Editing Commuting

{{short description|Periodically recurring travel between one's place of residence and place of work, or study}}
{{Redirect|Commuter}}
{{Other uses|Commute (disambiguation){{!}}Commute}}
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{{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=May 2013}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Urban cycling III.jpg|thumb|Ring Road, Vienna, Austria, June 2005]]
[[File:NYC subway riders with their newspapers.jpg|thumb|Commuters on the [[New York City Subway]] during [[rush hour]]]]
[[File:Rush hour at Shinjuku 02.JPG|thumb|Rush hour at [[Shinjuku Station]], [[Tokyo]]]]
[[File:Trafficjam.jpg|thumb|[[Traffic congestion|Traffic jam]] in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]]]

'''Commuting''' is periodically recurring [[travel]] between a place of residence and place of work or study, where the traveler, referred to as a '''commuter''', leaves the boundary of their home community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/commuter|title=the definition of commuter|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=2018-02-04}}</ref> By extension, it can sometimes be any regular or often repeated travel between locations, even when not work-related. The modes of travel, time taken and distance traveled in commuting varies widely across the globe. Most people in [[least-developed countries]] continue to walk to work. The cheapest method of commuting after walking is usually [[Bicycle commuting|by bicycle]], so this is common in low-income countries but is also increasingly practised by people in wealthier countries for environmental, health, and often time reasons. In middle-income countries, motorcycle commuting is very common. 

The next technology adopted as countries develop is more dependent on location: in more populous, older cities, especially in Eurasia [[mass transit]] (rail, bus, etc.) predominates, while in smaller, younger cities, and large parts of North America and Australasia, commuting by [[personal automobile]] is more common.  A small number of very wealthy people, and those working in remote locations around the world, also [[air commuting|commute by air travel]], often for a week or more at a time rather than the more typical daily commute. Transportation links that enable commuting also impact the physical layout of cities and regions, allowing a distinction to arise between mostly-residential [[suburb]]s and the more economically focused [[urban core]] of a city (process known as [[suburban sprawl]]), but the specifics of how that distinction is realized remain drastically different between societies, with Eurasian "suburbs" often being more densely populated than North American "urban cores".

== History ==

The first separation between workplace and place of residence occurred as a result of the invention of the [[Steam locomotive|steam railway]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Heblich|first1=Stephan|last2=Redding|first2=Stephen J.|last3=Sturm|first3=Daniel M.|date=2020-11-01|title=The Making of the Modern Metropolis: Evidence from London|url=http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1573.pdf|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|language=en|volume=135|issue=4|pages=2059–2133|doi=10.1093/qje/qjaa014|issn=0033-5533}}</ref> The word ''commuter'' derives from the early days of rail travel in US cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, where, in the 1840s, the railways engendered suburbs from which travelers paid a reduced or 'commuted' fare into the city. Later, the [[back formation]]s "commute" and "commuter" were coined therefrom. Commuted tickets would usually allow the traveler to repeat the same journey as often as they liked during the period of validity: normally, the longer the period the cheaper the cost per day.<ref>{{Citation
  | last = Paumgarten
  | first = Nick
  | title = There and Back Again: The soul of the commuter
  | newspaper = The New Yorker
  | pages = para 14
  | date = 16 April 2007
  | url = http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_paumgarten?printable=true
  | access-date = 9 October 2009
}}</ref>

Before the 19th century, most workers lived less than an hour's walk from their work. The Industrial Revolution brought specialization of work and workplaces, and relocated most paid work from households and rural areas to factories in urban areas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the City|last=Caves|first=R. W.|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=138}}</ref> Today, many people travel daily to work a long way from their own towns, cities, and villages, especially in [[Industrial Revolution|industrialised societies]]. Depending on factors such as the high cost of housing in city centres, lack of [[public transit]], and [[traffic congestion]], [[mode of travel|modes of travel]] may include [[automobile]]s, [[motorcycle]]s, [[train]]s, [[aircraft]], [[bus]]es, and [[bicycle]]s. Where Los Angeles is infamous for its automobile gridlock, commuting in New York is closely associated with the subway; in London and Tokyo and several European cities, "commuter" is automatically associated with rail passengers.<ref>Smoothly from Harrow: A Compendium for the London Commuter by Chris Moss (Blue Guides, 2013)</ref> In the near future{{when|date=January 2021}} there may be another move away from the traditional "commute" with the introduction of flexible working. Some have suggested that many employees would be far more productive and live healthier, stress-free lives if the daily commute is removed completely.

=== Suburbs ===
{{main|commuter town}}
Commuting has had a large impact on modern life. It has allowed cities to grow to sizes that were previously not practical, and it has led to the proliferation of suburbs. Many large cities or [[conurbation]]s are surrounded by [[commuter belt]]s, also known as [[metropolitan area]]s, [[commuter town]]s, dormitory towns, or bedroom communities.  The prototypical commuter lives in one of these areas and travels daily to work or to school in the core city.

As [[urban sprawl]] pushes further and further away from [[central business district]]s, new businesses can appear in [[edge city|outlying cities]], leading to the existence of the [[reverse commuter]] who lives in a core city but works in the suburbs, and to a type of secondary commuter who lives in a more distant [[exurb]] and works in the outlying city or [[industrial suburb]].

==Gender differences==
A UK study, published in 2009, found that on average women suffer four times as much psychological stress from their work commute as men do.<ref>Walsh, Meghan Ozy, "[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/commuting-driving-women-workforce/#.Vckpj57S0HY.facebook How a bad commute is worse for women than men]", ''PBS NewsHour'', 20 February 2015</ref><ref>Roberts, J., et al, "[http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/10005/1/SERPS2009009.pdf%20 It’s driving her mad: gender differences in the effects of commuting on psychological well-being]", [[University of Sheffield]], 2009</ref> An Indian study conducted in [[Mangalore]] led by [[Edmond Fernandes]] stated that creating a gender sensitive commuter-centric [[road safety]] policy requires to be developed to protect women while commuting as they felt stressed and scared to travel alone, particularly at night. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernandes |first1=Edmond |last2=Nirgude |first2=Abhay |last3=Naik |first3=Poonam |last4=Dsouza |first4=Neevan |last5=Shetty |first5=Soumya |date=2017-04-01 |title=Study of commuter problems and opinions in a fast developing coastal city of Mangalore in India: A gender perspective analysis |url=https://www.ijhas.in/article.asp?issn=2278-344X;year=2017;volume=6;issue=2;spage=57;epage=63;aulast=Fernandes;type=0 |journal=International Journal of Health & Allied Sciences |language=en |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=57 |doi=10.4103/ijhas.IJHAS_168_16 |doi-broken-date=2 November 2024 |doi-access=free |issn=2278-344X}}</ref> 

== Education ==
Institutions that have few [[dormitory|dormitories]] or low or no student housing populations are called ''commuter schools'' in the United States, like [[community college|community colleges]].

== Traffic ==
{{main|Traffic}}
Most commuters travel at the same time of day, resulting in the morning and evening [[rush hour]]s, with congestion on roads and public transport systems not designed or maintained well enough to cope with the peak demands. As an example, [[Interstate 405 (California)|Interstate 405]] located in Southern California is one of the busiest [[freeway]]s in the United States. Commuters may sit up to two hours in traffic during rush hour. Construction work or collisions on the freeway distract and slow down commuters, contributing to even longer delays.

== Pollution ==
Cars carrying only one occupant use [[fuel]] and roads less efficiently than [[Carpool|shared cars]] or [[public transport]], and increase [[traffic congestion]].  Commuting by car is a major factor contributing to [[air pollution]]. Carpool lanes can help commuters reach their destinations more quickly, encourage people to socialize, and spend time together, while reducing air [[Air pollution|pollution]]. Some governments and employers have introduced employee travel reduction programs that encourage such alternatives as [[carpool]]ing and [[remote work]]. Some are also carpooling using Internet sites to save money. Alternatives like [[personal rapid transit]] have also been proposed to reap the energy-efficiency benefits of a mass transit system while maintaining the speed and convenience of individual transport.

Traffic emissions, such as from [[car]]s and [[truck]]s, also contribute.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clearing the Air |publisher=The Surface Transportation Policy Project |date=19 August 2003 |url=http://www.transact.org/report.asp?id=227 |access-date=2007-04-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208230135/http://www.transact.org/report.asp?id=227 |archive-date=8 February 2007 }}</ref> Airborne [[by-product]]s from vehicle [[exhaust system]]s cause [[air pollution]] and are a major ingredient in the creation of [[smog]] in some large cities.<ref>{{cite press release | url = http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/6427a6b7538955c585257359003f0230/228d9bf38da42f7c8525743b006db951!OpenDocument&Start=1&Count=5&Expand=1 | title = EPA Tools Available as Summer Smog Season Starts | date = 30 April 2008 | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | location = Boston, Massachusetts}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sierraclub.org/sprawl/report01/carsandtrucks.asp | title = Sprawl Report 2001: Measuring Vehicle Contribution to Smog | publisher = Sierra Club | year = 2001 | access-date = 15 January 2017 | archive-date = 15 November 2001 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20011115044348/http://www.sierraclub.org/sprawl/report01/carsandtrucks.asp | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/smog_-_causes.html | title = Smog – Causes | work = The Environment: A Global Challenge | access-date = 25 October 2013 | archive-date = 19 January 2001 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20010119154200/http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/smog_-_causes.html | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | url = http://www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/pdfs/smog.pdf | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = July 1999 | title = Smog – Who Does It Hurt? What You Need to Know About Ozone and Your Health (EPA-452/K-99-001) }}</ref> The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO),<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/broker?_service=data&_debug=0&_program=dataprog.national_1.sas&polchoice=CO | work = Air Emission Sources | title = State and County Emission Summaries: Carbon Monoxide | date = 25 October 2013 | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref><ref name="queensland">{{cite web | url = http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/Community-and-environment/Environmental-management/How-you-can-make-a-difference/Motor-vehicle-pollution.aspx | title = Motor vehicle pollution | publisher = Queensland Government | date = 4 April 2013 | access-date = 15 January 2017 | archive-date = 5 December 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191205161028/https://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/Community-and-environment/Environmental-management/How-you-can-make-a-difference/Motor-vehicle-pollution.aspx | url-status = dead }}</ref> nitrogen oxides (NO and NO<sub>x</sub>),<ref name="epa-no2">{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/air/nitrogenoxides/health.html | work = Nitrogen Dioxide | title = Health | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = 14 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/air/noxfacts.pdf | title = The Regional Transport of Ozone: New EPA Rulemaking on Nitrogen Oxide Emissions (EPA-456/F-98-006) | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = September 1998}}</ref><ref name="EPA_NOx">{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/broker?_service=data&_debug=0&_program=dataprog.national_1.sas&polchoice=NOX | title = State and County Emission Summaries: Nitrogen Oxides | work = Air emission sources | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = 25 October 2013}}</ref> [[volatile organic compound]]s,<ref name="queensland" /><ref name="epa-no2" /> sulfur dioxide,<ref name="queensland" /> and hydrocarbons.<ref name="queensland" /> Hydrocarbons are the main components of [[Petroleum|petroleum fuels]] such as [[gasoline]] and [[diesel fuel]]. These molecules react with sunlight, heat, [[ammonia]], moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapours, ground level [[ozone]], and particles that comprise smog.<ref name="queensland" /><ref name="epa-no2" />

==Social trends==
===Commuting trends in the United States===
[[File:USCommutePatternsTimeCommute.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Commuting times and patterns in US cities, 2023 US Census data]]
In the United States, the [[Census Bureau]]'s [[American Community Survey]] (ACS) collects data on commuting times, allowing an analysis of average commute time by industry, location, and vehicle. According to the 2014 ACS, the average commute time for adults in the United States was 26.8 minutes.

The occupations with the longest commutes were [[Construction]] and [[Mining]] (33.4 minutes), [[Computer Science]] and [[Math]] (31.8), and [[Business]] Operations Specialists (30.2), while those in the military had the shortest commute (21). In general, urban and suburban workers in the US have similar commute times (about 30 minutes), while rural workers have significantly shorter commutes (22.6 minutes).

In the US, over 90% of workers commute by car, while about 5% commute by [[public transportation]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kopf|first1=Dan|title=Which Professions Have the Longest Commutes?|url=http://priceonomics.com/which-professions-have-the-longest-commutes/|website=Pricenomics|date=23 February 2016 |access-date=10 March 2016}}</ref> [[Statistical models]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Misra|first1=Rajul|title=Discretionary activity time allocation of individuals between in-home and out-of-home and between weekdays and weekends|journal=Transportation|volume=26|issue=2|pages=193–229|doi=10.1023/A:1005192230485|year=1999|s2cid=152762648 }}</ref> indicate that in addition to demographics and work duration, commute time is one of the most important determinants of discretionary time allocation by individuals.

=== Commuting College Students ===
The number of students who commute to college continues to increase significantly as the years go by. From 1996 to 2006 alone, the percentage of undergraduate students who commuted to campus began to increase at a rate of 30% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Understanding and Addressing Commuter Student Needs |publisher=J. Patrick Biddix |pages=80}}</ref> 

In a study involving 10 universities in Canada, 61% of students reported that their commute was a challenge to campus participation, while 30% perceived it as a barrier to academic success. Factors influencing satisfaction included commute mode, duration, travel attitudes, and campus type. Notably, 72% of students had one-way commutes of one hour or less, 22% had commutes lasting between 60 and 90 minutes, and 9% faced commutes exceeding 90 minutes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Ryan |last2=Mitra |first2=Raktim |date=2021-07-01 |title=Commute satisfaction and its relationship to post-secondary students' campus participation and success |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920921001917 |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=96 |pages=102890 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2021.102890 |bibcode=2021TRPD...9602890T |issn=1361-9209|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Commuting and the scarcity of local employment ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}}
[[Commuting]] is often made necessary due to local employment market factors which may stem from the decline of [[manufacturing]] (i.e., in cities where large manufacturing [[Employment|employers]] have either closed or laid off workers, with no other employers to absorb that loss) and, in general, the sheer lack of local employment. More specifically, wages from local employers are often insufficient for a worker household to sustain itself. As a result, the needs of worker [[Household|households]] must be sustained and this leads to a wider field of job search beyond a local area to the next nearest city or metropolitan area, resulting in the requirement for commuting. Hence, in areas where little or no transit options exist that can facilitate a journey to work to meet the requirements of a worker schedule, the use of a car is therefore made necessary. This is a personal choice driven by financial need, highlighting the broader issue of sustaining local economies.

===Social and health implications of commuting===
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}}
Since commuting largely stems from a need to travel outside a home community to sustain a household income while facing a bleak local employment market, this comes with additional social and health implications. First, there is the increased risk of injury and accident while driving as distance and time in the vehicle increases, which is generally observed when operating a vehicle. Fatigue and hazardous road conditions add to this risk. Second, while income from employment is greater in other cities, stress from commuting factors become a factor for personal health. Ironically, stress from having to locate employment or being placed in a low-income situation might lead to a similar outcome. However, this is dichotomous with the satisfaction of a sustainable income and good employment, which is clearly the goal of an individual who is faced with commuting.

==See also==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Commuter rail}}
* {{annotated link|Commuter worker}}
* {{annotated link|Health and environmental effects of transport}}
* {{annotated link|Extreme commuting}}
* {{annotated link|Hypermobility (travel)}}
* {{annotated link|Marchetti's constant}}
* {{annotated link|Motorcycle commuting}}
* {{annotated link|Reverse commute}}
* {{annotated link|Slugging}}
* {{annotated link|Standing passenger}}
* {{annotated link|Student transport}}
* {{annotated link|Transit-oriented development}}
* {{annotated link|Urban planning}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160325025132/http://indigestmag.com/blog/?p=9904#.UqKkhOJx6Sq "Commuters," a poetic rendition of the New Jersey-to-New York commuting life by Steve Peacock (2011) InDigestMag.com]
* [https://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/american_community_survey_acs/001695.html US Commuting Averages (2002)]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/france/story/0,11882,1167366,00.html Some Commuters are travelling from France to London]
* [http://www.platform11.org Platform 11 – Ireland's National Rail Commuter Group]
* [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/five-maps-reveal-new-truths-americas-megaregions-bruce-upbin?trk=eml-email_feed_ecosystem_digest_01-hero-0-null&midToken=AQGRFcgcMLnxPg&fromEmail=fromEmail&ut=0Zq3Rx3DMZ7nA1 Five Maps That Reveal New Truths About America's Megaregions]

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[[Category:Commuting| ]]
[[Category:Transport and the environment]]
[[Category:Urban geography]]
[[Category:Types of travel]]