitive neuroscience theory developed by [[Gail Carpenter]] and [[Stephen Grossberg]] in the late 1970s on aspects of how the brain [[information processing theory|processes information]]. It describes a number of [[artificial neural network]] models which use [[supervised learning|supervised]] and [[unsupervised learning]] methods, and address problems such as [[pattern recognition]] and prediction.<ref name="ARTMAP">Carpenter, G.A.; Grossberg, S.; & Reynolds, J.H. (1991), [http://cns.bu.edu/Profiles/Grossberg/CarGroRey1991NN.pdf ARTMAP: Supervised real-time learning and classification of nonstationary data by a self-organizing neural network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519091848/http://cns.bu.edu/Profiles/Grossberg/CarGroRey1991NN.pdf |date=2006-05-19 }}, ''Neural Networks'', 4, 565-588</ref>

In 2014, [[Stanislas Dehaene]], [[Giacomo Rizzolatti]] and [[Trevor Robbins]], were awarded the [[Grete Lundbeck European Brain Research Prize|Brain Prize]] "for their pioneering research on higher brain mechanisms underpinning such complex human functions as literacy, numeracy, motivated behaviour and social cognition, and for their efforts to understand cognitive and behavioural disorders".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thebrainprize.org/flx/prize_winners/prize_winners_2014|title=The Brain Prize|access-date=2015-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905233429/http://www.thebrainprize.org/flx/prize_winners/prize_winners_2014/|archive-date=2015-09-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Brenda Milner]], [[Marcus Raichle]] and [[John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)|John O'Keefe]] received the [[Kavli Prize]] in Neuroscience "for the discovery of specialized brain networks for memory and cognition"<ref name="Kavli">{{Cite web | url=http://www.kavliprize.org/prizes-and-laureates/prizes/2014-kavli-prize-laureates-neuroscience | title=2014 Kavli Prize Laureates in Neuroscience| date=2014-05-30}}</ref> and O'Keefe shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in the same year with [[May-Britt Moser]] and [[Edvard Moser]] "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain".<ref name="nobelmedicine">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2014/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014|website=NobelPrize.org}}</ref>

In 2017, [[Wolfram Schultz]], [[Peter Dayan]] and [[Ray Dolan (scientist)|Ray Dolan]] were awarded the Brain Prize "for their multidisciplinary analysis of brain mechanisms that link learning to reward, which has far-reaching implications for the understanding of human behaviour, including disorders of decision-making in conditions such as gambling, drug addiction, compulsive behaviour and schizophrenia".,<ref name="2017BBC">{{cite news|last1=Gallager|first1=James|title=Scientists win prize for brain research|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-39183178|access-date=6 March 2017|work=BBC|date=6 March 2017}}</ref>

==Recent trends==
Recently the focus of research had expanded from the localization of brain area(s) for specific functions in the adult brain using a single technology. Studies have been diverging in several different directions: exploring the interactions between different brain areas, using multiple technologies and approaches to understand brain functions, and using computational approaches.<ref>{{cite web|last=Takeo|first=Watanabe|title=Cognitive neuroscience Editorial overview|url=http://people.bu.edu/takeo/takeo/Editorial%20(Current%20Opinion).pdf|access-date=2011-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224221332/http://people.bu.edu/takeo/takeo/Editorial%20(Current%20Opinion).pdf|archive-date=2012-12-24|url-status=dead}}</ref> Advances in non-invasive [[functional neuroimaging]] and associated data analysis methods have also made it possible to use highly naturalistic stimuli and tasks such as feature films depicting social interactions in cognitive neuroscience studies.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hasson|first=Uri|title=Intersubject Synchronization of Cortical Activity During Natural Vision |journal=Science|volume=303|issue=5664|pages=1634–1640|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1126/science.1089506|pmid=15016991|year=2004|bibcode=2004Sci...303.1634H }}</ref>

In recent years, there have been a lot of new advancements in the field of Cognitive Neuroscience. One new technique that has emerged is called shadow imaging. This method has combined different aspects of various neuroimaging techniques to create one that is more versatile. It uses standard light microscopy and melds it with fluorescence labeling of the interstitial fluid in the brain's extracellular space. This technique can help researchers get a bigger and more detailed look at brain tissue. This can help researchers understand more on anatomy and viability for their experiments. This technique has helped to see neurons, microglia, tumor cells and blood capillaries more closely. Shadow imaging is a new approach that shows a lot of promise in the field of neuroimaging.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dembitskaya |first1=Yulia |last2=Boyce |first2=Andrew K. J. |last3=Idziak |first3=Agata |last4=Pourkhalili Langeroudi |first4=Atefeh |last5=Arizono |first5=Misa |last6=Girard |first6=Jordan |last7=Le Bourdellès |first7=Guillaume |last8=Ducros |first8=Mathieu |last9=Sato-Fitoussi |first9=Marie |last10=Ochoa de Amezaga |first10=Amaia |last11=Oizel |first11=Kristell |last12=Bancelin |first12=Stephane |last13=Mercier |first13=Luc |last14=Pfeiffer |first14=Thomas |last15=Thompson |first15=Roger J. |last16=Kim |first16=Sun Kwang |last17=Bikfalvi |first17=Andreas |last18=Nägerl |first18=U. Valentin |title=Shadow imaging for panoptical visualization of brain tissue in vivo |journal=Nature Communications |date=12 October 2023 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=6411 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-42055-2 |pmid=37828018 |pmc=10570379 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.6411D }}</ref>

Another very recent trend in cognitive neuroscience is the use of [[optogenetics]] to explore circuit function and its behavioral consequences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pama |first1=E. A. Claudia |last2=Colzato |first2=Lorenza S. |last3=Hommel |first3=Bernhard |date=6 September 2013 |title=Optogenetics as a neuromodulation tool in cognitive neuroscience |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=4 |page=610 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00610 |pmc=3764402 |pmid=24046763 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This new technology is a combination of genetic targeting of certain neurons and using the imaging technology to see targets in living neurons. This technique allows scientists to see the neurons while they are still intact in animals and be able to trace the electrical happenings in that cell. This new technology has been used successfully in many experiments and it is helping researchers in observing brain activity and understanding its role in disease, behavior and function.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deisseroth |first1=Karl |last2=Feng |first2=Guoping |last3=Majewska |first3=Ania K. |last4=Miesenböck |first4=Gero |last5=Ting |first5=Alice |last6=Schnitzer |first6=Mark J. |title=Next-Generation Optical Technologies for Illuminating Genetically Targeted Brain Circuits |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |date=11 October 2006 |volume=26 |issue=41 |pages=10380–10386 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3863-06.2006 |pmid=17035522 |pmc=2820367 }}</ref>

Researchers have also modified a fMRI and made it more efficient, in a technique called  direct imaging of neuronal activity or DIANA. This group of researchers changed the software to collect data every 5 milliseconds, which is 8 times faster than what the normal technique captures. After, the software can stitch together all of the images taken during the imaging and create a full slice of the brain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prillaman |first1=McKenzie |title=Faster MRI scan captures brain activity in mice |journal=Nature |date=13 October 2022 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-03276-5 |pmid=36229690 }}</ref>

In 2024, Prof. in bioengineering at RTU Liepaja Academy Igor Val Danilov introduced the natural neurostimulation hypothesis that explains the neuromodulation mechanism during pregnancy.<ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024">{{cite journal |last1=Val Danilov |first1=Igor |title=The Origin of Natural Neurostimulation: A Narrative Review of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Techniques |journal=OBM Neurobiology |date=29 November 2024 |volume=08 |issue=4 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2404260 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Because the natural neurostimulation contributes to developing the healthy nervous system during pregnancy, artificial neurostimulation with the physical characteristics of a mother's care for her fetus scaled to the parameters of the specific patient can treat the injured nervous system. Basing on this insight, the novel APIN neurostimulation technique was introduced.<ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024" /><ref name="Val et al 2025">{{cite journal |last1=Val Danilov |first1=Igor |last2=Medne |first2=Dace |last3=Mihailova |first3=Sandra |title=Modulating neuroplasticity with acoustic photonic intellectual neurostimulation (APIN): a case study on neurodegenerative disorder |journal=Brain Stimulation |date=January 2025 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=561 |doi=10.1016/j.brs.2024.12.1005 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Mihailova et al 2025">{{cite journal |last1=Mihailova |first1=Sandra |last2=Medne |first2=Dace |last3=Val Danilov |first3=Igor |title=Acoustic photonic intellectual neurostimulation (APIN) in dysmenorrhea management: a case study on an adolescent |journal=Brain Stimulation |date=January 2025 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=510 |doi=10.1016/j.brs.2024.12.860 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Medne et al 2025">{{cite journal |last1=Medne |first1=Dace |last2=Val Danilov |first2=Igor |last3=Mihailova |first3=Sandra |title=The effect of acoustic and photonic intervention combined with mental load on chronic headaches: a case study |journal=Brain Stimulation |date=January 2025 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=542–543 |doi=10.1016/j.brs.2024.12.955 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The APIN technique exerts its neurotherapeutic effect by inducing mitochondrial stress and microvascular vasodilation of the specific neuronal circuits during an intensive cognitive load.<ref name="Val et al 2025" /><ref name="Mihailova et al 2025" /><ref name="Medne et al 2025" />

=== Cognitive Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence ===
{{Main|Artificial Intelligence}}
Cognitive neuroscience has played a major role in shaping [[Artificial intelligence in healthcare|artificial intelligence]] (AI). By studying how the human brain processes information, researchers have developed AI systems that simulate cognitive functions like learning, pattern recognition, and decision-making. A good example of this is neural networks, which are inspired by the connections between neurons in the brain. These networks form the foundation of many AI applications.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=LeCun |first1=Yann |last2=Bengio |first2=Yoshua |last3=Hinton |first3=Geoffrey |title=Deep learning |journal=Nature |date=28 May 2015 |volume=521 |issue=7553 |pages=436–444 |doi=10.1038/nature14539 |pmid=26017442 |bibcode=2015Natur.521..436L }}</ref>

Deep learning, a subfield of AI, uses neural networks to replicate processes similar to those in the human brain. For instance, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are modeled after the visual system and have transformed tasks like image recognition and speech analysis. AI also benefits from advancements in brain imaging technologies, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG). These tools provide valuable insights into neural activity, which help improve AI systems designed to mimic human thought processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lake |first1=Brenden M. |last2=Ullman |first2=Tomer D. |last3=Tenenbaum |first3=Joshua B. |last4=Gershman |first4=Samuel J. |date=2017 |title=Building machines that learn and think like people |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |language=en |volume=40 |pages=e253 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X16001837 |pmid=27881212 |arxiv=1604.00289 }}</ref>

Despite the progress, replicating the complexity of human cognition remains a challenge. Researchers are now exploring hybrid models that combine neural networks with symbolic reasoning to better mimic how humans think and solve problems. This approach shows promise for addressing some of the limitations of current AI systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langley |first1=Christelle |last2=Cirstea |first2=Bogdan Ionut |last3=Cuzzolin |first3=Fabio |last4=Sahakian |first4=Barbara J. |title=Theory of Mind and Preference Learning at the Interface of Cognitive Science, Neuroscience, and AI: A Review |journal=Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence |date=5 April 2022 |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/frai.2022.778852 |doi-access=free |pmc=9038841 |pmid=35493614 }}</ref>

=== Cognitive Neuroscience and Neurotherapy ===
{{Main|Neurotherapy}}
Cognitive neuroscience contributed to development of novel [[Non-invasive procedure|noninvasive]] [[neurostimulation]] methods and developed in parallel with [[Neurotherapy]] aimed to address symptom control and cure several conditions in medical treatment.<ref name="Chapin, Russell-Chapin_2013">Chapin, T.J.; Russell-Chapin, L.A. (2013). "Neurotherapy and: Brain-based treatment for psychological and behavioral problems". ''Routledge''; 2013 Dec 4. </ref> Noninvasive neurotherapy have attracted significant attention from the scientific community since, these methods can be personalized and used in treatment independent of underlying conditions.<ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024" /> Based on research in cognitive neuroscience, Neurostimulation techniques apply different innovations to exert an energy-based impact on the nervous system by using [[Electrical energy|electrical]], [[Magnetic energy|magnetic]], and/or [[electromagnetic energy]] to treat mental and physical health disorders in patients.<ref name="Chapin, Russell-Chapin_2013" /><ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024" /> Since Neurotherapy aims to heal without harm and implements systemic targeted delivery of an [[Energy|energy stimulus]] to a specific neurological zone in the body to alter neuronal activity and stimulate [[neuroplasticity]], the recent trend in the Cognitive neuroscience is the research of natural neurostimulation.<ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024" />

==Topics==
*[[Attention]]
*[[Neuroscience of cognitive development|Cognitive development]]
*[[Consciousness]]
*[[Creativity]]
*[[Decision-making]]
*[[Emotions]]
*[[Intelligence]]
*[[Language]]
*[[Learning]]
*[[Memory]]
*[[Perception]]
*[[Social cognition]]
*[[Mind Wandering]]

==Methods==
Experimental methods include:
*[[Psychophysics]]
*[[Eye-tracking]]
*[[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]]
*[[Electroencephalography]]
*[[Magnetoencephalography]]
*[[Electrocorticography]]
*[[Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation]]
*[[Mathematical model|Computational Modeling]]

==Notable people==
<!---♦♦♦ Only add a person to this list if they already have their own article on the English Wikipedia ♦♦♦---> 
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦--->
*[[Jesper Mogensen]], Danish neuroscientist and former university professor

==See also==
{{Portal|Philosophy|Psychology}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Binding problem]]
*[[Cognitive biology]]
*[[Cognitive psychology]]
*[[Embodied cognition]]
*[[Experimental psychology]]
*[[Physiological psychology|Cognitive psychophysiology]]
*[[Affective neuroscience]]
*[[Social neuroscience]]
*[[Social cognitive neuroscience]]
*[[Cultural neuroscience]]
*[[List of cognitive neuroscientists]]
*[[Neurochemistry]]
*[[Neuroethology]]
*[[Neuroendocrinology]]
*[[Neuroscience]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last1=Bear |first1=Mark F. |last2=Connors |first2=Barry W. |last3=Paradiso |first3=Michael A. |title=Neuroscience |date=2007 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-6003-4 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Kosslyn |editor1-first=Stephen Michael |editor2-last=Andersen |editor2-first=Richard A. |title=Frontiers in Cognitive Neuroscience |date=1995 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-61110-7 }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Baars |first1=Bernard J. |last2=Gage |first2=Nicole M. |title=Cognition, Brain, and Consciousness: Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience |date=2010 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-381440-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Churchland |first1=Patricia Smith |authorlink1=Patricia Churchland |last2=Sejnowski |first2=Terrence Joseph |authorlink2=Terry Sejnowski |title=The Computational Brain |title-link=The Computational Brain |date=1992 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-33965-0 }}
* {{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203304112-8 |chapter=Classic Cases: Ancient and Modern Milestones in the Development of Neuropsychological Science |title=Classic Cases in Neuropsychology |year=2004 |pages=17–25 |isbn=978-0-203-30411-2 |first1=Chris |last1=Code |editor1-first=Chris |editor1-last=Code |editor2-first=Yves |editor2-last=Joanette |editor3-first=André Roch |editor3-last=Lecours |editor4-first=Claus-W |editor4-last=Wallesch }}
*Enersen, O. D. (2009). ''John Hughlings Jackson.'' In: Who Named It. http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2766.html Retrieved 14 August 2009
*[[Michael Gazzaniga|Gazzaniga, M. S.]], Ivry, R. B. & Mangun, G. R. (2002). ''Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind'' (2nd ed.). New York: W.W.Norton.
*Gallistel, R. (2009). "Memory and the Computational Brain: Why Cognitive Science will Transform Neuroscience." [[Wiley-Blackwell]] {{ISBN|978-1-4051-2287-0}}.
*[[Michael Gazzaniga|Gazzaniga, M. S.]], ''The Cognitive Neurosciences III'', (2004), [[The MIT Press]], {{ISBN|0-262-07254-8}}
*[[Michael Gazzaniga|Gazzaniga, M. S.]], Ed. (1999). ''Conversations in the Cognitive Neurosciences'', [[The MIT Press]], {{ISBN|0-262-57117-X}}.
*Sternberg, Eliezer J. ''Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
*{{cite book |last=Ward|first=Jamie|title=The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience|edition=3rd|url=http://www.routledgetextbooks.com/textbooks/9781848722729/| year=2015 | publisher=Psychology Press| isbn=978-1848722729}}
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=VLQbZGc6vxsC Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition By Roberto Cabeza, Alan Kingstone]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=yzEFK7Xc87YC Principles of neural science By Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, Thomas M. Jessell]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=vlnrEZrx-3QC The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory By Amanda Parker, Edward L. Wilding, Timothy J. Bussey]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TWDYUYSce0C&pg=PA61 Neuronal Theories of the Brain By Christof Koch, Joel L. Davis]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning By Keith James Holyoak, Robert G. Morrison]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=AQZ5jmmpaDAC Handbook of Mathematical Cognition By Jamie I. D. Campbell]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=22ZWi-LVLDcC&pg=PA526 Cognitive Psychology By Michael W. Eysenck, Mark T. Keane]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR17 Development of Intelligence By Mike Anderson]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7_F04wAnUgC&pg=PP9 Development of Mental Processing By Andreas Demetriou, et al.]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=4Yog2csUCFwC&pg=PA151 Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=0ojq3qdhf7QC Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=ILMwZKgkNzIC&pg=PA406 Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=emdwD4Q0HdEC&pg=PR9 Models of Working Memory By Akira Miyake, Priti Shah]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=4Yog2csUCFwC&pg=PR9 Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=fZuFD4AJOscC&pg=PA49 Variation in Working Memory By Andrew R. A. Conway, et al.]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=00UOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7 Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=2L5CDYhA1R4C&pg=PA268 Cognition and Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Jean E. Pretz]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=2OjruFlEWukC&pg=PA415 General Factor of Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Elena Grigorenko]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=NZS11x10QNwC&pg=PR9 Neurological Basis of Learning, Development and Discovery By Anton E. Lawson]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=mBf217lUQpAC&pg=PA89 Memory and Human Cognition By John T. E. Richardson]
*Society for Neuroscience. https://web.archive.org/web/20090805111859/http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=about_SfN#timeline Retrieved 14 August 2009
*[[Takeo Watanabe|Keiji Tanaka]],"Current Opinion in Neurobiology", (2007)

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=cognitive neuroscience}}
* [http://cogneurosociety.org/ Cognitive Neuroscience Society Homepage]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071028090722/http://www.in-mind.org/issue-4/there-s-something-about-zero.html There's Something about Zero]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060828044459/http://www.cognitiveneurosciencearena.com/whatiscognitiveneuroscience.asp What Is Cognitive Neuroscience?, Jamie Ward/Psychology Press]
* [http://www.gocognitive.net goCognitive - Educational Tools for Cognitive Neuroscience (including video interviews)]
* [http://cognet.mit.edu CogNet, The Brain and Cognitive Sciences Community Online, MIT]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060714022154/http://www.cognitiveneurosciencearena.com/ Cognitive Neuroscience Arena, Psychology Press]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722172831/http://www.neuroscience.me/wp-content/uploads/CUJCS-Spring_2002.pdf Cognitive Neuroscience and Philosophy, CUJCS, Spring 2002]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080514235449/http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/cases/caseM/case.html Whole Brain Atlas Top 100 Brain Structures]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090815082715/http://www.neuroscienceforums.com/cognitive-neuroscience/ Cognitive Neuroscience Discussion Group]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140528010810/http://beebrite.tumblr.com/post/22320464480/jonides-neuroscience John Jonides, a big role in Cognitive Neurosciences by Beebrite]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121031165308/http://bookboon.com/en/textbooks/healthcare-science/introduction-to-cognitive-neuroscience Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience]
* [http://agliotilab.org/ AgliotiLAB - Social and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory founded in 2003 in Rome, Italy]

'''Related Wikibooks'''
* [[wikibooks:Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience|Wikibook on cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience]]
* [[wikibooks:Consciousness studies|Wikibook on consciousness studies]]
* [[wikibooks:Neuroscience/Cognitive Neuroscience|Cognitive Neuroscience chapter]] of the [[wikibooks:Neuroscience|Wikibook on neuroscience]]
* [http://grey.colorado.edu/CompCogNeuro/index.php/CCNBook/Main Computational Cognitive Neuroscience wikibook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724170532/https://grey.colorado.edu/CompCogNeuro/index.php/CCNBook/Main |date=2019-07-24 }}

{{Psychology}}
{{Neuroscience}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
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[[Category:Cognitive neuroscience| ]]