Editing Common eland

{{Short description|Second largest antelope in the world}}
{{Redirect|Eland antelope|''Taurotragus derbianus''|Giant eland}}
{{Good article}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Common eland
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite iucn |author1=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group |year=2016 |title=''Tragelaphus oryx'' |volume=2016 |errata=2017 |page=e.T22055A115166135 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22055A50196938.en |access-date=15 September 2024}}</ref>
| image = Taurotragus oryx - young bull - Etosha 2015.jpg
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = * ''T. o. livingstonii''
* ''T. o. oryx''
* ''T. o. pattersonianus''
| taxon = Taurotragus oryx
| authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1766)
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|title=<small>Species synonymy</small><ref name=wilson/>
|''Tragelaphus oryx'' <small>(Pallas, 1766)</small>
|''Taurotragus alces'' <small>([[Lorenz Oken|Oken]], 1816)</small>
|''Taurotragus canna'' <small>(C. H. Smith, 1827)</small>
|''Taurotragus barbatus'' <small>(Kerr, 1792)</small>
|''Taurotragus oreas'' <small>(Pallas, 1777)</small>
|''Taurotragus typicus'' <small>Selous, 1899</small>
|''Taurotragus livingstonei'' <small>([[Philip Sclater|P. L. Sclater]], 1864)</small>
|''Taurotragus billingae'' <small>Kershaw, 1923</small>
|''Taurotragus kaufmanni'' <small>([[Paul Matschie|Matschie]], 1912)</small>
|''Taurotragus niediecki'' <small>(Matschie, 1913)</small>
|''Taurotragus selousi'' <small>[[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1910</small>
|''Taurotragus triangularis'' <small>(Günther, 1889)</small>
|''Taurotragus pattersonianus'' <small>Lydekker, 1906</small>
}}
| range_map = Common eland.png
| range_map_caption = Common eland range
}}
[[File:Taurotragus oryx.jpg|thumb|Two common elands drinking in a Chudop waterhole, Etosha National Park, Namibia]]
The '''common eland''' ('''''Taurotragus oryx'''''), also known as the '''southern eland''' or '''eland antelope''', is a large [[savanna]]h and [[plain]]s [[antelope]] found in [[East Africa|East]] and [[Southern Africa]]. An adult male is around {{cvt|1.6|m|ft}} tall at the shoulder and can weigh up to {{cvt|942|kg|lb}} with a typical range of {{cvt|500|–|600|kg|lb}}. Females are around {{cvt|1.4|m|ft}} tall and weigh {{cvt|340|–|445|kg|lb}}. It is the second-largest antelope in the world, being slightly smaller on average than the [[giant eland]].<ref name=Pappas>{{cite journal | url = http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/689_Taurotragus_oryx.pdf | last = Pappas | first = LA | author2 = Elaine Anderson | author3 = Lui Marnelli | author4 = Virginia Hayssen | date = 5 July 2002 | journal = [[Mammalian Species]] | pages = 1–5 | title = Taurotragus oryx | volume = 689 | doi = 10.1644/1545-1410(2002)689<0001:TO>2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 198968884 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111223133831/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/689_Taurotragus_oryx.pdf | archive-date = 23 December 2011 }}</ref> It was scientifically described by [[Peter Simon Pallas]] in 1766.

Mainly a [[herbivore]], its diet is primarily grasses and leaves. Common elands form herds of up to 500 animals, but are not [[Territory (animal)|territorial]]. The common eland prefers [[habitat]]s with a wide variety of [[flowering plant]]s such as savannah, [[woodland]]s, and open and [[Montane ecology|montane]] [[grassland]]s; it avoids dense [[forest]]s. It uses loud barks, visual and postural movements, and the [[flehmen response]] to [[Animal communication|communicate]] and warn others of danger. The common eland is used by humans for [[leather]], and meat and has been [[domestication|domesticated]] in southern Africa. Eland milk contains more [[butterfat]] than cow's milk, and can keep longer without [[pasteurising]].{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

It is native to [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eswatini]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Lesotho]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Rwanda]], [[South Africa]], [[South Sudan]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]], but is no longer present in [[Burundi]]. While the common eland's population is decreasing, it is classified as of [[least concern]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]].

==Etymology==
The scientific name of the common eland is ''Taurotragus oryx'', composed of three words: ''tauros'', ''tragos'', and ''oryx''. ''Tauros'' is [[Greek language|Greek]] for a bull or bullock, meaning the same as the [[Latin]] ''taurus''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Taurus|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/taurus|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Merriam-Webster}}</ref> ''Tragos'' is Greek for a male goat, referring to the tuft of hair that grows in the eland's ear and its resemblance to a goat's beard.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harper|first=Douglas|title=Tragos|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=tragos&searchmode=none|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref> ''Oryx'' is Latin and Greek ([[Genitive case|genitive]]: ''orygos'') for [[pickaxe]], referring to the pointed horns of North African antelopes like the common eland and [[scimitar-horned oryx]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Harper|first=Douglas|title=Oryx|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=Taurotragus+oryx&searchmode=none|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref>

The name "eland" is [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] for "elk" or "moose",<ref name=TT>{{cite web|url=http://www.tititudorancea.com/z/common_eland.htm |title=Common Eland |publisher=Tititudorancea.com |date=14 October 2010 |access-date=5 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717063215/http://www.tititudorancea.com/z/common_eland.htm |archive-date=July 17, 2011 }}</ref> from Dutch ''eland'', from obsolete German ''Elend'', probably from obsolete Lithuanian ''ellenis''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eland|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/eland?q=eland|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714001837/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/eland?q=eland|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2012|work=[[Oxford University Press]]|publisher=Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Eland|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eland|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Merriam-Webster}}</ref> When [[Dutch people|Dutch]] settlers came to the [[Cape of Good Hope]], creating the [[Dutch Cape Colony]], they named the animal after the large, herbivorous [[moose]]. In Dutch, the animal is called "eland antelope" to distinguish it from the moose, which is found in the northern boreal forests.<ref name=TT/>

==Physical description==
Common elands are spiral-horned antelopes. They are [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]], with females being smaller than the males.<ref name=Harris>{{cite web | last = Harris | first = H | title = Husbandry Guidelines For The Common Eland | url = http://nswfmpa.org/Husbandry%20Manuals/Published%20Manuals/Mammalia/Common%20Eland.pdf | access-date = 2012-04-14 | date = April 30, 2010 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120417095132/http://nswfmpa.org/Husbandry%20Manuals/Published%20Manuals/Mammalia/Common%20Eland.pdf | archive-date = April 17, 2012 }}</ref> Females weigh {{cvt|300|-|600|kg}}, measure {{cvt|200|-|280|cm}} from the snout to the base of the tail and stand {{cvt|125|-|153|cm}} at the shoulder. Bulls weigh {{cvt|400|-|942|kg}},<ref>{{cite book| last = Kingdon | first = J | year = 1997 | title = The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals | publisher = [[Princeton University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-691-11692-1}}</ref> are {{cvt|240|-|345|cm}} from the snout to the base of the tail and stand {{cvt|150|-|183|cm}} at the shoulder. The tail is {{cvt|50|-|90|cm}} long.<ref name=Pappas/> Male elands can weigh up to {{cvt|1000|kg|lb}}.<ref name = "seaworld1"/>

[[File:Eland skeleton at MAV-USP.jpg|thumb|upright|Skeleton of common eland]]
Their coat differs geographically, with elands in northern part of their range having distinctive markings (torso stripes, markings on legs, dark garters and a spinal crest) that are absent in the south.<ref name=estes>{{cite book|last=Estes |first= RD | title = The Safari Companion: A Guide to Watching African Mammals, Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, and Primates | year = 1999 | publisher = Chelsea Green Publishing | isbn=978-0-9583223-3-1| pages = [https://archive.org/details/safaricompaniong00este_0/page/154 154] | chapter = Bushbuck Tribe }}</ref> Apart from a rough mane, the coat is smooth. Females have a tan coat, while the coats of males are darker, with a bluish-grey tinge. Bulls may also have a series of vertical white stripes on their sides (mainly in parts of the [[Karoo]] in [[South Africa]]). As males age, their coat becomes more grey. Males also have dense [[fur]] on their foreheads and a large [[dewlap]] on their throats.<ref name = Pappas/>

Both sexes have horns with a steady spiral ridge (resembling that of the [[Cape bushbuck|bushbuck]]). The horns are visible as small buds in newborns and grow rapidly during the first seven months.<ref name="skinner"/> The horns of males are thicker and shorter than those of females (males' horns are {{cvt|43|-|66|cm}} long and females' are {{cvt|51|-|69|cm}} long), and have a tighter spiral. Males use their horns during [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rutting season]] to wrestle and [[headbutt|butt heads]] with rivals, while females use their horns to protect their young from predators.<ref name = Pappas/>

The common eland is the slowest antelope, with a peak speed of {{cvt|40|km/h}} that tires them quickly. However, they can maintain a {{cvt|22|km/h}} [[Trot (horse gait)|trot]] indefinitely. Elands are capable of jumping up to {{cvt|2.5|m}} from a standing start when startled<ref name=estes/> (up to {{cvt|3|m}} for young elands).<ref name = Pappas/> The common eland's life expectancy is generally between 15 and 20 years; in captivity, some live up to 25 years.<ref name = Pappas/>

Eland herds are accompanied by a loud clicking sound that has been subject to considerable speculation. The weight of the animal may cause the two halves of its [[hooves]] to splay apart, and the clicking is the result of the hoof snapping together when the animal raises its leg.<ref name="Carnaby2008">{{cite book | author = Carnaby T | title = Beat About the Bush: Mammals | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=4u-VroUwC6QC&pg=PA172 172] | year = 2008 | publisher = Jacana Media |isbn = 978-1-77009-240-2}}</ref> The sound carries some distance from a herd, and may be a form of communication.<ref name = "seaworld1">{{cite web | url = http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/artiodactyla/common-eland.htm | title = Animal Bytes – Common Eland | publisher = Seaworld.org | access-date = 2012-04-08 | archive-date = 2012-06-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120619004728/http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/artiodactyla/common-eland.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
{{cladogram|align=left|title=
|caption=Phylogenetic relationships of the mountain nyala from combined analysis of all molecular data (Willows-Munro et.al. 2005)
|cladogram={{clade | style=font-size:90%;line-height:100%;width:300px;
|1={{clade
|1={{clade |label1=
 |1= {{clade|label1=
           |1=
         {{clade
         |label1=
         |1={{clade
            |1={{clade
                |1={{clade
                   |1=[[Giant eland]]
                   |2='''Common eland'''}}
                |2={{clade
                   |1=[[Greater kudu]]
                   |2={{clade
                       |1=[[Mountain nyala]]
                       |2={{Clade
                           |1={{clade
                              |1={{clade
                                  |1=[[Bongo (antelope)|Bongo]]
                                  |2=[[Sitatunga]]}}
                           |2={{Clade
                           |1={{clade
                              |1={{clade
                                  |1=[[Cape bushbuck]]
|2=[[Harnessed bushbuck]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} 
         |2=[[Lowland nyala]]}}
|2=[[Lesser kudu]] }} }} }} }} }} }}
The common eland was first described in 1766 by German [[zoologist]] and [[botanist]] [[Peter Simon Pallas]]. It belongs to the order [[Artiodactyla]], family [[Bovid]]ae, and subfamily [[Bovinae]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Common_eland::sub::Taxonomy |title=Common eland: Taxonomy |publisher=Museumstuff.com |access-date=5 January 2011}}</ref> Common elands are sometimes considered part of the [[genus]] ''[[Tragelaphus]]'' on the basis of [[molecular phylogenetics]], but are usually categorized as ''[[Taurotragus]]'', along with the [[giant eland]] (''T. derbianus'').<ref name=Pappas/>

===Subspecies===
Three subspecies of common elands have been recognized, though their validity has been disputed.<ref name="IUCN"/><ref name=wilson>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla | id = 14200717 | page = 696–7}}</ref><ref name=Pappas/><ref name=Harris/><ref name=skinner>{{cite book | last = Skinner | first = JD | title = The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion | year = 2005 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-521-84418-5 | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=iqwEYkTDZf4C&pg=PA637 637–9] |edition = 3rd |author2=Chimimba, CT | chapter = Ruminantia }}</ref>

* '''''T. o. oryx''''' ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1766; Cape eland): also called ''alces'', ''barbatus'', ''canna'' and ''oreas''. It is found in [[Southern Africa|Southern]] and southwestern Africa. The fur is [[Tawny (color)|tawny]] and adults lose their stripes.
* '''''T. o. livingstonii''''' ([[Philip Sclater|Sclater]], 1864; Livingstone's eland): also called ''kaufmanni'', ''niediecki'', ''selousi'' and ''triangularis''. It is found in the [[Central Zambezian miombo woodlands]]. Livingstone's eland has brown fur with up to 12 stripes.
* '''''T. o. pattersonianus''''' ([[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1906; East African eland or Patterson's eland): also called ''billingae''. It is found in [[East Africa]], hence its common name. Like Livingstone's eland, its fur can also have up to 12 stripes.
:Found by and named after [[John Henry Patterson (author)|John Henry Patterson]], who describes the specimen in ''[[The Man-eaters of Tsavo]]'' (1907).<ref name="patterson1907">{{Cite book |last=Patterson |first=John Henry |title=The Man-Eaters of Tsavo, and Other East African Adventures |url=https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/3810 |year=1907 |chapter=Chapter XXVII: The Finding of the New Eland}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:The book of antelopes (1894) Taurotragus oryx.png|Illustration of ''T. o. oryx''.
File:The book of antelopes (1894) Taurotragus oryx livingstonii.png|Illustration of ''T. o. livingstonii''.
File:Taurotragus oryx pattersonianus 1907.jpg|Illustration of ''T. o. pattersonianus''.
</gallery>

==Genetics and evolution==
[[File:San Painting, Ukalamba Drakensberge 1.JPG|thumb|[[San rock art|Rock art]] produced by the [[San people]] depicting an eland, [[Clarens Formation]], South Africa]]
Male elands have 31 [[diploid]] chromosomes and females have 32. The male (Y) chromosome has been [[Chromosomal translocation|translocated]] to the [[Acrocentric|short arm]] of an [[autosome]].<ref name = Pappas/> Both the [[X chromosome]] and [[Y chromosome]] [[Replication (statistics)|replicate]] late; they do not match well and are variable. The chromosomes resemble those of the [[greater kudu]] (''Tragelaphus strepsiceros'').<ref name=taxo>{{cite book | last = Groves | first = CP |author2=Grubb P | title = Ungulate Taxonomy | year = 2011 | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | location = Maryland | isbn = 978-1-4214-0093-8 | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=v3uZtA1ZpTAC&pg=PA142 142] | chapter = Artiodactyla }}</ref>

Male elands and female [[greater kudu]]s can produce a viable male [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]], though whether it is [[Sterility (physiology)|sterile]] is unknown. An accidental crossing of an East African common eland (''T. o. {{proper name|pattersonianus}}''') with an East African kudu (''T. s. bea'') occurred in the [[San Diego Zoo Safari Park]]. This was believed to be due to the absence of male kudus in the herd. The hybrid produced was sterile. The study confirmed the chromosome numbers of both the eland and the kudu and the strangeness of their attached Y chromosomes. Attempt matings of male elands with [[cattle|domestic]] (''Bos primigenius'') and [[zebu]] cows (''Bos indicus'') indicated the species are not able to interbreed.<ref name=jorge>{{cite journal|last=Jorge|first=W.|author2=Butler, S. |author3=Benirschke, K. |title=Studies on a male eland x kudu hybrid|journal=Reproduction|date=1 January 1976|volume=46|issue=1|pages=13–16|doi=10.1530/jrf.0.0460013|pmid=944778|doi-access=free}}</ref> Female elands have acted as [[surrogacy|surrogates]] for [[Bongo (antelope)|bongos]].<ref name = Pappas/>

The Bovidae family ancestors of the common eland arose approximately 20 million years ago in Africa; [[fossil]]s are found throughout Africa and France, but the best records are in sub-Saharan Africa. The first members of the [[tribe (biology)|tribe]] Tragelaphini appear six million years ago during the [[late Miocene]]. An extinct ancestor of the common eland (''Taurotragus arkelli'') appears in the [[Pleistocene]] in northern [[Tanzania]] and the first ''T. oryx'' fossil appears in the [[Holocene]] in [[Algeria]].<ref name = Pappas/>

In 2010, a genetic study was made basing on the evolutionary history of common elands. Using material from East and Southern Africa, analysis of mitochondrial DNA control-region fragments from 122 individuals revealed information concerning the phylogeography, genetic diversity, and demographic history of the species. The conclusions supported the presence of a long-standing population in the southern Africa and a mosaic of Pleistocene refugia in eastern Africa. The similarity of dates obtained from other studies indicates a significant genetic event around 200 ka.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lorenzen|first=Eline D.|author2=Masembe, Charles |author3=Arctander, Peter |author4= Siegismund, Hans R. |title=A long-standing Pleistocene refugium in southern Africa and a mosaic of refugia in East Africa: insights from mtDNA and the common eland antelope|journal=Journal of Biogeography|date=1 March 2010|volume=37|issue=3|pages=571–581|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02207.x|s2cid=85986567 }}</ref>

==Habitat and distribution==
[[File:Common elands at Cape of Good Hope 01.jpg|thumb|Common elands at [[Cape of Good Hope]], South Africa]]
Common elands live on the open plains of Southern Africa and along the foothills of the great southern African plateau. The species extends north into [[Ethiopia]] and most arid zones of [[South Sudan]], west into eastern [[Angola]] and [[Namibia]], and south to [[South Africa]]. However, a low density of elands exists in Africa due to poaching and human settlement.

Elands prefer to live in semiarid areas that contain many shrub-like bushes, and often inhabit grasslands, woodlands, subdesert, bush, and mountaintops with altitudes of about {{convert|15,000|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=adw>{{cite web|title=Taurotragus Oryx:Information|url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Taurotragus_oryx.html|work=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology|publisher=Animal Diversity Web}}</ref> Elands do, however, avoid forests, swamps and deserts. The places inhabited by elands generally contain ''[[Acacia]]'', ''[[Combretum]]'', ''[[Commiphora]]'', ''[[Diospyros]]'', ''[[Grewia]]'', ''[[Rhus]]'', and ''[[Ziziphus]]'' trees and shrubs; some of these also serve as their food.

Eland can be found in many national parks and reserves today, including [[Nairobi National Park]] and [[Tsavo East National Park]], [[Tsavo West National Park]], [[Masai Mara National Reserve]], (Kenya); [[Serengeti National Park]], [[Ruaha National Park]] and [[Tarangire National Park]], [[Ngorongoro Crater]], (Tanzania); [[Kagera National Park]] (Rwanda); [[Nyika National Park]] (Malawi); Lake Mburo National Park (Uganda); Kidepo Valley National Park (Uganda); [[Luangwa Valley]] and [[Kafue National Park]] (Zambia); [[Hwange National Park]], [[Matobo National Park]], [[Tuli, Zimbabwe|Tuli Safari Area]] and [[Chimanimani National Park|Chimanimani Eland Sanctuary]] (Zimbabwe); [[Kruger National Park]], [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]], [[Giant's Castle]] and [[Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve|Suikerbosrand NR]] (South Africa).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wackywildlifewonders.com/files/animals/eland.html |title=Wild Animals of Africa-Common eland |publisher=Wackywildlifewonders.com |access-date=5 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106004048/http://www.wackywildlifewonders.com/files/animals/eland.html |archive-date=6 January 2011 }}</ref>

They live on home ranges that can be 200–400&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> for females and [[Juvenile (organism)|juveniles]] and 50&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> for males.<ref name=lorezen>{{cite journal|last1=Eline D. Lorezen|author2=Charles Masembe |author3=Peter Arctander |author4=Hans R. Siegismund |title=A long-standing Pleistocene refugium in southern Africa and a mosaic of refugia in East Africa: insights from mtDNA and the common eland antelope|journal=Journal of Biogeography|year=2010|volume=37|pages=571–581|url=https://ucberkeley.academia.edu/ElineLorenzen/Papers/903464/A_long-standing_Pleistocene_refugium_in_southern_Africa_and_a_mosaic_of_refugia_in_East_Africa_insights_from_mtDNA_and_the_common_eland_antelope|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02207.x|first1=Eline D.|issue=3|s2cid=85986567 }}</ref><ref name="thinkquest1"/>

==Ecology and behavior==
[[File:Taurotragus oryx (herd).jpg|thumb|Common elands resting in herds]]
Common elands are [[nomad]]ic and [[crepuscular]]. They eat in the morning and evening, rest in shade when hot, and remain in sunlight when cold. They are commonly found in herds numbering up to 500, with individual members remaining in the herd from several hours to several months. Juveniles and mothers tend to form larger herds, while males may separate into smaller groups or wander individually. During [[Estrus cycle|estrus]], mainly in the rainy season, groups tend to form more regularly.<ref name = Pappas/> In Southern Africa, common elands will often associate with herds of [[zebra]]s, [[roan antelope]]s and [[oryx]]es.<ref name = Burton>{{cite book | last = Burton | first = RM | title = International wildlife encyclopedia | year = 2002 | publisher = [[Marshall Cavendish]] | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7614-7266-7 | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=0gsPc5lk7_UC&pg=PA757 757–9] | edition = 3rd | chapter = Eland }}</ref>

Common elands communicate via gestures, vocalizations, [[Olfaction|scent cues]], and [[Display (zoology)|display behaviors]]. The [[flehmen response]] also occurs, primarily in males in response to contact with female urine or genitals. Females urinate to indicate fertility during the appropriate phase of their estrous cycle, as well as to indicate their lack of fertility when harassed by males.<ref name = Pappas/> If eland bulls find any of their predators nearby, they bark and attempt to attract the attention of others by trotting back and forth until the entire herd is conscious of the danger.<ref name=Burton/> Some of their main [[predator]]s include [[lion]]s, [[African wild dog]]s, [[cheetah]]s, and [[spotted hyena]]s. Eland calves are more vulnerable than adults to their predators.<ref name = Pappas/>

===Diet=== 
[[File:Elands Thoiry 19802.jpg|thumb|right|Elands are mainly grazers.]]
Common elands are [[herbivore]]s that [[Browsing (herbivory)|browse]] during drier winter, but have also adapted to [[grazing]] during the rainy season when grasses are more common and nutritious.<ref name = Pappas/> They require a high-[[protein]] diet of [[succulent plant|succulent]] leaves from [[flowering plant]]s, but will consume lower-quality plant material if available, including [[forb]]s, trees, shrubs, grasses, seeds, and tubers.<ref name = Pappas/><ref name = "adw"/><ref name="thinkquest1">{{cite web | url = http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/wildlife/common_eland.shtml | title = The Living Africa: Wildlife – Bovid Family – Common Eland | publisher = Library.thinkquest.org | access-date = 2012-04-09 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120217221335/http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/wildlife/common_eland.shtml | archive-date = 2012-02-17 }}</ref> Grasses that elands eat include ''[[Setaria]]'' and ''[[Themeda]]'' and fruits from ''[[Securinega]]'' and ''[[Strychnos]]''. Large antelope can survive on lower-quality food in times of little rain. <!-- repeat Elands feed during the night in hot weather and sleep for long periods during the day. -->

Most of their water is obtained from their food, though they drink water when available.<ref name = Pappas/> As they quickly adjust to the surroundings due to seasonal changes and other causes, they change their feeding habits. They also use their horns to break off branches that are hard to reach.<ref name=rafferty>{{cite book|editor-last=Rafferty|editor-first=John P.|title=Grazers|year=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Pub.|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-61530-465-3|pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=m-zX8zBKogAC&pg=PA77 77–8] | edition = 1st |chapter=Elands, Antelopes}}</ref>

=== Thermoregulation ===
Common elands have several thermoregulatory adaptations to help them withstand the extreme temperatures of their environments. Using peripheral thermal receptors on the skin, elands can sense heat and increase or decrease evaporative cooling accordingly.<ref name="Finch-1972">{{Cite journal |last=Finch |first=Va |date=1972-06-01 |title=Thermoregulation and heat balance of the East African eland and hartebeest |url=https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/ajplegacy.1972.222.6.1374 |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Legacy Content |volume=222 |issue=6 |pages=1374–1379 |doi=10.1152/ajplegacy.1972.222.6.1374 |pmid=5030193 |issn=0002-9513|url-access=subscription }}</ref> On sunnier days, common elands maintain a cooler skin temperature relative to their inner body temperature.<ref name="Finch-1972" /> Elands achieve cooler skin temperatures by increasing cutaneous [[evaporation]]. This allows them to feel cooler, even though their internal body temperature stays relatively the same throughout the day. The eland can also conserve water by increasing its body temperature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Cr |date=1969-07-01 |title=Metabolism, respiratory changes, and water balance of an antelope, the eland |url=https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/ajplegacy.1969.217.1.317 |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Legacy Content |volume=217 |issue=1 |pages=317–320 |doi=10.1152/ajplegacy.1969.217.1.317 |pmid=5785895 |issn=0002-9513|url-access=subscription }}</ref> When temperatures rise above a certain threshold, an increase in [[sweating]] and panting is also observed.<ref name="Finch-1972" /> Common elands use their sparse fur coats to dissipate excess heat via reradiation.<ref name="Finch-1972" /> The [[dewlap]] is also believed to play a role in thermoregulation.<ref name="Bro-Jørgensen-2016">{{Cite journal |last=Bro-Jørgensen |first=Jakob |date=December 2016 |title=Evolution of the ungulate dewlap: thermoregulation rather than sexual selection or predator deterrence? |journal=Frontiers in Zoology |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=33 |doi=10.1186/s12983-016-0165-x |issn=1742-9994 |pmc=4949748 |pmid=27437025 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Due to its high surface area to volume ratio, it may allow for efficient thermoregulation in larger common elands with larger dewlaps.<ref name="Bro-Jørgensen-2016" />

===Sociability and reproduction===
[[File:Aa knowsley 2elandsfighting.jpg|thumb|right|Two male elands fighting over [[Dominance (ethology)|dominance]], [[Knowsley Safari Park]]]]
Females are [[sexual maturity|sexually mature]] at 15 to 36 months and males at 4 to 5 years. [[Mating]] may occur anytime after reaching sexual maturity, but is mostly seen in the rainy season. In Zambia, young are born in July and August, while elsewhere this is the mating season.<ref name="adw"/> Mating begins when elands gather to feed on lush, green plains with plentiful grass, and some males and females start mating with each other in separate pairs. Males chase the females to find out if they are in [[estrus]]. They also test the female's urine. Usually, a female chooses the most dominant and fit male to mate with. Sometimes, she runs away from males trying to mate, causing more attraction. This results in fights between males, in which their hard horns are used. A female allows a male to mount after two to four hours. Males usually keep close contact with females in the mating period.<ref name="thinkquest1"/> The dominant male can mate with more than one female.<ref name="adw"/> Females have a [[gestation]] period of nine months, and give birth to only one calf each time.<ref name=uu>{{cite web|url=http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Taurotragus_oryx.html |title=Taurotragus oryx (Common eland)-Ontogeny and Reproduction |publisher=Ultimateungulate.com |access-date=5 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109233047/http://ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Taurotragus_oryx.html |archive-date=9 January 2011 }}</ref>

Males, females, and juveniles each form separate social groups. The male groups are the smallest; the members stay together and search for food or water sources. The female group is much larger and covers greater areas.<ref name="adw"/> They travel the grassy plains in wet periods and prefer bushy areas in dry periods. Females have a complex [[linear hierarchy]]. The nursery and juvenile group is naturally formed when females give birth to calves. After about 24 hours of the delivery, the mother and calf join this group. The calves start befriending each other and stay back in the nursery group, while the mother returns to the female group. The calves leave the nursery group when they are at least two years old and join a male or female group.<ref name="uu"/>

===Diseases and parasites===
Common elands are resistant to [[trypanosomiasis]], a protozoan infection that has the [[tsetse fly]] as a [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]], but not to the ''[[Rhipicephalus]]''-transmitted disease [[Tropical theileriosis|theileriosis]]. The disease-causing bacterium ''Theileria taurotragi'' has caused many eland deaths. ''[[Clostridium chauvoei]]'', another bacterium, can be harmful, as well. Elands are also hosts to several kinds of [[tick]]s. In one study, an eland was found to be host to the ''[[Amblyomma]]'' species ''A. gemma'' and ''A. variegatum'', and ''[[Rhipicephalus]]'' species ''R. decoloratus'', ''R. appendiculatus'', ''R. evertsi'', ''[[Rhipicephalus pulchellus|R. pulchellus]]'' and ''R. pravus''. Elands produce [[antibody|antibodies]] for ''[[Brucella]]'' bacteria, but none for ''[[Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis|Mycobacterium paratuberculosis]]'' or various types of [[pneumonia]] like contagious bovine pneumonia and contagious caprine pneumonia, normally infectious in cows or antelopes.<ref name=Pappas/>

==Interaction with humans==
===Conservation===
[[File:Taurotragus.oryx-01-Krakow.jpg|thumb|left|Common eland in a zoo in [[Kraków]], Poland]]
Currently, common elands are not endangered. They are conserved by the United States Endangered Species Act, and regulated in international trade by the [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]].<ref name=Antelope>{{cite web|last=Dolly|first=Stephanie L.|title=Common Eland|url=http://www.antelopetag.com/assets/docs/Antelope/Common_Eland.pdf|author2=Stephen Shurter}}</ref> A 2016 assessment for the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) [[Red List]] estimates the number of mature individuals to be 90,000-110,000, with populations considered stable or increasing in the countries of Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Malawi, Kenya and Tanzania.<ref name="IUCN"/>

The population is, however, gradually decreasing due to habitat loss, caused by expanding human settlements and poaching for its superior meat.<ref name=pdf3>{{cite book|last=East|first=compiled by R.|title=West and Central Africa.|year=1990|publisher=IUCN|location=Gland|isbn=978-2-8317-0016-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n22ER5vZqTkC&q=common+eland&pg=PA131|page=131|chapter-format=PDF|chapter=Common Eland (''Tragelaphus oryx'')}}</ref> As they are docile and inactive most of the time, they can easily be killed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/artiodactyla/common-eland.htm#ec |title=Ecology and conservation of the eland |publisher=Seaworld.org |access-date=5 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619004728/http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/artiodactyla/common-eland.htm#ec |archive-date=19 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The species became extinct in [[Swaziland|Eswatini]]<ref name="wilson"/> and [[Zimbabwe]],<ref name="thinkquest1"/> but has been reintroduced.

The IUCN states that about half of the estimated total population lives in protected areas and 30% on private land. Protected areas that support major populations include [[Omo National Park|Omo]] (Ethiopia), [[Serengeti]], Katavi, Ruaha, and Selous-Kilombero (Tanzania), [[Kafue]] and North Luangwa ([[Zambia]]), [[Nyika Plateau|Nyika]] ([[Malawi]]), [[Etosha]] ([[Namibia]]), [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]] ([[Botswana]]/[[South Africa]]) and [[Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park]] (South Africa).<ref name="IUCN"/> Most of these populations appear to be stable. Relatively large numbers of common elands now live on private land, particularly in Namibia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, reflecting its value as a trophy animal. Common elands have also been widely domesticated in Zimbabwe, South Africa, Kenya, Russia, and Ukraine.<ref name="IUCN"/><ref name=consv>{{cite book|editor-last=East|editor-first=Rod |title=African antelope database 1998|year=1999|publisher=The IUCN Species Survival Commission|location=Gland, Switzerland|isbn=978-2-8317-0477-7 |page=139 |chapter=Common Eland (Conservation status)}}</ref>

===Uses===
[[File:Skinningeland.png|thumb|A common eland being [[skinning|skinned]] for its leather.]]
[[File:Tame Eland - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Tame elands]]
[[File:Grootfontein COA.svg|thumb|upright|Coat of arms of [[Grootfontein]], Namibia]]
The common eland is sometimes farmed and hunted for its meat, and in some cases can be better used than cattle because it is more suited to African climates. This has led to some Southern African farmers switching from [[cattle]] to eland. Common elands are also pictured as supporters in the [[coat of arms]] of [[Grootfontein]], Namibia.

===Husbandry===
Common elands have a mild [[temperament]] and have been successfully [[Domestication|domesticated]] for meat and milk production in South Africa and Russia.<ref name="rafferty"/> Their need for water is quite low because they produce [[urine]] with a high [[urea]] content, but they require a substantial grazing area, along with [[Mineral lick|salt licks]] and large amounts of supplementary feed such as [[maize]], [[sorghum]], [[melon]]s, and [[bean]]s, which can be expensive. A female can produce up to {{convert|7|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of milk per day that is richer in [[milkfat]] than cow milk. The pleasant-tasting milk has a [[butterfat]] content of 11-17% and can be stored for up to eight months if properly prepared, versus several days for cow milk.<ref name=Pappas/>

Housing common elands is difficult due to their ability to jump over fences as high as {{convert|3|m|abbr=on}} or simply break through using their substantial mass. Sometimes, wild elands break through enclosures to mix with domesticated ones. Common elands can reproduce in captivity, but calf survival is low and the young may need to be separated from their mothers to ensure health and adequate feeding.<ref name = Pappas/> [[Animal husbandry|Husbandry]] requires care because the generally placid animals startle easily and require large amounts of space.<ref name=Harris/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}


{{Artiodactyla|R.4}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q216815}}
{{Portal bar|Africa|Mammals|Animals}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Taurotragus]]
[[Category:Fauna of East Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of Southern Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of Burundi]]
[[Category:Mammals of Botswana]]
[[Category:Mammals of Angola]]
[[Category:Mammals of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Kenya]]
[[Category:Mammals of Lesotho]]
[[Category:Mammals of Malawi]]
[[Category:Mammals of Mozambique]]
[[Category:Mammals of Namibia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Rwanda]]
[[Category:Mammals of South Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Mammals of Eswatini]]
[[Category:Mammals of Tanzania]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Mammals of Uganda]]
[[Category:Mammals of Zambia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Animals in mythology]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1766]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas]]
[[Category:Bovids of Africa]]