Editing Community

{{Short description|Social unit which shares commonality}}
{{other uses}}
[[File:A community townhall at Makoko community.jpg|thumb|Community townhall]]
[[File:Stonehenge Summer Solstice eve 02.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A [[community of interest]] gathers at [[Stonehenge]], England, for the summer solstice.]]
{{Community|Community Social Work=}}

A '''community''' is a [[Level of analysis|social unit]] (a group of people) with a shared socially-significant characteristic, such as [[place (geography)|place]], set of [[Norm (social)|norms]], [[culture]], [[religion]], [[values]], [[Convention (norm)|customs]], or [[Identity (social science)|identity]]. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a [[country]], [[village]], [[town]], or [[Neighbourhood|neighborhood]]) or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable good relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to people's identity, practice, and roles in social [[institution]]s such as [[family]], home, work, [[government]], TV network,{{huh?|date=September 2024}} [[society]], or humanity at large.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= James |first1= Paul |author-link= Paul James (academic) |last2= Nadarajah |first2= Yaso |last3= Haive |first3= Karen |last4= Stead |first4= Victoria | title= Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea |url= https://www.academia.edu/3230875 |year= 2012 |page= 14 |publisher= University of Hawaii Press |location= Honolulu  | quote = [...] we define community very broadly as a group or network of persons who are connected (objectively) to each other by relatively durable social relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties and who mutually define that relationship (subjectively) as important to their social identity and social practice.}}</ref> Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may also refer to large-group affiliations such as [[nation|national communities]], [[international community|international communities]], and [[virtual community|virtual communities]].<ref>
See also:
{{Cite book
|last= James|first= Paul |author-link= Paul James (academic)
|title= Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In – Volume 2 of Towards a Theory of Abstract Community
|url= https://www.academia.edu/1642214
|year= 2006
|publisher= Sage Publications
|location= London
}}
</ref>

In terms of [[sociological]] categories, a community can seem like a sub-set of a [[social collectivity]].<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Rydin
 |first1               = Yvonne
 |editor-last1         = Cullingworth
 |editor-first1        = J. Barry
 |date                 = 1 October 1999
 |chapter              = Public participation in planning: Public participation and collective decision making
 |title                = British Planning: 50 Years of Urban and Regional Policy
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=Gq6glh_ILtwC
 |publication-place    = London
 |publisher            = The Athlone Press
 |page                 = 196
 |isbn                 = 9780485006049
 |access-date          = 6 September 2024
 |quote                = [...] planning decisions are a form of collective decision making. This is not the same thing as decision making by the local community since that represents only a subset of the broader social collectivity.
}} 
</ref>
In developmental views, a community can emerge out of a collectivity.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Howell
 |first1               = Signe
 |author-link1         = Signe Howell
 |editor-last1         = Amit
 |editor-first1        = Vered
 |year                 = 2002
 |chapter              = Community beyond place: Adoptive families in Norway
 |title                = Realizing Community: Concepts, Social Relationships and Sentiments
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=wOIFSqxWCn4C
 |series               = European Association of Social Anthropologists
 |publication-place    = London
 |publisher            = Psychology Press
 |page                 = 98
 |isbn                 = 9780415229074
 |access-date          = 6 September 2024
 |quote                = [...] without [...] interaction [...], a category of collectivity is likely to remain a conceptual category rather than [...] become a community. It seems likely that some sort of social intimacy, particularly when this takes place at vulnerable times, must occur to serve as a paradigmatic vehicle for the wider sense of shared experience.
}} 
</ref>

The [[English language|English-language]] word "community" derives from the [[Old French]] {{Lang|fro|comuneté}} ([[French language|Modern French]]: ''{{Lang|fr|communauté}}''), which comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[communitas]]'' "community", "public spirit" (from Latin ''[[wikt:communis|communis]]'', "common").<ref>{{cite OED|community|1005093760}}
</ref>

[[Human]] communities may have [[intention|intent]], [[belief]], [[Natural resource|resources]], [[preference]]s, [[Need assessment|needs]], and [[risk]]s in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of [[Group cohesiveness|cohesiveness.]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melih |first=Bulu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=memeBQAAQBAJ&q=Human+communities+may+share+intent%2C+belief%2C+resources%2C+preferences%2C+needs%2C+and+risks+in+common%2C+affecting+the+identity+of+the+participants+and+their+degree+of+cohesiveness&pg=PA104 |title=City Competitiveness and Improving Urban Subsystems: Technologies and Applications: Technologies and Applications |date=2011 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-61350-175-7 |language=en | quote = In human communities, intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.}}
</ref>

==Perspectives of various disciplines==

===Archaeology===
[[Archaeology|Archaeological studies]] of social communities use the term "community" in two ways, mirroring usage in other areas. The first meaning is an informal definition of community as a place where people used to live. In this literal sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient [[Human settlement|settlement]]—whether a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]], [[village]], [[town]], or [[city]]. The second meaning resembles the usage of the term in other [[social sciences]]: a community is a group of people living near one another who interact socially. [[Social interaction]] on a small scale can be difficult to identify with archaeological data. Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical distance. Therefore, a small village settlement likely constituted a social community and spatial subdivisions of cities and other large settlements may have formed communities. [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] typically use similarities in [[material culture]]—from house types to styles of pottery—to reconstruct communities in the past. This classification method relies on the assumption that people or households will share more similarities in the types and styles of their material goods with other members of a social community than they will with outsiders.<ref>Canuto, Marcello A. and Jason Yaeger (editors) (2000) ''The Archaeology of Communities''. Routledge, New York. Hegmon, Michelle (2002) Concepts of Community in Archaeological Research. In ''Seeking the Center: Archaeology and Ancient Communities in the Mesa Verde Region,'' edited by Mark D. Varien and Richard H. Wilshusen, pp. 263–279. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.</ref>

=== Sociology ===
Early sociological studies identified communities as fringe groups at the behest of local power elites. Such early academic studies include ''[[Who Governs?]]'' by [[Robert Dahl]] as well as the papers by [[Floyd Hunter]] on [[Atlanta]]. At the turn of the 21st century the concept of community was rediscovered by academics, politicians, and activists. Politicians hoping for a democratic election started to realign with community interests.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Neighborhood Politics of Last Resort: Post-Katrina New Orleans and the Right to the City |author1=Stephen Danley |page=3 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9780773555891}}</ref>

===Ecology===
{{main|Community (ecology)}}

In [[ecology]], a community is an assemblage of populations—potentially of different species—interacting with one another. Community ecology is the branch of ecology that studies interactions between and among species. It considers how such interactions, along with interactions between species and the [[abiotic]] environment, affect social structure and species richness, diversity and patterns of abundance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nicolson |first=Malcolm |date=March 1993 |title=L. A. Real and J. H. Brown (eds.), Foundations of Ecology: Classic Papers with Commentaries. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press (with the Ecological Society of America), 1991. Pp. xiv + 905. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007087400030673 |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=129–130 |doi=10.1017/s0007087400030673 |issn=0007-0874|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Species interact in three ways: [[competition]], [[predation]] and [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]]:
* Competition typically results in a double negative—that is both species lose in the interaction.
* Predation involves a win/lose situation, with one species winning.
* Mutualism sees both species co-operating in some way, with both winning.

The two main types of ecological communities are '''major''' communities, which are self-sustaining and self-regulating (such as a forest or a lake), and '''minor''' communities, which rely on other communities (like fungi decomposing a log) and are the building blocks of major communities. Moreover, we can establish other non-taxonomic subdivisions of biocenosis, such as [[Guild (ecology)|guilds]].

[[File:IB Biology Figure Project (1).svg|thumb|A simplified example of a community. A community includes many populations and how they interact with each other. This example shows interaction between the zebra and the bush, and between the lion and the zebra, as well as between the bird and the organisms by the water, like the worms.]]

=== Semantics ===
The concept of "community" often has a positive semantic connotation, exploited rhetorically by populist politicians and by advertisers<ref>
{{cite book
 | editor1-last = Wilson
 | editor1-first = Alexander
 | title = Advertising and the Community
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oOBRAQAAIAAJ
 | series = Reprints of economic classes
 | year = 1968
 | edition = reprint
 | location = Manchester
 | publisher = Manchester University Press
 | page = 39
 | isbn = 978-0719003363
 | access-date = 6 June 2021
 | quote = In Britain, by far the more fashionable concern is that for advertising's value to the community.
}}
</ref>
to promote feelings and associations of mutual well-being, happiness and togetherness<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Everingham
 | first1 = Christine
 | title = Social Justice and the Politics of Community
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GVK5AAAAIAAJ
 | series = Welfare and society : studies in welfare policy, practice and theory
 | year = 2003
 | edition = reprint
 | location = Aldershot
 | publisher = Ashgate
 | page = 21
 | isbn = 978-0754633983
 | access-date = 6 June 2021
 | quote = Community is a very troublesome word then, having a wide range of meanings and connotations but little in the way of specific content. It is particularly useful as a rhetorical device because of its democratic and populist connotations, being associated with 'the people', as distinct from 'the government'.
}}
</ref>—veering towards an almost-achievable [[utopian community]].

In contrast, the [[epidemiology|epidemiological]] term "[[community transmission]]" can have negative implications,<ref>
For example:
{{cite news
| last1                 = Basu
| first1                = Mohana
| title                 = What is community transmission — how one can contract COVID-19 without travelling
| url                   = https://theprint.in/health/what-is-community-transmission-how-one-can-contract-covid-19-without-travelling/380398/
| work                  = ThePrint
| publisher             = Printline Media Pvt Ltd
| publication-date      = 13 March 2020
| access-date           = 6 June 2021
| quote                 = [...] when the source of transmission for a large number of people is not traceable it is called a community transmission. [...]Most types of influenza and bird flu outbreaks in the past were known to have spread through community transmission. The outbreak of H1N1 in 2009, commonly known as swine flu, was primarily through community transmission. [...] In the case of community transmission, contact tracing is inadequate in containing the disease. [...] This is particularly worrisome for health officials because that means the virus is in the community but no one knows where it has come from or track its origins. This also means the virus can be widespread in a community.
}}
</ref> and instead of a "criminal community"<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Feinberg
 | first1 = Joel
 | author-link1 = Joel Feinberg
 | title = The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law: Harmless wrongdoing
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yDQQAQAAMAAJ
 | series = Volume 4 of The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law
 | year = 1988
 | location = Oxford
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | publication-date = 1988
 | page = 103
 | isbn = 978-0-19-504253-5
 | access-date = 6 June 2021
 | quote = There is, as I have said, a law enforcement community but not a criminal community. Why should that be?
}}
</ref> one often speaks of a "[[criminal underworld]]" or of the "criminal fraternity".

==Key concepts==

===''Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft''===
{{main|Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft}}

In {{Lang|de|Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft}} (1887), German sociologist [[Ferdinand Tönnies]] described two types of human association: {{Lang|de|Gemeinschaft}} (usually translated as "community") and {{Lang|de|Gesellschaft}} ("society" or "association"). Tönnies proposed the ''{{Lang|de|Gemeinschaft}}–''{{Lang|de|Gesellschaft}} [[dichotomy]] as a way to think about social ties. No group is exclusively one or the other. {{Lang|de|Gemeinschaft}} stress personal [[social interaction]]s, and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions. {{Lang|de|Gesellschaft}} stress indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions.<ref>Tönnies, Ferdinand (1887). ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'', Leipzig: Fues's Verlag.  An English translation of the 8th edition 1935 by Charles P. Loomis appeared in 1940 as ''Fundamental Concepts of Sociology (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft)'', New York: American Book Co.;  in 1955 as ''Community and Association (Gemeinschaft und gesellschaft''[sic]'')'', London:  Routledge & Kegan Paul;  and in 1957 as ''Community and Society'', East Lansing: Michigan State U.P.  Loomis includes as an Introduction, representing Tönnies' "most recent thinking", his 1931 article "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" in ''Handwörterbuch der Soziologie'' (Stuttgart, Enke V.).</ref>

===Sense of community===
{{main|Sense of community }}

In a seminal 1986 study, McMillan and Chavis<ref>McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory," p. 16.</ref> identify four elements of "sense of community":

# membership: feeling of belonging or of sharing a sense of personal relatedness,
# influence: mattering, making a difference to a group and of the group mattering to its members
# reinforcement: integration and fulfillment of needs,
# shared emotional connection.

[[File:Bigdayout crowd2.jpg|thumb|To what extent do participants in joint activities experience a [[sense of community]]?]]

A "sense of community index" (SCI) was developed by Chavis and colleagues, and revised and adapted by others. Although originally designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has been adapted for use in schools, the workplace, and a variety of types of communities.<ref>Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. ''American Journal of Community Psychology'', 18, 83–115. Chipuer, H.M., & Pretty, G.M.H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 27(6), 643–658. Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 31, 279–296.</ref>

Studies conducted by the APPA{{who|date=October 2018}} indicate that young adults who feel a sense of belonging in a community, particularly small communities, develop fewer psychiatric and depressive disorders than those who do not have the feeling of love and belonging.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-03834-001 |title=Sense of community: A definition and theory |access-date=2022-12-29 |archive-date=2022-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122231/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-03834-001 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Socialization====
{{main|Socialization}}
[[File:Lewes Bonfire, Martyrs Crosses.jpg|thumb|[[Lewes#Lewes Bonfire|Lewes Bonfire Night]] procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557]]

The process of learning to adopt the [[behavior]] patterns of the community is called [[socialization]]. The most fertile time of socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which [[individual]]s develop the skills and knowledge and learn the [[role]]s necessary to function within their [[culture]] and [[social environment]].<ref name=Socialization>Newman, D. 2005. [http://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106033450/http://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf |date=2012-01-06 }} pp. 134–140.</ref> For some psychologists, especially those in the [[psychodynamic]] tradition, the most important period of socialization is between the ages of one and ten. But socialization also includes adults moving into a significantly different environment where they must learn a new set of behaviors.<ref>Newman, D. 2005, p. 41.</ref>

Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community [[Norm (sociology)|norms]]. Other important influences include schools, [[Peer group|peer]] groups, people, mass media, the [[workplace]], and government. The degree to which the norms of a particular society or community are adopted determines one's willingness to engage with others. The norms of [[Toleration|tolerance]], [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]], and [[Trust (sociology)|trust]] are important "habits of the heart", as [[Alexis de Tocqueville|de Tocqueville]] put it, in an individual's involvement in community.<ref name=Community>Smith, M. 2001. [http://www.infed.org/community/community.htm Community] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029121012/http://www.infed.org/community/community.htm |date=2012-10-29 }}.</ref>

==Development==
{{main|Community development}}

Community development is often linked with [[community practice|community work]] or community planning, and may involve stakeholders, foundations, governments, or contracted entities including [[non-government organisations]] (NGOs), universities or government agencies to progress the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. More grassroots efforts, called [[community building]] or [[community organizing]], seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities.<ref>Kelly, Anthony, ''With Head, Heart and Hand: Dimensions of Community Building'' (Boolarong Press) {{ISBN|978-0-86439-076-9}}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. Community development practitioners understand how to work with individuals and affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions. Public administrators, in contrast, understand community development in the context of rural and urban development, housing and economic development, and community, organizational and business development.

Formal accredited programs conducted by universities, as part of degree granting institutions, are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in [[public administration]], [[sociology]] and [[community studies]]. The [[General Social Survey]] from the [[National Opinion Research Center]] at the [[University of Chicago]] and the [[Saguaro Seminar]] at the [[Harvard Kennedy School]] are examples of national community development in the United States. The [[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs]] at Syracuse University in New York State offers core courses in community and economic development, and in areas ranging from non-profit development to US budgeting (federal to local, community funds). In the United Kingdom, the [[University of Oxford]] has led in providing extensive research in the field through its ''Community Development Journal,''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050709123855/http://cdj.oxfordjournals.org/ Community Development Journal], Oxford University Press</ref> used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners.

At the intersection between community ''development'' and community ''building'' are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools. One example of this is the program of the [[Asset-based community development|Asset Based Community Development]] Institute of [[Northwestern University]]. The institute makes available downloadable tools<ref>ABCD Institute, in cooperation with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20051220065331/http://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/abcd/kelloggabcd.html ''Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity'']. {{Dead link|date=August 2021}}</ref> to assess community assets and make connections between [[Non-profit organization|non-profit groups]] and other organizations that can help in community building. The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood assets"&nbsp;– building from the inside out rather than the outside in.<ref>ABCD Institute. 2006. [http://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/abcd.html Welcome to ABCD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000819043809/http://www.northwestern.edu/IPR/abcd.html |date=2000-08-19 }}.</ref> In the disability field, community building was prevalent in the 1980s and 1990s with roots in John McKnight's approaches.<ref>Lutfiyya, Z.M (1988, March). ''Going for it": Life at the Gig Harbor Group Home''. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Center on Human Policy, Research and Training Center on Community Integration.</ref><ref>McKnight, J. (1989). ''Beyond Community Services''. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, Center of Urban Affairs and Policy Research.</ref>

===Building and organizing===
[[File:Affinity group collateral damage.jpg|thumb|upright|The anti-war [[affinity group]] "Collateral Damage" [[Activism|protesting]] the [[Iraq War]]]]

In ''The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace'' (1987) [[M. Scott Peck|Scott Peck]] argues that the almost accidental sense of community that exists at times of crisis can be consciously built. Peck believes that conscious community building is a process of deliberate design based on the knowledge and application of certain rules.<ref>[[M. Scott Peck]], (1987). ''The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace'', pp. 83–85.</ref> He states that this process goes through four stages:<ref>Peck (1987), pp. 86–106.</ref>

# '''Pseudocommunity''': When people first come together, they try to be "nice" and present what they feel are their most personable and friendly characteristics.
# '''Chaos''': People move beyond the inauthenticity of pseudo-community and feel safe enough to present their "shadow" selves. <!-- term not previously defined, or mentioned: This stage places great demands upon the FACILITATOR for greater leadership and organization, but Peck believes that "organizations are not communities", and this pressure should be resisted. -->
# '''Emptiness''': Moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to human beings.
# '''True community''': Deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this community.
<!-- unsourced editorializing: This stage Peck believes can only be described as "glory" and reflects a deep yearning in every human soul for compassionate understanding from one's fellows.-->

In 1991, Peck remarked that building a sense of community is easy but maintaining this sense of community is difficult in the modern world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.drdavidmcmillan.com/sense-of-community/sense-of-community-a-definition-and-theory |title=Sense of Community: A Definition and Theory — Dr. David McMillan |access-date=2022-12-29 |archive-date=2022-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229114933/https://www.drdavidmcmillan.com/sense-of-community/sense-of-community-a-definition-and-theory |url-status=live }}</ref> An interview with M. Scott Peck by Alan Atkisson. ''In Context'' #29, p.&nbsp;26.
The three basic types of community organizing are [[grassroots]] organizing, [[coalition]] building, and "institution-based community organizing", (also called "broad-based community organizing", an example of which is [[faith-based community|faith-based community organizing]], or [[Congregation-based Community Organizing]]).<ref>Jacoby Brown, Michael, (2006), ''Building Powerful Community Organizations: A Personal Guide To Creating Groups That Can Solve Problems and Change the World'' (Long Haul Press)</ref>

Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events (e.g., [[potluck]]s, small [[Book discussion club|book clubs]]) to larger-scale efforts (e.g., mass [[festival]]s, [[construction]] projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors).

Community building that is geared toward citizen action is usually termed "community organizing".<ref name=organizing>Walls, David (1994) [http://www.sonoma.edu/users/w/wallsd/community-organizing.shtml "Power to the People: Thirty-five Years of Community Organizing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115100115/http://www.sonoma.edu/users/w/wallsd/community-organizing.shtml |date=2010-11-15 }}. From ''The Workbook'', Summer 1994, pp. 52–55. Retrieved on: June 22, 2008.</ref> In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies. Where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, [[boycott]]ing, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. <!-- unsourced examples: The [[ARISE Detroit!]] coalition and the [[Toronto Public Space Committee]] are examples of [[activism|activist networks]] committed to shielding local communities from government and corporate domination and inordinate influence.-->

Community organizing can focus on more than just resolving specific issues. Organizing often means building a widely accessible power structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community. Community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups facilitate and encourage [[consensus decision-making]] with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alinsky |first=Saul D |title="Rules for Radicals: A Practical Primer for Realistic Radicals" |publisher=1971}}</ref>

If communities are developed based on something they share in common, whether location or values, then one challenge for developing communities is how to incorporate individuality and differences. Rebekah Nathan suggests{{according to whom|date=October 2018}} in her book, ''My Freshman Year'', we are drawn to developing communities totally based on sameness, despite stated commitments to diversity, such as those found on university websites.

==Types==
[[File:Community Circle at OUR Ecovillage.jpg|thumb|upright|Participants in Diana Leafe Christian's "Heart of a Healthy Community" seminar circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R. [[Ecovillage]]]]

A number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed. One such breakdown is as follows:

# '''Location-based''': range from the local [[neighbourhood]], [[suburb]], [[village]], [[town]] or [[city]], region, nation or even the planet as a whole. These are also called '''communities of place'''.
# '''Identity-based''': range from the local clique, sub-culture, [[ethnic group]], [[religious]], [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] or [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] [[civilisation]], or the [[globalisation|global]] community cultures of today. They may be included as ''communities of need'' or ''identity'', such as [[disability|disabled persons]], or [[Senior Citizens|frail aged]] people.
# '''Organizationally-based''': range from communities organized informally around [[family]] or [[Social network|network]]-based guilds and associations to more formal [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated associations]], [[politics|political]] [[decision-making]] structures, [[economics|economic]] enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or international scale.
# '''[[Intentional community|Intentional]]''': a mix of all three previous types, these are highly cohesive residential communities with a common social or spiritual purpose, ranging from [[monastery|monasteries]] and [[ashram]]s to modern [[ecovillage]]s and [[housing cooperative]]s.

The usual categorizations of community relations have a number of problems:<ref>Gerhard Delanty, Community, Routledge, London, 2003.</ref> (1) they tend to give the impression that a particular community can be defined as just this kind or another; (2) they tend to conflate modern and customary community relations; (3) they tend to take sociological categories such as ethnicity or race as given, forgetting that different ethnically defined persons live in different kinds of communities—grounded, interest-based, diasporic, etc.<ref>{{Cite book|last=James|first=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic)|title=Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In – Volume 2 of Towards a Theory of Abstract Community |url=https://www.academia.edu/1642214|year=2006|publisher=Sage Publications|location=London }}</ref>

In response to these problems, [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] and his colleagues have developed a [[taxonomy]] that maps community relations, and recognizes that actual communities can be characterized by different kinds of relations at the same time:<ref>{{Cite book|last1=James|first1=Paul|author-link=Paul James (academic)|last2=Nadarajah|first2=Yaso|last3=Haive|first3=Karen|last4=Stead|first4=Victoria|title=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea (pdf download)|url=https://www.academia.edu/3230875|year=2012|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu}}</ref>

# '''Grounded community relations'''. This involves enduring attachment to particular places and particular people. It is the dominant form taken by customary and [[tribal communities]]. In these kinds of communities, the land is fundamental to identity.
# '''Life-style community relations'''. This involves giving primacy to communities coming together around particular chosen ways of life, such as morally charged or interest-based relations or just living or working in the same location. Hence the following sub-forms:
## community-life as morally bounded, a form taken by many traditional faith-based communities.
## community-life as interest-based, including sporting, leisure-based and business communities which come together for regular moments of engagement.
## community-life as proximately-related, where neighbourhood or commonality of association forms a community of convenience, or a [[community of place]] (see below).
# '''Projected community relations'''. This is where a community is self-consciously treated as an entity to be projected and re-created. It can be projected as through thin advertising slogan, for example [[gated community]], or can take the form of ongoing associations of people who seek political integration, [[communities of practice]]<ref>Etienne Wenger, Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.</ref> based on professional projects, associative communities which seek to enhance and support individual creativity, autonomy and mutuality. A [[nation]] is one of the largest forms of projected or [[imagined community]].

In these terms, communities can be nested and/or intersecting; one community can contain another—for example a location-based community may contain a number of [[ethnic communities]].<ref>Tropman John E., Erlich, John L. and Rothman, Jack (2006), "Tactics and Techniques of Community Intervention" (Wadsworth Publishing)</ref> Both lists above can be used in a cross-cutting matrix in relation to each other.

==Internet communities==
{{main|Virtual community}}
In general, [[Virtual community|virtual communities]] value knowledge and information as [[social currency|currency]] or social resource.<ref>Ridings, Catherine M., Gefen, David (2017). From the couch to the keyboard: Psychotherapy in cyberspace. In S. Kiesler (Ed.), ''Culture of the Internet'' (pp. 71–102). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, cited in Binik, Y. M., Cantor, J., Ochs, E., & Meana, M. (1997).</ref><ref>Ridings, Catherine M., Gefen, David (2017). Asynchronous learning networks as a virtual classroom. ''Communications of the ACM'', 40 (9), 44–49, cited in Hiltz, S. R., & Wellman, B. (1997).</ref><ref>Ridings, Catherine M., Gefen, David (2017). A slice of life in my virtual community. In L. M. Harasim (Ed.), ''Global networks: Computers and international communication''  (pp. 57–80). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, cited in Rheingold, H. (1993a).</ref><ref>Ridings, Catherine M., Gefen, David (2017). Atheism, sex and databases: The Net as a social technology. In S. Kiesler (Ed.), ''Culture of the Internet''  (pp. 35–51). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, cited in Sproull, L., & Faraj, S. (1997).</ref> What differentiates virtual communities from their physical counterparts is the extent and impact of "weak ties", which are the relationships acquaintances or strangers form to acquire information through online networks.<ref>Ridings, Catherine M., Gefen, David (2017). The kindness of strangers: The usefulness of electronic weak ties for technical advice. ''Organization Science'', 7 (2), 119–135, cited in Constant, D., Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1996).</ref> Relationships among members in a [[virtual community]] tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.<ref>Baym, N. K. (2000). ''Tune in, log on: Soaps, fandom and online community.'' Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.</ref><ref>Wellman, B., & Gulia, M. (1999a). The network basis of social support: A network is more than the sum of its ties. In B. Wellman (Ed.), ''Networks in the global village: Life in contemporary communities''  (pp. 83–118). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</ref> A survey conducted by [[Pew Research Centre|Pew Internet]] and The American Life Project in 2001 found those involved in entertainment, professional, and sports virtual-groups focused their activities on obtaining information.<ref>Horrigan, J. B., Rainie, L., & Fox, S. (2001). ''Online communities: Networks that nurture long-distance relationships and local ties.'' Retrieved October 17, 2003 from http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/Report1.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219140356/http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/Report1.pdf |date=2009-02-19 }}.</ref>

An epidemic of [[cyberbullying|bullying]] and harassment has arisen from the exchange of information between strangers, especially among teenagers,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Smith | first=Peter K. | last2=Mahdavi | first2=Jess | last3=Carvalho | first3=Manuel | last4=Fisher | first4=Sonja | last5=Russell | first5=Shanette | last6=Tippett | first6=Neil | title=Cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils | journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume=49 | issue=4 | date=2008 | issn=1469-7610 | pmid=18363945 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x | pages=376–385}}</ref> in virtual communities. Despite attempts to implement anti-bullying policies, Sheri Bauman, professor of counselling at the University of Arizona, claims the "most effective strategies to prevent bullying" may cost companies revenue.<ref>
{{cite web
 |url= https://www.marketwatch.com/story/why-it-may-be-too-late-for-instagram-facebook-and-twitter-to-contain-the-epidemic-in-online-bullying-2019-07-15 |title= Instagram, Facebook and Twitter struggle to contain the epidemic in online bullying |last= Wellemeyer |first= James |date= July 17, 2019 |website= MarketWatch |access-date= September 30, 2019
}}
</ref>

Virtual Internet-mediated communities can interact with offline [[real-life]] activity, potentially forming strong and tight-knit groups such as [[QAnon]].<ref>{{cite news
 |last1            = Dickson
 |first1           = E.J.
 |title            = The QAnon Community Is in Crisis — But On Telegram, It's Also Growing
 |url              = https://shop.rollingstone.com/
 |magazine         = Rolling Stone
 |publisher        = Rolling Stone, LLC
 |publication-date = 22 January 2021
 |issn             = 0035-791X
 |access-date      = 18 February 2021
 |quote            = On the encrypted messaging app Telegram, however, which is currently serving as a bastion of far-right extremism, the QAnon community is not just thriving, but growing, according to data from the Center for Hate and Extremism.
 |archive-date     = 16 February 2021
 |archive-url      = https://web.archive.org/web/20210216044321/https://shop.rollingstone.com/
 |url-status       = dead
}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Circles of Sustainability]]
* [[Communitarianism]]
* [[Community theatre]]
* [[Community wind energy]]
* [[Engaged theory]]
* [[Outline of community]]
* [[Wikipedia community]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Commons category|Community}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* Barzilai, Gad. 2003. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Beck, U. 1992. ''Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity.'' London: Sage: 2000. ''What is globalization?'' Cambridge: Polity Press.
* Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.W., & Wandersman, A. 1986. "Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look." ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14(1), 24–40.
* Chipuer, H.M., & Pretty, G.M.H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 27(6), 643–658.
* Christensen, K., et al. (2003). ''Encyclopedia of Community.'' 4 volumes. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
* Cohen, A. P. 1985. ''The Symbolic Construction of Community.'' Routledge: New York.
* [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim, Émile]]. 1950 [1895] ''The Rules of Sociological Method''. Translated by S.A. Solovay and J.H. Mueller. New York: The Free Press.
* Cox, F., J. Erlich, J. Rothman, and J. Tropman. 1970. ''Strategies of Community Organization: A Book of Readings.'' Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock Publishers.
* Effland, R. 1998. [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515120848/http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/model_complex.html The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations] Mesa Community College.
* Giddens, A. 1999. "Risk and Responsibility" ''Modern Law Review'' 62(1): 1–10.
* {{Cite book|last=James|first=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic)|title=Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community|url=https://archive.org/details/nationformationt00jame
 |url-access=registration|publisher=Sage Publications|location=London |year=1996}}
* Lenski, G. 1974. ''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.'' New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
* Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 31, 279–296.
* Lyall, Scott, ed. (2016). ''Community in Modern Scottish Literature''. Brill | Rodopi: Leiden | Boston.
* [[Jean-Luc Nancy|Nancy, Jean-Luc]]. ''La Communauté désœuvrée'' – philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-[[subject (philosophy)|subjective]] concept of it
* {{Cite journal|title=Platforms, communities and business ecosystems: Lessons learned about entrepreneurship in an interconnected world|date=2013|last=Muegge|first=Steven|journal=Technology Innovation Management Review|volume=3|issue=February|pages=5–15|doi=10.22215/timreview/655|doi-access=free}}
* Newman, D. 2005. ''Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life,'' [http://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106033450/http://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf |date=2012-01-06 }} Pine Forge Press. Retrieved: 2006-08-05.
* Putnam, R.D. 2000. ''Bowling Alone: The collapse and revival of American community.'' New York: Simon & Schuster
* [[Seymour B. Sarason|Sarason, S.B.]] 1974. ''The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology.'' San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 1986. "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center." ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14, 405–407.
* Smith, M.K. 2001. [http://www.infed.org/community/community.htm Community]. ''Encyclopedia of informal education''. Last updated: January 28, 2005. Retrieved: 2006-07-15.

[[Category:Community| ]]
[[Category:Types of organization]]