Editing Common kingfisher

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Alcedo atthis -England-8 (cropped).jpg
| image_caption = Male<br />[[England]]
| image2 = Common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis ispida) female.jpg
| image2_caption = Female<br />[[Kecskemét]], [[Hungary]]<br/>Both ''A. a. ispida''
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Alcedo atthis'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22683027A89575948 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22683027A89575948.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| taxon = Alcedo atthis
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| range_map = Alcedo atthis -range map-2-cp.png
| range_map_caption = <div style="text-align:left;">{{Color box|yellow}}&nbsp;Breeding&nbsp;range <br />{{Color box|green}}&nbsp;Resident&nbsp;all&nbsp;year round <br />{{Color box|blue}}&nbsp;Non-breeding range</div>
| synonyms = ''Gracula atthis'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}
}}
The '''common kingfisher''' ('''''Alcedo atthis'''''), also known as the '''Eurasian kingfisher''' and '''river kingfisher''', is a small [[kingfisher]] with seven subspecies recognized within its wide distribution across [[Eurasia]] and [[North Africa]]. It is resident in much of its range, but [[bird migration|migrates]] from areas where rivers freeze in winter.

This [[house sparrow|sparrow-sized]] bird has the typical short-tailed, large-headed kingfisher profile; it has blue upperparts, orange underparts and a long bill. It feeds mainly on fish, caught by diving, and has special visual adaptations to enable it to see prey under water. The glossy white eggs are laid in a nest at the end of a burrow in a riverbank.

==Taxonomy==
The common kingfisher was first described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' in 1758 as ''Gracula atthis''.<ref name=Linnaeus/><ref>Note: What is now the subspecies ''A. a. ispida'' is described on p.&nbsp;115 as ''Alcedo ispida''.</ref><ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Peters | editor-first=James Lee | editor-link=James L. Peters | year=1945 | title=Check-list of Birds of the World | volume=5 | publisher=Harvard University Press | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts  | page=171 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14480182 }}</ref> The modern binomial name derives from the [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|[[:wikt:alcedo|alcedo]]}}'', 'kingfisher' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|[[:wikt:ἀλκυών|ἀλκυών]]}}, ''{{lang|el|halcyon}}''), and ''Atthis'', a beautiful young woman of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], and favourite of [[Sappho]].<ref name =BTO>{{cite web| title= Kingfisher ''Alcedo atthis'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |work= Bird facts |url=http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob8310.htm |publisher=[[British Trust for Ornithology]] |access-date= 21 August 2008 }}</ref>

The genus ''[[Alcedo]]'' comprises seven small kingfishers that all eat fish as part of their diet. The common kingfisher's closest relative is the [[cerulean kingfisher]] that has white underparts and is found in parts of Indonesia.<ref name=moyle2007>{{cite journal | last1=Moyle | first1=R.G. | last2=Fuchs | first2=J. | last3=Pasquet | first3=E. | last4=Marks | first4=B.D. | year=2007 | title=Feeding behavior, toe count, and the phylogenetic relationships among alcedinine kingfishers (Alcedininae) | journal=Journal of Avian Biology | volume=38 | issue=3 | pages=317–326 | doi=10.1111/J.2007.0908-8857.03921.x }}</ref><ref name= Fry/>

==Description==
This species has the typical short-tailed, dumpy-bodied, large-headed, and long-billed kingfisher shape. The adult male of the western [[Europe]]an subspecies, ''A. a. ispida'' has green-blue upperparts with pale azure-blue back and rump, a rufous patch by the bill base, and a rufous ear-patch. It has a green-blue neck stripe, white neck blaze and throat, rufous underparts, and a black bill with some red at the base. The legs and feet are bright red.<ref name= Fry/> It is about {{convert|16|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long with a wingspan of {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}},<ref name= Fry/> and weighs {{convert|34|-|46|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}}.<ref name =BWP/> The female is identical in appearance to the male except that her lower [[mandible]] is orange-red with a black tip. The juvenile is similar to the adult, but with duller and greener upperparts and paler underparts. Its bill is black, and the legs are also initially black.<ref name="Fry" /> Feathers are moulted gradually between July and November with the main flight feathers taking 90–100 days to moult and regrow. Some that moult late may suspend their moult during cold winter weather.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The flight of the kingfisher is fast, direct and usually low over water. The short, rounded wings whirr rapidly, and a bird flying away shows an electric-blue "flash" down its back.<ref name =BWP/>

In North Africa, Europe and [[Asia]] north of the [[Himalayas]], this is the only small blue kingfisher. In south and southeast Asia, it can be confused with six other small blue-and-rufous kingfishers, but the rufous ear patches distinguish it from all but juvenile [[blue-eared kingfisher]]s; details of the head pattern may be necessary to differentiate the two species where both occur.<ref name= Fry/>

The common kingfisher has no song. The flight call is a short, sharp whistle ''chee'' repeated two or three times. Anxious birds emit a harsh, ''shrit-it-it'' and nestlings call for food with a churring noise.<ref name= Fry/>

===Geographical variation===
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2021}}
There are seven subspecies differing in the hue of the upperparts and the intensity of the rufous colour of the underparts; size varies across the subspecies by up to 10%. The races resident south of the [[Wallace Line]] have the bluest upperparts and partly blue ear-patches.<ref name= Fry/><ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | year=2017 | title=Rollers, ground rollers & kingfishers | work=World Bird List Version 7.2 | url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/rollers/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=17 May 2017 }}</ref>
* ''A. a. ispida'' <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small>. Breeds from [[Ireland]], [[Spain]] and southern [[Norway]] to [[Romania]] and western [[Russia]] and winters south to [[Iraq]] and southern [[Portugal]].
* ''A. a. atthis''. Breeds from northwestern Africa and southern [[Italy]] east to [[Afghanistan]], [[Kashmir region]], northern [[Xinjiang]], and [[Siberia]]; it is a winter visitor south to [[Israel]],<ref>Arnold, Paula: ''Birds of Israel,'' (1962), Shalit Publishers Ltd., Haifa, Israel. p. 12</ref> northeastern [[Sudan]], [[Yemen]], [[Oman]] and [[Pakistan]]. Compared to ''A. a. ispida'', it has a greener crown, paler underparts and is slightly larger.
* ''A. a. bengalensis'' <small>[[Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788</small>. Breeds in southern and eastern Asia from [[India]] to [[Indonesia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]] and eastern [[Mongolia]]; winters south to Indonesia and the [[Philippines]]. It is smaller and brighter than the European races.
* ''A. a. taprobana'' <small>[[Otto Kleinschmidt|Kleinschmidt]], 1894</small>. Resident breeder in [[Sri Lanka]] and southern India. Its upperparts are bright blue, not green-blue; it is the same size as ''A. a. bengalensis''.
* ''A. a. floresiana'' <small>[[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]], 1892</small>. Resident breeder from Bali to Timor. Like ''A. a. taprobana'', but the blues are darker and the ear-patch is rufous with a few blue feathers.
* ''A. a. hispidoides'' <small>[[René-Primevère Lesson|Lesson]], 1837</small>. Resident breeder from [[Sulawesi]] to [[New Guinea]] and the islands of the western [[Pacific Ocean]]. Plumage colours are deeper than in ''A. a. floresiana'', the blue on the hind neck and rump is purple-tinged and the ear-patch is blue.
* ''A. a. solomonensis'' <small>[[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Rothschild]] and [[Ernst Hartert|Hartert]], 1905</small>. Resident breeder in the [[Solomon Islands]] east to [[San Cristobal (Solomon Islands)|San Cristobal]]. The largest southeast Asian subspecies, it has a blue ear-patch and is more purple-tinged than ''A. a. hispidoides'', with which it interbreeds.

==Habitat and distribution==
The common kingfisher is widely distributed over Europe, Asia, and North Africa, mainly south of 60°N. It is a common breeding species over much of its vast Eurasian range, but in North Africa it is mainly a winter visitor, although it is a scarce breeding resident in coastal [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]]. In temperate regions, this kingfisher inhabits clear, slow-flowing streams and rivers, and lakes with well-vegetated banks. It frequents scrubs and bushes with overhanging branches close to shallow open water in which it hunts. In winter it is more coastal, often feeding in estuaries or harbours and along rocky seashores. Tropical populations are found by slow-flowing rivers, in [[mangrove]] creeks and in swamps.<ref name=Fry/>

Common kingfishers are important members of ecosystems and good indicators of freshwater community health. The highest densities of breeding birds are found in habitats with clear water, which permits optimal prey visibility, and trees or shrubs on the banks. These habitats have also the highest quality of water, so the presence of this bird confirms the standard of the water.<ref name= Peris >{{cite journal| last= Peris | first= S. J. |author2=Rodriguez, R. | year=1996 | title= Some factors related to distribution by breeding Kingfisher (''Alcedo atthis'' L.) | journal= Ekologia Polska | volume=54 | issue= 1–2 | pages=31–38 }}</ref> Measures to improve water flow can disrupt this habitat, and in particular, the replacement of natural banks by artificial confinement greatly reduces the populations of fish, amphibians and aquatic reptiles, and waterside birds are lost.<ref name=china >{{cite journal| last1= Lin | first1= Wen-Loung | last2= Tsai |first2=Hsien-Hsiu |last3=Wu |first3=Hsuan-Ju | year= 2007 | title= Effect of ditch living thing by process of original structure replacement by RC irrigation ditch | journal= Journal of Chinese Soil and Water Conservation | volume= 38 | issue= 1| pages=31–42 | url = http://min-shiang.com/2007_RC.pdf |language=zh}}</ref> It can tolerate a certain degree of urbanisation, provided the water remains clean.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

This species is resident in areas where the climate is mild year-round, but must [[bird migration|migrate]] after breeding from regions with prolonged freezing conditions in winter. Most birds winter within the southern parts of the breeding range, but smaller numbers cross the [[Mediterranean]] into Africa or travel over the mountains of [[Malaysia]] into Southeast Asia. Kingfishers migrate mainly at night, and some Siberian breeders must travel at least {{convert|3000|km|abbr=on}} between the breeding sites and the wintering areas.<ref name=Fry/>

==Behaviour==

===Breeding===
[[File: BR ijsvogelwand.jpg|thumb|Volunteers in the [[Flanders|Flemish Region]] of Belgium create a vertical bank in which common kingfishers have subsequently nested annually]]
[[File:Alcedo atthis MHNT ZOO 2010 11 160 Arcy-sur-Cure.jpg|thumb|Eggs of ''Alcedo atthis'', [[MHNT]]]]
Like all kingfishers, the common kingfisher is highly territorial; since it must eat around 60% of its body weight each day, it is essential to have control of a suitable stretch of river. It is solitary for most of the year, roosting alone in heavy cover. If another kingfisher enters its territory, both birds display from perches, and fights may occur, in which a bird will grab the other's beak and try to hold it underwater. Pairs form in the autumn but each bird retains a separate territory, generally at least {{convert|1|km|mi|frac=2|abbr=on}} long, but up to {{convert|3.5|km|mi|frac=4|abbr=on}} and territories are not merged until the spring.<ref name =Fry/>

The courtship is initiated by the male chasing the female while calling continually, and later by ritual feeding, with copulation usually following.<ref name =BWP/>

The nest is in a burrow excavated by both birds of the pair in a low vertical riverbank, or sometimes a quarry or other cutting. The straight, gently inclining burrow is normally {{convert|60|–|90|cm|round=5|abbr=on}} long and ends in an enlarged chamber.<ref name =BWP/> The nest cavity is unlined but soon accumulates a litter of fish remains and cast [[pellet (ornithology)|pellets]].<ref name=Coward/>

The common kingfisher typically lays two to ten glossy white eggs, which average {{convert|1.9|cm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in breadth, {{convert|2.2|cm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in length, and weigh about {{convert|4.3|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}}, of which 5% is shell.<ref name =BTO/> Both sexes incubate by day, but only the female incubates at night. An incubating bird sits trance-like, facing the tunnel; it invariably casts a pellet, breaking it up with the bill. The eggs hatch in 19–20 days, one or two eggs in most clutches fail to do so because the parent cannot cover them prior. The [[altricial]] young are in the nest for a further 24–25 days, often more.<ref name = Fry/> Once large enough, young birds will come to the burrow entrance to be fed.<ref name=Coward/> Two broods, sometimes three, may be reared in a season.<ref name =BWP/>

===Survival===
The early days for fledged juveniles are more hazardous; during its first dives into the water, about four days after leaving the nest, a fledgling may become waterlogged and drown.<ref name = Fry/> Many young will not have learned to fish by the time they are driven out of their parents' territory, and only about half survive more than a week or two. Most kingfishers die of cold or lack of food, and a severe winter can kill a high percentage of the birds. Summer floods can destroy nests or make fishing difficult, resulting in starvation of the brood. Only a quarter of the young survive to breed the following year, but this is enough to maintain the population. Likewise, only a quarter of adult birds survive from one breeding season to the next. Very few birds live longer than one breeding season.<ref name = rspbst>{{cite web| title= Survival and threats | work= Kingfisher | url= https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/wildlife-guides/bird-a-z/kingfisher/threats/ | publisher= [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] |access-date=23 August 2008 }}</ref> The oldest bird on record was 21 years.<ref name = euringt>{{cite web| title= Longevity list of birds ringed in Europe | work= Kingfisher | url= http://www.euring.org/data_and_codes/longevity-voous.htm | publisher= EURING |access-date=23 August 2008 }}</ref>

Other causes of death are cats, rats, collisions with vehicles and windows, and human disturbance of nesting birds, including riverbank works with heavy machinery. Since kingfishers are high up in the food chain, they are vulnerable to build-up of chemicals, and river pollution by industrial and agricultural products excludes the birds from many stretches of otherwise suitable rivers that would be habitats.<ref name = rspbst/>

This species was killed in Victorian times for stuffing and display in glass cases and use in hat making. English naturalist [[William Yarrell]] also reported the country practice of killing a kingfisher and hanging it from a thread in the belief that it would swing to predict the direction in which the wind would blow.<ref name= Cocker/> Persecution by anglers and to provide feathers for fishing flies were common in earlier decades,<ref name="Coward"/> but are now largely a thing of the past.<ref name = rspbst/>

===Feeding===
[[File:Common kingfishers (Alcedo atthis ispida) male passing fish to female.jpg|thumb|Male passing fish to female in spring courtship ritual]]
[[File:Alcedo atthis - Riserve naturali e aree contigue della fascia fluviale del Po.jpg|thumb|Male fishing in Italy's [[Po River]]]]
The common kingfisher hunts from a perch {{convert|1|–|2|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} above the water, on a branch, post or riverbank, bill pointing down as it searches for prey. It bobs its head when food is detected to gauge the distance and plunges steeply down to seize its prey usually no deeper than {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} below the surface. The wings are opened underwater and the open eyes are protected by the transparent [[Nictitating membrane|third eyelid]]. The bird rises beak-first from the surface and flies back to its perch. At the perch the fish is adjusted until it is held near its tail and beaten against the perch several times. Once dead, the fish is positioned lengthways and swallowed head-first. A few times each day, a small greyish pellet of fish bones and other indigestible remains is regurgitated.<ref name= Fry/>

The food is mainly fish up to {{convert|12.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long, but the average size is {{convert|2.3|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Fry" /> In Central Europe, 97% of the diet was found to be composed of fish ranging in size from 2 to 10&nbsp;cm with an average of 6.5&nbsp;cm (body mass range from <0.1 g to >10 g, average 3 g).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Čech |first1=M. |last2=Čech |first2=P. |name-list-style=amp |title=Non-fish prey in the diet of an exclusive fish-eater: the common kingfisher ''Alcedo atthis''|journal=Bird Study|date=2015|volume=62|issue=4|pages=457–465|doi=10.1080/00063657.2015.1073679|s2cid=85632259|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Čech |first1=M. |last2=Čech |first2=P. |name-list-style=amp |title=The role of floods in the lives of fish-eating birds: predator loss or benefit?|journal=Hydrobiologia|date=2013|volume=717|pages=203–211|doi=10.1007/s10750-013-1625-3|s2cid=16257345}}</ref> [[Common minnow|Minnows]], [[stickleback]]s, small [[common roach|roach]] and [[trout]] are typical prey. About 60% of food items are fish, but this kingfisher also catches aquatic insects such as [[dragonfly]] [[larva]]e and [[water beetle]]s, and, in winter, crustaceans including freshwater shrimps.<ref name=Fry/> Amphibians such as the smooth newt (''Lissotriton vulgaris'') may also constitute part of the diet of this species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=Nigel |last2=Allain |first2=Steven J. R. |date=2023 |title=Smooth newts ''Lissotriton vulgaris'' as more than just occasional items in the diet of the Eurasian kingfisher ''Alcedo atthis''|journal= Herpetological Bulletin |volume= 164 |issue=164 |pages=43 |doi=10.33256/hb164.43 |url=https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-164-summer-2023/3809-13-smooth-newts-i-lissotriton-vulgaris-i-as-more-than-just-occasional-items-in-the-diet-of-the-eurasian-kingfisher-i-alcedo-atthis-i|doi-access=free}}</ref> In Central Europe, however, fish represented 99.9% of the diet (data from rivers, streams, and reservoirs from years 1999 to 2013).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Common kingfishers have also been observed to catch [[lamprey]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Čech|first1=Martin|title=Lamprey (''Lampetra'' sp.) in the diet of common kingfisher (''Alcedo atthis'')|journal=Bulletin Lampetra|date=2017|volume=8|pages=44–47}}</ref> One study found that food provisioning rate increased with brood size, from 1498 g (505 fishes for four nestlings) to 2968 g (894 fishes for eight nestlings). During the fledging period each chick consumed on average 334 g of fish, which resulted in an estimated daily food intake of 37% of the chick's body mass (average over the entire nestling period). The average daily energy intake was 73.5 kJ per chick (i.e., 1837 kJ per 25 days of the fledging period).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Čech |first1=M. |last2=Čech |first2=P. |name-list-style=amp |title=Effect of brood size on food provisioning rate in Common Kingfisher ''Alcedo atthis'' |journal=Ardea|date=2017|volume=105|issue=1|pages=5–17|doi=10.5253/arde.v105i1.a3|s2cid=90362897}}</ref>

A challenge for any diving bird is the change in [[refraction]] between air and water. The eyes of many birds have two [[Fovea centralis|fovea]]e (the fovea is the area of the [[retina]] with the greatest density of light receptors),<ref name= Sinclair/> and a kingfisher can switch from the main central fovea to the auxiliary fovea when it enters water; a retinal streak of high receptor density which connects the two foveae allows the image to swing temporally as the bird drops onto the prey.<ref name= Schwab/> The egg-shaped [[lens (anatomy)|lens]] of the eye points towards the auxiliary fovea, enabling the bird to maintain [[bird vision|visual acuity]] underwater.<ref name= Sinclair/> Because of the positions of the foveae, the kingfisher has [[monocular vision]] in air, and [[binocular vision]] in water. The underwater vision is not as a sharp as in air, but the ability to judge the distance of moving prey is more important than the sharpness of the image.<ref name= Schwab>{{cite journal| last= Schwab | first= I. R. |author2=Hart N. S. |date=May 2004 | title= Halcyon days | journal=[[British Journal of Ophthalmology]] | volume=88 | issue= 5 | page= 613 |pmid=15129670 | doi =10.1136/bjo.2004.045492 | pmc=1772125}}</ref>

Each [[cone cell]] of a bird's retina contains an oil droplet that may contain [[carotenoid]] pigments. These droplets enhance color vision and reduce glare. Aquatic kingfishers have high numbers of red pigments in their oil droplets; the reason red droplets predominate is not understood, but the droplets may help with the glare or the dispersion of light from particulate matter in the water.<ref name= Schwab/>

==Status==
This species has a large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of {{cvt|10,000,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. It has a large population, including an estimated 160,000–320,000 individuals in Europe alone. Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be stable so the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the [[IUCN Red List]] (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as "[[least concern]]".<ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22683027A89575948.en|author=BirdLife International |title=''Alcedo atthis'' |year=2016 |page=e.T22683027A89575948 }}</ref><ref name= BTO/>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
Common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis ispida) female with dragonfly larva.jpg|''A. a. ispida'' female with dragonfly larva, [[Hungary]]
Alcedo atthis 1 (Bohuš Číčel).jpg|Two birds mating
Common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis bengalensis) with fish.jpg|''A. a. bengalensis'' with a fish in [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
Alcedo atthis -England-8.ogv|thumbtime=1|Eating a small fish
IJsvogel (Alcedo atthis). Raamslachtoffer. (d.j.b.) 03.jpg|[[Bird–window collisions|Window victim]]
Common Kingfisher-Alcedo atthis.jpg|Common kingfisher female with fish, in [[Chittagong|Chattogram]], Bangladesh
Common Kingfisher 2081.jpg|In flight at [[Chitwan National Park]], [[Nepal]]
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist|2|refs=
<ref name=Cocker>{{cite book |last=Cocker |first=Mark |author2=Mabey, Richard |title=Birds Britannica |year=2005 |location=London |publisher=Chatto & Windus |isbn=978-0-7011-6907-7 | page=300}}</ref>
<ref name=Coward>{{cite book | last = Coward | first = Thomas Alfred|title = The Birds of the British Isles and Their Eggs (two volumes)| year = 1930| publisher = Frederick Warne |edition=Third|volume=1}}</ref>
<ref name=Fry>{{cite book| last1 = Fry | first1 = C. Hilary | last2= Fry |first2=Kathie |last3=Harris |first3=Alan| title = Kingfishers, Bee-eaters and Rollers | year =1999 |location = London| publisher = Christopher Helm | isbn =978-0-7136-5206-2 | pages=219–221}}</ref>
<ref name=Linnaeus>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata | publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii) | year=1758| volume=1 |language=la | page=109 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727014 }}</ref>
<ref name=Sinclair>{{cite book|last=Sinclair |first=Sandra | title = How Animals See: Other Visions of Our World |year= 1985|publisher=Croom Helm |location=Beckenham, Kent |isbn=978-0-7099-3336-6 }}</ref>
<ref name=BWP>{{cite book | editor-last = Snow | editor-first = David | editor2-last= Perrins |editor2-first=Christopher M.| title = [[The Birds of the Western Palearctic]] |edition= concise | publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 1998| location =Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-854099-1 }}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Cramp |editor1-first=Stanley |display-authors=etal |editor1-link=Stanley Cramp |year=1985 |chapter=''Alcedo atthis'' Kingfisher |title=Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa: The Birds of the Western Palearctic |volume=IV: ''Terns to Woodpeckers'' |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=711–723 |isbn=0-19-857507-6 |oclc=13791970<!-- For the entire series. -->}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikispecies|Alcedo atthis}}
* [https://ebird.org/species/comkin1 Photos, audio and video of common kingfisher] from [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]'s Macaulay Library
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141202065521/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/282_KingfisherAatthis.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.3 MB)] by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze

{{Taxonbar|from=Q79915}}
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[[Category:Alcedo|common kingfisher]]
[[Category:Kingfishers|common kingfisher]]
[[Category:Birds of Eurasia]]
[[Category:Birds of Japan]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]