Editing Computer mouse

{{short description|Pointing device used to control a computer}}
{{About|the item of computer hardware|the pointer or cursor it controls|Cursor (user interface)#Pointer}}
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{{original research|date=December 2024}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2021|cs1-dates=y}}
[[File:3-Tasten-Maus Microsoft.jpg|thumb|A computer mouse with the most common features: two buttons (left and right) and a scroll wheel (which can also function as a button when pressed inwards)]]
[[File:A computer mouse, black and white, retouched, keyboard visible in background.jpg|thumb|A typical wireless computer mouse]]

A '''computer mouse''' (plural '''mice'''; rarely also '''mouses''')<ref group="nb" name="NB_Plural" /> is a hand-held [[pointing device]] that detects [[Plane (mathematics)|two-dimensional]] motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of the [[Cursor (user interface)#Pointer|pointer]] (called a cursor) on a [[computer monitor|display]], which allows a smooth control of the [[graphical user interface]] of a [[computer]].

The first public demonstration of a mouse controlling a computer system was done by [[Doug Engelbart]] in 1968 as part of the [[Mother of All Demos]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://history-computer.com/computer-mouse-complete-history/ | title=Computer Mouse: Complete History | date=4 January 2021 }}</ref> Mice originally used two separate wheels to directly track movement across a surface: one in the x-dimension and one in the Y. Later, the standard design shifted to use a ball rolling on a surface to detect motion, in turn connected to internal rollers. Most modern mice use [[optical mouse|optical movement detection]] with no moving parts. Though originally all mice were connected to a computer by a cable, many modern mice are cordless, relying on short-range radio communication with the connected system.

In addition to moving a [[cursor (user interface)|cursor]], computer mice have one or more [[mouse button|buttons]] to allow operations such as the selection of a menu item on a display. Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch surfaces and [[scroll wheel]]s, which enable additional control and dimensional input.

== Etymology ==
[[File:Мышь 2.jpg|thumb|A computer mouse is named for its resemblance to the [[Mouse|rodent]].]]

The earliest known written use of the term ''mouse'' or mice in reference to a computer pointing device is in [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]]'s July 1965 publication, "Computer-Aided Display Control".<ref name="English_1965" /> This likely originated from its resemblance to the shape and size of a [[mouse]], with the cord resembling its [[tail]].<ref name="OED" /><ref name="Bardini_2000" /> The popularity of wireless mice without cords makes the resemblance less obvious.

According to Roger Bates, a hardware designer under English, the term also came about because the [[cursor (user interface)|cursor]] on the screen was, for an unknown reason, referred to as "CAT" and was seen by the team as if it would be chasing the new desktop device.<ref name="Markoff_2005" /><ref name="Markoff_2013" />

The plural for the small rodent is always "mice" in modern usage. The plural for a computer mouse is either "mice" or "mouses" according to most dictionaries, with "mice" being more common.<ref name="oxdic">{{cite web |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/mouse |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207113343/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/mouse |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 December 2019 |title=Definition for Mouse |date=2011 |access-date=2011-07-06}}</ref> The first recorded plural usage is "mice"; the online ''[[Oxford Dictionaries (website)|Oxford Dictionaries]]'' cites a 1984 use, and earlier uses include [[J. C. R. Licklider]]'s "The Computer as a Communication Device" of 1968.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://memex.org/licklider.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000815211839/http://memex.org/licklider.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-15 |url-status=live |title=The Computer as a Communication Device |author-first=J. C. R. |author-last=Licklider |work=Science and Technology |date=April 1968}}</ref>

== History{{anchor|X- and Y- Position Indicator}} ==
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=== Stationary trackballs ===
The [[trackball]], a related pointing device, was invented in 1946 by [[Ralph Benjamin]] as part of a post-[[World War II]]-era [[fire-control system|fire-control]] [[radar]] plotting system called the [[Comprehensive Display System]] (CDS). Benjamin was then working for the British [[Royal Navy]] Scientific Service. Benjamin's project used [[analog computer]]s to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a [[joystick]]. Benjamin felt that a more elegant [[input device]] was needed and invented what they called a "roller ball" for this purpose.<ref name="Copping_2013_Benjamin" /><ref name="Hill_2005_Benjamin" />

The device was patented in 1947,<ref name="Hill_2005_Benjamin">{{cite web |title=RALPH BENJAMIN: An Interview Conducted by Peter C. J. Hill |editor-first=Peter C. J. |editor-last=Hill |publisher=IEEE History Center, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. |date=2005-09-16 |type=Interview |series=Interview #465 |url=http://ethw.org/Oral-History:Ralph_Benjamin |access-date=2013-07-18}}</ref> but only a prototype using a metal ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret.<ref name="Copping_2013_Benjamin">{{cite web |title=Briton: 'I invented the computer mouse 20 years before the Americans' |author-first=Jasper |author-last=Copping |publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group|The Telegraph]] |date=2013-07-11 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10174366/Briton-I-invented-the-computer-mouse-20-years-before-the-Americans.html |access-date=2013-07-18}}</ref>

Another early trackball was built by [[Kenyon Taylor]], a British [[electrical engineering|electrical engineer]] working in collaboration with Tom Cranston and Fred Longstaff. Taylor was part of the original [[Ferranti Canada]], working on the [[Royal Canadian Navy]]'s [[DATAR]] (Digital Automated Tracking and Resolving) system in 1952.<ref name="Vardalas_1994_DATAR">{{cite journal |doi=10.1109/85.279228 |title=From DATAR to the FP-6000: Technological change in a Canadian industrial context |date=1994 |author-last=Vardalas |author-first=J. |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=20–30 |s2cid=15277748 |url=https://ewh.ieee.org/reg/7/millennium/fp6000/fp6000_datar.html| issn = 1058-6180|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamin's display. The trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. Several rollers provided mechanical support. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, producing pulses of output with each movement of the ball. By counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A [[computer#Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits|digital computer]] calculated the tracks and sent the resulting data to other ships in a task force using [[pulse-code modulation]] radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian [[five-pin bowling]] ball. It was not patented, since it was a secret military project.<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrzgS5SoMzcC&q=intitle:%22Pioneers+in+Canadian+Electrical+Manufacturing%22 |title=Ferranti-Packard: Pioneers in Canadian Electrical Manufacturing |author-first1=Norman R. |author-last1=Ball |author-first2=John N. |author-last2=Vardalas |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's Press]] |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7735-0983-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/fp6000/fp6000_datar.html |title=FP-6000 -- From DATAR To The FP-6000 |work=ieee.ca |access-date=2021-06-28  |archive-date=2019-04-04  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404053248/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/fp6000/fp6000_datar.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Engelbart's first "mouse" ===
{{anchor|Engelbart}}<!-- NOTE: Please see the discussion at File:firstmouseunderside.jpg before trying to replace this image with File: SRI Computer Mouse.jpg. The usage is not equivalent to the free image, as it illustrates the technical details and size of the device. -->[[File:firstmouseunderside.jpg|thumb|Inventor [[Douglas Engelbart]] holding the first computer mouse,<ref>{{cite web |title=First mouse – CERN Courier |url=http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28358/1/cernbooks2_12-00 |website=cerncourier.com |access-date=2015-06-24}}</ref> showing the wheels that make contact with the working surface]]

[[Douglas Engelbart]] of the Stanford Research Institute (now [[SRI International]]) has been credited in published books by [[Thierry Bardini]],<ref name="Bardini_2000_2" /> [[Paul Ceruzzi]],<ref name="Ceruzzi_2012" /> [[Howard Rheingold]],<ref name="Rheingold_2000" /> and several others<ref name="Lyon_1998" /><ref name="Hey">{{cite book |author-last1=Hey |author-first1=Tony |author-last2=Pápay |author-first2=Gyuri |title=The Computing Universe: A Journey through a Revolution |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-316-12322-5 |page=162 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4FIBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA162}}</ref><ref name="Atkinson">{{cite book |author-last=Atkinson |author-first=Paul |title=Computer |date=2010 |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |isbn=978-1-86189-737-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/computer0000atki/page/63 63] |url=https://archive.org/details/computer0000atki |url-access=registration}}</ref> as the inventor of the computer mouse. Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013.<ref name="Khazan">{{cite news |author-last=Khazan |author-first=Olga |title=Douglas Engelbart, computer visionary and inventor of the mouse, dies at 88 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/douglas-engelbart-computer-visionary-and-inventor-of-the-mouse-dies-at-88/2013/07/03/1439b508-0264-11e2-9b24-ff730c7f6312_story.html |access-date=2017-01-18 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |publisher=WP Company |date=2013-07-03}}</ref><ref name="Markoff">{{cite news |author-last=Markoff |author-first=John |title=Computer Visionary Who Invented the Mouse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/technology/douglas-c-engelbart-inventor-of-the-computer-mouse-dies-at-88.html |access-date=2017-01-18 |work=The New York Times |date=2013-07-03 |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="Arnold">{{cite news |author-last=Arnold |author-first=Laurence |title=Douglas Engelbart, Computer Mouse Creator, Visionary, Dies at 88 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-07-03/douglas-engelbart-computer-mouse-creator-visionary-dies-at-88 |access-date=2017-01-18 |work=Bloomberg |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=2013-07-03}}</ref><ref name="Chappell">{{cite news |author-last=Chappell |author-first=Bill |title=Inventor Of Computer Mouse Dies; Doug Engelbart Was 88 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/07/03/198448726/inventor-of-computer-mouse-dies-doug-engelbart-was-88 |access-date=2017-01-18 |work=The Two Way: Breaking News from NPR |publisher=NPR |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>

By 1963, Engelbart had already established a research lab at SRI, the [[Augmentation Research Center]] (ARC), to pursue his objective of developing both hardware and software computer technology to "augment" human intelligence. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in [[Reno, Nevada]], Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the [[planimeter]] to inputting X- and Y-coordinate data.<ref name="Bardini_2000_2" /> On 14 November 1963, he first recorded his thoughts in his personal notebook about something he initially called a "[[bug (computer mouse)|bug]]", which is a "3-point" form could have a "drop point and 2 orthogonal wheels".<ref name="Markoff_2005" /><ref name="Bardini_2000_2" /> He wrote that the "bug" would be "easier" and "more natural" to use, and unlike a stylus, it would stay still when let go, which meant it would be "much better for coordination with the keyboard".<ref name="Bardini_2000_2" />

[[File:Computer mouse prototype bottom.jpg|left|thumb|Bottom view of a replica of the Engelbart mouse]]

In 1964, [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]] joined ARC, where he helped Engelbart build the first mouse prototype.<ref name="Bardini_2000" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/1137400/mouse40.html |title=The computer mouse turns 40 |work=[[Macworld]] |author-first=Benj |author-last=Edwards |date=2008-12-09 |access-date=2009-04-16}}</ref> They christened the device the ''mouse'' as early models had a cord attached to the rear part of the device which looked like a tail, and in turn, resembled the common [[mouse]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stason.org/TULARC/languages/english-usage/51-mouses-vs-mice-Usage-disputes-alt-usage-english.html |title="Mouses" vs "mice" |work=The Ultimate Learn And Resource Center |access-date=2017-07-09}}</ref> According to Roger Bates, a hardware designer under English, another reason for choosing this name was because the cursor on the screen was also referred to as "CAT" at this time.<ref name="Markoff_2005" /><ref name="Markoff_2013" />

As noted above, this "mouse" was first mentioned in print in a July 1965 report, on which English was the lead author.<ref name="OED" /><ref name="Bardini_2000" /><ref name="English_1965" /> On 9 December 1968, Engelbart publicly demonstrated the mouse at what would come to be known as [[The Mother of All Demos]]. Engelbart never received any royalties for it, as his employer SRI held the patent, which expired before the mouse became widely used in personal computers.<ref>{{cite news |author-first=Shiels |author-last=Maggie |title=Say goodbye to the computer mouse |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7508842.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2008-07-17 |access-date=2008-07-17}}</ref> In any event, the invention of the mouse was just a small part of Engelbart's much larger project of augmenting human intellect.<ref>{{citation |title=Evolving Collective Intelligence |author-last1=Engelbart |author-first1=Douglas C. |author-link1=Douglas C. Engelbart |author-last2=Landau |author-last3=Clegg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/video/smithsonian-channel/The-Demo-That-Changed-the-World.html |title=The Demo That Changed the World |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228005323/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/video/smithsonian-channel/The-Demo-That-Changed-the-World.html |archive-date=2012-12-28}}</ref>

[[File:Mouse-patents-englebart-rid.png|thumb|right|Early mouse patents. From left to right: Opposing track wheels by Engelbart, November 1970, {{US patent|3541541}}. Ball and Wheel by ''Rider'', September 1974, {{US patent|3835464}}. Ball and two rollers with spring by Opocensky, October 1976, {{US patent|3987685}}]]

Several other experimental pointing-devices developed for Engelbart's oN-Line System ([[NLS (computer system)|NLS]]) exploited different body movements –&nbsp;for example, head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose&nbsp;– but ultimately the mouse won out because of its speed and convenience.<ref>{{citation |author-last=Engelbart |author-first=Douglas C. |author-link=Douglas C. Engelbart |title=Display-Selection Techniques for Text Manipulation |publisher=IEEE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics |pages=5–15 |date=March 1967 |url=https://www.dougengelbart.org/content/view/145/000/ |access-date=2013-03-26}}</ref> The first mouse, a bulky device (pictured) used two [[potentiometer]]s perpendicular to each other and connected to wheels: the rotation of each wheel translated into motion along one [[coordinate system|axis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dougengelbart.org/content/view/145/000/ |title=Display-Selection Techniques for Text Manipulation – 1967 (AUGMENT, 133184) – Doug Engelbart Institute |author-last=Engelbart |author-first=Christina |website=dougengelbart.org |access-date=2016-03-15}}</ref> At the time of the "Mother of All Demos", Engelbart's group had been using their second-generation, 3-button mouse for about a year.

=== First rolling-ball mouse ===
{{anchor|Rollkugel}}[[File:Telefunken Rollkugel RKS 100-86.jpg|thumb|left|The ball-based [[Telefunken]] {{lang|de|Rollkugelsteuerung}} ''RKS&nbsp;100-86'' from 1968]]

On 2 October 1968, three years after Engelbart's prototype but more than two months before his public [[The Mother of All Demos|demo]], a mouse device named ''{{lang|de|Rollkugelsteuerung}}'' (German for "Trackball control") was shown in a sales brochure by the German company [[AEG (German company)|AEG]]-[[Telefunken]] as an optional input device for the SIG&nbsp;100 vector graphics terminal, part of the system around their process computer [[Telefunken TR 86|TR&nbsp;86]] and the {{ill|Telefunken TR 440{{!}}TR 440|de|TR&nbsp;440}} main frame.<ref name="Neubauer_1968" /><ref name="CHM_SIG-100" /><ref name="Telefunken_1971" /><ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /> Based on an even earlier<!-- somewhen between 1963 and 1965 --> trackball device, the mouse device had been developed by the company in 1966 in what had been a parallel and [[independent discovery]].<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> As the name suggests and unlike Engelbart's mouse, the Telefunken model already had a ball (diameter 40&nbsp;mm, weight 40&nbsp;g<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" />) and two mechanical 4-bit<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /> rotational [[position transducer]]s<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /> with [[Gray code]]-like<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /><ref group="nb" name="NB_Rollkugel_Encoder" /> states, allowing easy movement in any direction.<ref name="Ebner_2018" /> The bits remained stable for at least two successive states to relax [[debouncing]] requirements.<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /> This arrangement was chosen so that the data could also be transmitted to the TR&nbsp;86 front-end process computer and over longer distance [[telex line]]s with {{circa}}{{sp}}50&nbsp;[[baud]].<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> Weighing {{convert|465|g}}, the device with a total height of about {{cvt|7|cm}} came in a {{circa}}{{sp}}{{cvt|12|cm}} diameter hemispherical injection-molded thermoplastic casing featuring one central push button.<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" />

[[File:Telefunken Rollkugel RKS 100-86 (bottom).jpg|thumb|right|The bottom side of the Telefunken {{lang|de|Rollkugel}} ''RKS&nbsp;100-86'' shows the ball]]

As noted above, the device was based on an earlier trackball-like device (also named ''{{lang|de|[[Rollkugel (trackball device)|Rollkugel]]}}'') that was embedded into radar flight control desks.<ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> This trackball had been originally developed by a team led by {{ill|Rainer Mallebrein|de}} at Telefunken {{lang|de|Konstanz}} for the German ''{{lang|de|{{ill|Bundesanstalt für Flugsicherung|de}}}}'' (Federal Air Traffic Control). It was part of the corresponding workstation system SAP&nbsp;300 and the terminal SIG&nbsp;3001, which had been designed and developed since 1963.<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> Development for the TR&nbsp;440 main frame began in 1965.<ref name="Telefunken_1966" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> This led to the development of the TR&nbsp;86 process computer system with its SIG&nbsp;100-86<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="CHM_SIG-100" /> terminal. Inspired by a discussion with a university customer, Mallebrein came up with the idea of "reversing" the existing {{lang|de|Rollkugel}} trackball into a moveable mouse-like device in 1966,<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> so that customers did not have to be bothered with mounting holes for the earlier trackball device. The device was finished in early 1968<!-- Steinbach has an obvious typo: 1966/1968 -->,<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> and together with [[light pen]]s and [[trackball]]s, it was commercially offered as an optional input device for their system starting later that year.<ref name="Neubauer_1968" /><ref name="CHM_SIG-100" /><ref name="Telefunken_1971" /><ref name="Telefunken_1972" /> Not all customers opted to buy the device, which added costs of {{currency|1500|DM}} per piece to the already up to 20-million DM deal for the main frame, of which only a total of 46 systems were sold or leased.<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="Holland_2019" /> They were installed at more than 20 German universities including [[RWTH Aachen]], [[Technische Universität Berlin]], [[University of Stuttgart]]<ref name="Vaihingen_2016" /><ref name="Borchers_2016" /> and [[University of Konstanz|Konstanz]].<ref name="Ebner_2018" /> Several {{lang|de|Rollkugel}} mice installed at the [[Leibniz Supercomputing Centre]] in Munich in 1972 are well preserved in a museum<!-- another sources states that Garching/Munich has 4 Rollkugeln -->,<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="OldMouse_Telefunken" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> two others survived in a museum at Stuttgart University,<ref name="Vaihingen_2016" /><ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> two in Hamburg<!-- one at the university, the other at Jürgen Müller -->, the one from Aachen at the [[Computer History Museum]] in the US,<ref name="CHM_RKS-100" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> and yet another sample was recently donated to the [[Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum]] (HNF) in Paderborn.<ref name="HNF_2019_Presentation" /><ref name="Holland_2019" /> Anecdotal reports claim that Telefunken's attempt to patent the device was rejected by the German Patent Office due to lack of inventiveness.<ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /><ref name="Ebner_2018" /><ref name="Holland_2019" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> For the air traffic control system, the Mallebrein team had already developed a precursor to [[touch screen]]s in form of an ultrasonic-curtain-based pointing device in front of the display.<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> In 1970, they developed a device named "[[Touchinput]]-{{lang|de|Einrichtung}}" ("touch input device") based on a conductively coated glass screen.<ref name="Ebner_2018" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" />

=== First mice on personal computers and workstations ===
[[File:Hil-mouse.jpg|right|thumb|HP-HIL Mouse from 1984]]

{{anchor|Xerox Alto}}The [[Xerox Alto]] was one of the first computers designed for individual use in 1973 and is regarded as the first modern computer to use a mouse.<ref>{{cite web |title=ACM Turing Award Goes to Creator of First Modern Personal Computer |url=https://www.acm.org/binaries/content/assets/press-releases/2010/march/turing-award-09-1.pdf |publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery]] |author-first=Virginia |author-last=Gold |access-date=2011-01-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311223801/http://www.acm.org/press-room/news-releases/2010/turing-award-09 |archive-date=2010-03-11}}</ref> [[Alan Kay]] designed the 16-by-16 mouse cursor icon with its left edge vertical and right edge 45-degrees so it displays well on the bitmap.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A brief history of the mouse cursor, from Engelbart to PARC |url=https://jameshk.com/mouse-cursor |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=A brief history of the mouse cursor, from Engelbart to PARC |language=en}}</ref>{{anchor|Lilith}}Inspired by [[Palo Alto Research Center|PARC]]'s Alto, the [[Lilith (computer)|Lilith]], a computer which had been developed by a team around [[Niklaus Wirth]] at [[ETH Zürich]] between 1978 and 1980, provided a mouse as well. {{anchor|Xerox Star}}The third marketed version of an integrated mouse shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the [[Xerox Star|Xerox 8010 Star]] in 1981.

By 1982, the Xerox 8010 was probably the best-known computer with a mouse. The [[Sun-1]] also came with a mouse, and the forthcoming [[Apple Lisa]] was rumored to use one, but the peripheral remained obscure; Jack Hawley of The Mouse House reported that one buyer for a large organization believed at first that his company sold [[laboratory mouse|lab mice]]. Hawley, who manufactured mice for Xerox, stated that "Practically, I have the market all to myself right now"; a Hawley mouse cost $415.<ref name="markoff19820510">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA10 |title=Computer mice are scurrying out of R&D labs |work=[[InfoWorld]] |date=1982-05-10 |access-date=2015-08-26 |author-last=Markoff |author-first=John |pages=10–11}}</ref> In 1982, [[Logitech]] introduced the P4 Mouse at the Comdex trade show in Las Vegas, its first hardware mouse.<ref>{{cite web |title=Logitech History, March 2007 |url=https://www.logitech.com/lang/pdf/logitech_history_200703.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221120203/http://www.logitech.com/lang/pdf/logitech_history_200703.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-21 |url-status=live |publisher=Logitech |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> That same year [[Microsoft]] made the decision to make the [[MS-DOS]] program [[Microsoft Word]] mouse-compatible, and developed the first PC-compatible mouse. The [[Microsoft Mouse]] shipped in 1983, thus beginning the [[Microsoft hardware|Microsoft Hardware]] division of the company.<ref name="mshw">{{cite web |title=30 Years Of Microsoft Hardware |url=http://www.microsoft.com/hardware/en-us/30-years-of-hardware |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |access-date=2012-07-15}}</ref> However, the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the [[Macintosh 128K]] (which included an updated version of the single-button<ref>{{cite web |author1=Tekla S. Perry |title=Of Modes and Men |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/of-modes-and-men |website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News |publisher=IEEE |language=en |date=2005-08-01}}</ref> [[Apple Mouse#Lisa Mouse (A9M0050)|Lisa Mouse]]) in 1984,<ref>{{cite news |author-first=John C. |author-last=Dvorak |author-link=John C. Dvorak |work=[[The San Francisco Examiner]] |title=The Mac Meets the Press |date=1984-02-19 |isbn=978-1-59327-010-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXnw5tM8QRwC&pg=PA119}}</ref> and of the [[Amiga 1000]] and the [[Atari ST]] in 1985. Aftermarket mice were offered, from the mid 1980s, for many 8-bit home computers, the like of the [[Commodore 1351]] being offered for the Commodore 64 and 128, as was the NEOS Mouse that was also offered for the [[MSX]] range, while the [[AMX Mouse]] was offered for the Acorn BBC Micro and Electron, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, and Amstrad CPC lines.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stefan |title=AMX Mouse - Classic Computer Brochures |url=https://classic.technology/amx-mouse/ |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=classic.technology |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chris's Acorns: Advanced Memory Systems AMX Mouse |url=http://chrisacorns.computinghistory.org.uk/8bit_Upgrades/AMX_Mouse.html |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=chrisacorns.computinghistory.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ElectronUserVolume4/Electron-User-04-03/page/n3/mode/1up |title=Electron User Volume 4 1986-1987}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CRASH 27 - AMX Mouse |url=https://www.crashonline.org.uk/27/amxmouse.htm |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=www.crashonline.org.uk}}</ref>

== Operation ==
{{Further|Point and click}}
A mouse typically controls the motion of a [[pointer (user interface)|pointer]] in two dimensions in a graphical user interface (GUI). The mouse turns movements of the hand backward and forward, left and right into equivalent electronic signals that in turn are used to move the pointer.

The relative movements of the mouse on the surface are applied to the position of the pointer on the screen, which signals the point where actions of the user take place, so hand movements are replicated by the pointer.<ref name="dummies">{{cite web |url=https://www.dummies.com/computers/computer-networking/networking-components/how-to-use-your-computer-mouse/ |title=How to Use Your Computer Mouse |publisher=[[For Dummies]] |access-date=2013-12-11}}</ref> Clicking or pointing (stopping movement while the cursor is within the bounds of an area) can select files, programs or actions from a list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through small images called "icons" and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a paper notebook and clicking while the cursor points at this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a window.

Different ways of operating the mouse cause specific things to happen in the GUI:<ref name="dummies" />
* Point: stop the motion of the pointer while it is inside the boundaries of what the user wants to interact with. This act of pointing is what the "[[pointer (user interface)|pointer]]" and "pointing device" are named after. In web design lingo, pointing is referred to as "hovering". This usage spread to web programming and Android programming, and is now found in many contexts.
* Click: pressing and releasing a button.
** (left) [[Point and click|Single-click]]: clicking the main button.
** (left) [[Double-click]]: clicking the button two times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than two separate single clicks.
** (left) [[Triple-click]]: clicking the button three times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than three separate single clicks. Triple clicks are far less common in traditional navigation.
** [[Right-click]]: clicking the secondary button. In modern applications, this frequently opens a [[context menu]].
** Middle-click: clicking the tertiary button. In most cases, this is also the scroll wheel.
** Clicking the fourth button.
** Clicking the fifth button.
** The USB standard defines up to 65535 distinct buttons for mice and other such devices,<ref>https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/documents/hut1_12v2.pdf (Button Page, 0x09)</ref> although in practice buttons above 3 are rarely implemented.
* Drag: pressing and holding a button, and moving the mouse before releasing the button. This is frequently used to move or copy files or other objects via [[drag and drop]]; other uses include selecting text and drawing in graphics applications.
* [[Mouse chording|Mouse button chording]] or chord clicking:
** Clicking with more than one button simultaneously.
** Clicking while simultaneously typing a letter on the keyboard.
** Clicking and rolling the mouse wheel simultaneously.
* Clicking while holding down a [[modifier key]].
* Moving the pointer a long distance: When a practical limit of mouse movement is reached, one lifts up the mouse, brings it to the opposite edge of the working area while it is held above the surface, and then lowers it back onto the working surface. This is often not necessary, because acceleration software detects fast movement, and moves the pointer significantly faster in proportion than for slow mouse motion.
* Multi-touch: this method is similar to a multi-touch touchpad on a laptop with support for tap input for multiple fingers, the most famous example being the Apple [[Magic Mouse]].

=== Gestures ===
{{Main|Pointing device gesture}}Gestural interfaces have become an integral part of modern computing, allowing users to interact with their devices in a more intuitive and natural way. In addition to traditional pointing-and-clicking actions, users can now employ gestural inputs to issue commands or perform specific actions. These stylized motions of the mouse cursor, known as "gestures", have the potential to enhance user experience and streamline workflow.

To illustrate the concept of gestural interfaces, let's consider a drawing program as an example. In this scenario, a user can employ a gesture to delete a shape on the canvas. By rapidly moving the mouse cursor in an "x" motion over the shape, the user can trigger the command to delete the selected shape. This gesture-based interaction enables users to perform actions quickly and efficiently without relying solely on traditional input methods.

While gestural interfaces offer a more immersive and interactive user experience, they also present challenges. One of the primary difficulties lies in the requirement of finer motor control from users. Gestures demand precise movements, which can be more challenging for individuals with limited dexterity or those who are new to this mode of interaction.

However, despite these challenges, gestural interfaces have gained popularity due to their ability to simplify complex tasks and improve efficiency. Several gestural conventions have become widely adopted, making them more accessible to users. One such convention is the drag and drop gesture, which has become pervasive across various applications and platforms.

The drag and drop gesture is a fundamental gestural convention that enables users to manipulate objects on the screen seamlessly. It involves a series of actions performed by the user:

# Pressing the mouse button while the cursor hovers over an interface object.
# Moving the cursor to a different location while holding the button down.
# Releasing the mouse button to complete the action.

This gesture allows users to transfer or rearrange objects effortlessly. For instance, a user can drag and drop a picture representing a file onto an image of a trash can, indicating the intention to delete the file. This intuitive and visual approach to interaction has become synonymous with organizing digital content and simplifying file management tasks.

In addition to the drag and drop gesture, several other semantic gestures have emerged as standard conventions within the gestural interface paradigm. These gestures serve specific purposes and contribute to a more intuitive user experience. Some of the notable semantic gestures include:

* Crossing-based goal: This gesture involves crossing a specific boundary or threshold on the screen to trigger an action or complete a task. For example, swiping across the screen to unlock a device or confirm a selection.
* Menu traversal: Menu traversal gestures facilitate navigation through hierarchical menus or options. Users can perform gestures such as swiping or scrolling to explore different menu levels or activate specific commands.
* Pointing: Pointing gestures involve positioning the mouse cursor over an object or element to interact with it. This fundamental gesture enables users to select, click, or access contextual menus.
* Mouseover (pointing or hovering): Mouseover gestures occur when the cursor is positioned over an object without clicking. This action often triggers a visual change or displays additional information about the object, providing users with real-time feedback.

These standard semantic gestures, along with the drag and drop convention, form the building blocks of gestural interfaces, allowing users to interact with digital content using intuitive and natural movements.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chatsonic |title=The Concept of Gestural Interfaces |publisher=[[Independent publisher|Independent]] |year=2021 |pages=1}}</ref>

=== Specific uses ===
[[File:Digitalizador de tablero.jpg|thumb|[[Digitizer mouse]] (puck)]]
At the end of 20th century, [[digitizer mouse|digitizer mice]] (puck) with [[magnifying glass]] was used with [[AutoCAD]] for the [[digitization]]s of [[blueprint]]s.

Other uses of the mouse's input occur commonly in special application domains. In interactive [[3D computer graphics|three-dimensional graphics]], the mouse's motion often translates directly into changes in the virtual objects' or camera's orientation. For example, in the first-person shooter genre of games (see below), players usually employ the mouse to control the direction in which the virtual player's "head" faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head. A related function makes an image of an object rotate so that all sides can be examined. 3D design and animation software often modally chord many different combinations to allow objects and cameras to be rotated and moved through space with the few axes of movement mice can detect.

When mice have more than one button, the software may assign different functions to each button. Often, the primary (leftmost in a [[handedness|right-handed]] configuration) button on the mouse will select items, and the secondary (rightmost in a right-handed) button will bring up a menu of alternative actions applicable to that item. For example, on platforms with more than one button, the [[Mozilla]] web browser will follow a link in response to a primary button click, will bring up a contextual menu of alternative actions for that link in response to a secondary-button click, and will often open the link in a new [[tab (GUI)|tab]] or [[window (computing)|window]] in response to a click with the tertiary (middle) mouse button.

== Types ==
=== Mechanical mice ===
{{Infobox|imagestyle = text-align: left
| image = [[File:Mouse mechanism diagram.svg|frameless]]
| caption = Operating an opto-mechanical mouse
# Moving the mouse turns the ball.
# X and Y rollers grip the ball and transfer movement.
# Optical [[Incremental encoder|encoding]] disks include light holes.
# Infrared [[Light-emitting diode|LEDs]] shine through the disks.
# Sensors gather light pulses to convert to X and Y vectors.
}}
The German company [[Telefunken]] published on their early ball mouse on 2 October 1968.<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /> Telefunken's mouse was sold as optional equipment for their computer systems. [[William English (computer engineer)|Bill English]], builder of Engelbart's original mouse,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.superkids.com/aweb/pages/features/mouse/mouse.html |title=Doug Engelbart: Father of the Mouse (interview) |access-date=2007-09-08}}</ref> created a ball mouse in 1972 while working for [[PARC (company)|Xerox PARC]].<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Wadlow |author-first=Thomas A. |title=The Xerox Alto Computer |journal=[[BYTE]] |date=September 1981 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=58–68 |url=<!-- https://guidebookgallery.org/articles/thexeroxaltocomputer -->}}</ref>

The ball mouse replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could rotate in any direction. It came as part of the hardware package of the [[Xerox Alto]] computer. Perpendicular [[optical chopper|chopper wheels]] housed inside the mouse's body chopped beams of light on the way to light sensors, thus detecting in their turn the motion of the ball. This variant of the mouse resembled an inverted [[trackball]] and became the predominant form used with [[personal computer]]s throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Xerox PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to type on a full-size keyboard and grabbing the mouse when required.

[[File:Logitechms48.jpg|thumb|left|A mechanical mouse with the top cover removed. The scroll wheel is gray, to the right of the ball.]]

The ball mouse has two freely rotating rollers. These are located 90 degrees apart. One roller detects the forward-backward motion of the mouse and the other the left-right motion. Opposite the two rollers is a third one (white, in the photo, at 45 degrees) that is spring-loaded to push the ball against the other two rollers. Each roller is on the same shaft as an [[incremental encoder|encoder]] wheel that has slotted edges; the slots interrupt infrared light beams to generate electrical pulses that represent wheel movement. Each wheel's disc has a pair of light beams, located so that a given beam becomes interrupted or again starts to pass light freely when the other beam of the pair is about halfway between changes.

Simple logic circuits interpret the relative timing to indicate which direction the wheel is rotating. This [[incremental encoder|incremental rotary encoder]] scheme is sometimes called quadrature encoding of the wheel rotation, as the two optical sensors produce signals that are in approximately [[quadrature phase]]. The mouse sends these signals to the computer system via the mouse cable, directly as logic signals in very old mice such as the Xerox mice, and via a data-formatting IC in modern mice. The driver software in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse cursor along X and Y axes on the computer screen.

[[File:HawleyMarkIImice.jpg|thumb|left|Hawley Mark II Mice from the Mouse House]]

The ball is mostly steel, with a precision spherical rubber surface. The weight of the ball, given an appropriate working surface under the mouse, provides a reliable grip so the mouse's movement is transmitted accurately. Ball mice and wheel mice were manufactured for Xerox by Jack Hawley, doing business as The Mouse House in Berkeley, California, starting in 1975.<ref name="hawley">{{cite web |url=http://library.stanford.edu/mac/primary/images/hawley1.html |title=The Xerox Mouse Commercialized |work=Making the Macintosh: Technology and Culture in Silicon Valley |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721013847/http://library.stanford.edu/mac/primary/images/hawley1.html |archive-date=2010-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/hawley/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050405164040/http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/hawley/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=5 April 2005 |title=Hawley Mark II X063X Mouses |work=oldmouse.com}}</ref> Based on another invention by Jack Hawley, proprietor of the Mouse House, [[Honeywell]] produced another type of mechanical mouse.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bergen.org/AAST/Projects/Engineering_Graphics/_EG2001/mouse/improvements.html#honeywell |title=Honeywell mechanical mouse |access-date=2007-01-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428032201/http://www.bergen.org/AAST/Projects/Engineering_Graphics/_EG2001/mouse/improvements.html#honeywell <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=2007-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=4628755.PN.&OS=PN/4628755&RS=PN/4628755 |title=Honeywell mouse patent |access-date=2007-09-11}}</ref> Instead of a ball, it had two wheels rotating at off axes. [[Key Tronic]] later produced a similar product.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.keytronic.com/home/products/specs/2hw73-1es.htm |title=Keytronic 2HW73-1ES Mouse |access-date=2007-01-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927092356/http://www.keytronic.com/home/products/specs/2hw73-1es.htm |archive-date=2007-09-27}}</ref>

Modern computer mice took form at the [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne]] (EPFL) under the inspiration of Professor [[Jean-Daniel Nicoud]] and at the hands of [[engineer]] and [[watchmaker]] [[André Guignard]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.softpedia.com/news/Of-Mice-and-Men-and-PCs-43129.shtml |title=Of Mice and Men... and PCs|publisher=News.softpedia.com |date=1970-11-17 |access-date=2017-11-27}}</ref> This new design incorporated a single hard rubber mouseball and three buttons, and remained a common design until the mainstream adoption of the scroll-wheel mouse during the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2004/explorers/interactive/profiles/computer.mouse/content.html |title=Inventions, computer mouse – the CNN site |website=[[CNN]] |access-date=2006-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050424150438/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2004/explorers/interactive/profiles/computer.mouse/content.html |archive-date=2005-04-24}}</ref> In 1985, [[René Sommer]] added a [[microprocessor]] to Nicoud's and Guignard's design.<ref name="wrs">{{cite news |title=Computer mouse inventor dies in Vaud |url=http://worldradio.ch/wrs/news/wrsnews/computer-mouse-inventor-dies-in-vaud.shtml?16283 |work=[[World Radio Switzerland]] |date=2009-10-14 |access-date=2009-10-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707010602/http://worldradio.ch/wrs/news/wrsnews/computer-mouse-inventor-dies-in-vaud.shtml?16283 |archive-date=2011-07-07}}</ref> Through this innovation, Sommer is credited with inventing a significant component of the mouse, which made it more "intelligent";<ref name="wrs" /> though optical mice from [[Mouse Systems]] had incorporated microprocessors by 1984.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[InfoWorld]] |title=People |author-first=Denise |author-last=Caruso |volume=6 |issue=20 |publisher=[[InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.]] |page=16 |issn=0199-6649 |date=1984-05-14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sy4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA16}}</ref>

Another type of mechanical mouse, the "analog mouse" (now generally regarded as obsolete), uses [[potentiometer]]s rather than encoder wheels, and is typically designed to be [[plug compatible]] with an analog joystick. The "Color Mouse", originally marketed by [[RadioShack]] for their [[TRS-80 Color Computer|Color Computer]] (but also usable on [[MS-DOS]] machines equipped with analog joystick ports, provided the software accepted joystick input) was the best-known example.

=== Optical and laser mice ===
[[File: HP Mouse M-U0031-O-1681.jpg|thumb|The underside of an optical mouse]]
{{Main|Optical mouse}}

Early optical mice relied entirely on one or more [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) and an imaging array of [[photodiode]]s to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, eschewing the internal moving parts a mechanical mouse uses in addition to its optics. A laser mouse is an optical mouse that uses coherent (laser) light.

The earliest optical mice detected movement on pre-printed mousepad surfaces, whereas the modern LED optical mouse works on most opaque diffuse surfaces; it is usually unable to detect movement on specular surfaces like polished stone. Laser diodes provide good resolution and precision, improving performance on opaque specular surfaces. Later, more surface-independent optical mice use an optoelectronic sensor (essentially, a tiny low-resolution video camera) to take successive images of the surface on which the mouse operates. Battery powered, wireless optical mice flash the LED intermittently to save power, and only glow steadily when movement is detected.

=== Inertial and gyroscopic mice ===
Often called "air mice" since they do not require a surface to operate, inertial mice use a tuning fork or other [[accelerometer]] (US Patent 4787051<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.freepatentsonline.com/4787051.html |title=Inertial mouse system |website=Free Patents Online |access-date=2018-03-23 |date=1988}}</ref>) to detect rotary movement for every axis supported. The most common models (manufactured by Logitech and Gyration) work using 2 degrees of rotational freedom and are insensitive to spatial translation. The user requires only small wrist rotations to move the cursor, reducing user fatigue or "[[gorilla arm]]".

Usually cordless, they often have a switch to deactivate the movement circuitry between use, allowing the user freedom of movement without affecting the cursor position. A patent for an inertial mouse claims that such mice consume less power than optically based mice, and offer increased sensitivity, reduced weight and increased [[usability|ease-of-use]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freshpatents.com/Highly-sensitive-inertial-mouse-dt20060727ptan20060164393.php |title=Highly Sensitive Inertial Mouse |website=Fresh Patents |access-date=2006-12-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070108083136/http://www.freshpatents.com/Highly-sensitive-inertial-mouse-dt20060727ptan20060164393.php |archive-date=2007-01-08}}</ref> In combination with a wireless keyboard an inertial mouse can offer alternative ergonomic arrangements which do not require a flat work surface, potentially alleviating some types of repetitive motion injuries related to workstation posture.

=== 3D mice ===
{{Redirect|SpaceBall|other uses|Spaceball (disambiguation)}}A 3D mouse is a computer input device for [[viewport]] interaction with at least three degrees of freedom ([[Degrees of freedom (mechanics)|DoF]]), e.g. in [[3D computer graphics]] software for manipulating virtual objects, navigating in the viewport, defining camera paths, posing, and desktop [[motion capture]]. 3D mice can also be used as [[Game controller|spatial controllers]] for [[video game]] interaction, e.g. [[SpaceOrb 360]]. To perform such different tasks the used [[transfer function]] and the device stiffness are essential for efficient interaction.

==== Transfer function ====
The virtual motion is connected to the 3D mouse control handle via a [[transfer function]]. Position control means that the virtual [[Position (geometry)|position]] and [[Orientation (geometry)|orientation]] is proportional to the mouse handle's deflection whereas velocity control means that [[Translation (geometry)|translation]] and [[Rotation (mathematics)|rotation]] [[velocity]] of the controlled object is proportional to the handle deflection. A further essential property of a transfer function is its interaction metaphor:

* Object-in-hand metaphor: An exterocentrical metaphor whereby the scene moves in correspondence with the input device. If the handle of the input device is twisted clockwise the scene rotates clockwise. If the handle is moved left the scene shifts left, and so on.
* Camera-in-hand metaphor: An egocentrical metaphor whereby the user's view is controlled by direct movement of a virtual camera. If the handle is twisted clockwise the scene rotates counter-clockwise. If the handle is moved left the scene shifts right, and so on.

[https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Exploration-and-virtual-camera-control-in-virtual-Ware-Osborne/8be4773bb1bb658e3f7b1b3947a1fc578f276be8 Ware and Osborne] performed an experiment investigating these metaphors whereby it was shown that there is no single best metaphor. For manipulation tasks, the object-in-hand metaphor was superior, whereas for navigation tasks the camera-in-hand metaphor was superior.

==== Device stiffness ====
[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/33799780_Human_performance_in_six_degree_of_freedom_input_control_microform Zhai] used and the following three categories for device stiffness:

* [[Isotonic (exercise physiology)|Isotonic]] Input: An input device with zero stiffness, that is, there is no self-centering effect.
* [[Elasticity (physics)|Elastic]] Input: A device with some stiffness, that is, the forces on the handle are proportional to the deflections.
* [[Isometric exercise|Isometric]] Input: An elastic input device with infinite stiffness, that is, the device handle does not allow any deflection but records force and torque.

==== Isotonic 3D mice ====
[[Logitech]] 3D Mouse (1990) was the first ultrasonic mouse and is an example of an isotonic 3D mouse having six degrees of freedom (6DoF). Isotonic devices have also been developed with less than 6DoF, e.g. the Inspector at Technical University of Denmark (5DoF input).

Other examples of isotonic 3D mice are [[motion controller]]s, i.e. is a type of [[game controller]] that typically uses accelerometers to track motion. Motion tracking systems are also used for [[motion capture]] e.g. in the film industry, although that these tracking systems are not 3D mice in a strict sense, because motion capture only means recording 3D motion and not 3D interaction.

==== Isometric 3D mice ====
Early 3D mice for velocity control were almost ideally isometric, e.g. [[Spaceball (computing)|SpaceBall]] 1003, 2003, 3003, and a device developed at [[German Aerospace Center|Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt]] (DLR), cf. US patent US4589810A.

==== Elastic 3D mice ====
At DLR an elastic 6DoF sensor was developed that was used in Logitech's SpaceMouse and in the products of [[3Dconnexion|3DConnexion]]. SpaceBall 4000 FLX has a maximum deflection of approximately {{cvt|3|mm}} at a maximum force of approximately 10N, that is, a stiffness of approximately {{cvt|33|N/cm}}. SpaceMouse has a maximum deflection of {{cvt|1.5|mm}} at a maximum force of {{cvt|4.4|N}}, that is, a stiffness of approximately {{cvt|30|N/cm}}. Taking this development further, the softly elastic Sundinlabs SpaceCat was developed. SpaceCat has a maximum translational deflection of approximately {{cvt|15|mm}} and maximum rotational deflection of approximately 30° at a maximum force less than 2N, that is, a stiffness of approximately {{cvt|1.3|N/cm}}. With SpaceCat [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Softly-Elastic-6-DOF-Input-Sundin-Fjeld/e2056bb1bcf701c424ee95d48f0605c58b6197cf Sundin and Fjeld] reviewed five comparative experiments performed with different device stiffness and transfer functions and performed a further study comparing 6DoF softly elastic position control with 6DoF stiffly elastic velocity control in a positioning task. They concluded that for positioning tasks position control is to be preferred over velocity control. They could further conjecture the following two types of preferred 3D mouse usage:

* Positioning, manipulation, and docking using isotonic or softly elastic position control and an object-in-hand metaphor.
* Navigation using softly or stiffly elastic rate control and a camera-in-hand metaphor.

[[3Dconnexion|3DConnexion]]'s 3D mice have been commercially successful over decades. They are used in combination with the conventional mouse for [[CAD]]. The Space Mouse is used to orient the target object or change the viewpoint with the non-dominant hand, whereas the dominant hand operates the computer mouse for conventional CAD [[Graphical user interface|GUI]] operation. This is a kind of space-multiplexed input where the 6 DoF input device acts as a graspable user interface that is always connected to the view port.

{{Cleanup section|reason=conflation of devices that you wave around above the desk with devices that remain on the desk while you apply forces and torques to them.|date=April 2020}}

==== Force feedback ====
With [[Haptic technology|force feedback]] the device stiffness can dynamically be adapted to the task just performed by the user, e.g. performing positioning tasks with less stiffness than navigation tasks.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:Logitech spacemouse 3D-IMG 8429-black.jpg|Logitech spacemouse 3D. On display at the [[Bolo Computer Museum]], [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]], Lausanne
File:Silicon Graphics Ball-IMG 4192.jpg|Silicon Graphics SpaceBall model 1003 (1988), allowing manipulation of objects with [[six degrees of freedom]]
File:Logitech 3D ultrasonice mouse 1990-IMG 7952-gradient.jpg|Logitech 3D Mouse (1990), the first ultrasonic mouse
File:Space-Navigator.jpg|A modern six-degrees-of-freedom (6 DOF) 3D mouse (2007)
File:Spaceball 4000 FLX - Optical Assembly.JPG|Mechanism of the modern 6 DOF mouse consisting of infrared LEDs and detectors with occluders that move with the ball
</gallery>

=== Tactile mice ===
In 2000, [[Logitech]] introduced a "tactile mouse" known as the "iFeel Mouse" developed by [[Immersion Corporation]] that contained a small [[actuator]] to enable the mouse to generate simulated physical sensations.<ref>{{cite news |last=Eisenberg |first=Anne |date=1999-02-25 |title=WHAT'S NEXT; Snuggling Up to Touchy-Feely Mice (Published 1999) |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/25/technology/what-s-next-snuggling-up-to-touchy-feely-mice.html |access-date=2020-12-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Yoshida |first=Junko |date=2000-08-23 |title=Immersion tech adds tactile feedback to PC interface |work=EE Times |url=https://www.eetimes.com/immersion-tech-adds-tactile-feedback-to-pc-interface/}}</ref> Such a mouse can augment user-interfaces with [[haptic technology|haptic feedback]], such as giving feedback when crossing a [[window (computing)|window]] boundary. To surf the internet by touch-enabled mouse was first developed in 1996<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=|title=Method and Apparatus for Providing Force Feedback Over a Computer Network (US Patent 5,956,484)|status=|pubdate=|gdate=1996-08-01|invent1=|inventor1-first=|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US5956484A/en}}</ref> and first implemented commercially by the Wingman Force Feedback Mouse.<ref>{{cite news |date=August 8, 1999 |title=Mousing with Good Vibrations |language=en-us |work=Wired Magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/08/mousing-with-good-vibrations/ |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> It requires the user to be able to feel depth or hardness; this ability was realized with the first electrorheological tactile mice<ref>{{cite journal |author-last1=Heckner |author-first1=T. |author-first2=C. |author-last2=Kessler |author-first3=S. |author-last3=Egersdörfer |author-first4=G. J. |author-last4=Monkman |title=Computer based platform for tactile actuator analysis |journal=Actuator'06 |location=Bremen |date=14–16 June 2006}}</ref> but never marketed.

=== Pucks ===
[[Graphics tablet|Tablet digitizers]] are sometimes used with accessories called pucks, devices which rely on absolute positioning, but can be configured for sufficiently mouse-like relative tracking that they are sometimes marketed as mice.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/41409/digitizer-tablet |title=''Digitizer tablet'' Definition |magazine=[[PC Magazine]] |access-date=2015-10-19}}</ref>

=== Ergonomic mice ===
{{Multiple image
| image1            = Delux M618 vertical mouse.jpg
| caption1          = A vertical mouse
| image2            = Thumb type trackballs.jpg
| caption2          = Two thumb-type [[trackball]] mice
}}
As the name suggests, this type of mouse is intended to provide optimum comfort and avoid injuries such as [[carpal tunnel syndrome]], [[arthritis]], and other [[repetitive strain injury|repetitive strain injuries]]. It is designed to fit natural hand position and movements, to reduce discomfort.

When holding a typical mouse, the [[ulna]] and [[radius (bone)|radius]] bones on the [[arm]] are crossed. Some designs attempt to place the palm more vertically, so the bones take more natural parallel position.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://evoluent.com/products/vm4r/ |title=Evoluent VerticalMouse Vertical Mouse ergonomic mouse ergonomic computer mouse carpal tunnel syndrome repetitive stress disorder RSI |work=evoluent.com}}</ref>

Increasing mouse height and angling the mouse topcase can improve wrist posture without negatively affecting performance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Odell |first1=Dan |last2=Johnson |first2=Peter |date=2015 |title=Evaluation of flat, angled, and vertical computer mice and their effects on wrist posture, pointing performance, and preference |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26444940/ |journal=Work (Reading, Mass.) |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=245–253 |doi=10.3233/WOR-152167 |issn=1875-9270 |pmid=26444940}}</ref> Some limit wrist movement, encouraging arm movement instead, that may be less precise but more optimal from the health point of view. A mouse may be angled from the thumb downward to the opposite side – this is known to reduce wrist pronation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ergocanada.com/detailed_specification_pages/hippus_nv_handshoe_mouse_original.html |title=Handshoe Mouse (Original) |author=Product Specialists |work=ergocanada.com |access-date=2014-07-04  |archive-date=2014-07-14  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714145735/http://www.ergocanada.com/detailed_specification_pages/hippus_nv_handshoe_mouse_original.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However such optimizations make the mouse right or left hand specific, making more problematic to change the tired hand. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' has criticized manufacturers for offering few or no left-handed ergonomic mice: "Oftentimes I felt like I was dealing with someone who'd never actually met a left-handed person before."<ref name="Confessions of a Left-Handed Technology User">{{cite magazine |author-last=McCracken |author-first=Harry |title=Confessions of a Left-Handed Technology User |url=https://techland.time.com/2012/08/27/left-handed-technology/ |magazine=Time |access-date=2015-08-15}}</ref>

[[File:Roller bar mouse.JPG|thumb|Keyboard with roller bar mouse]]

Another solution is a pointing bar device. The so-called ''roller bar mouse'' is positioned snugly in front of the keyboard, thus allowing bi-manual accessibility.<ref>Study at [[Wichita State University]]: ''"Examining First-Time Usage of the RollerMouse"'' [http://www.usabilitynews.org/examining-first-time-usage-of-the-rollermouse/], of 2003-12-08, uploaded 2014-07-11</ref>

=== Gaming mice ===
[[File:Logitech-g402 (14969391370).jpg|thumb|A Logitech G402 gaming mouse, with multiple additional buttons]]
[[File:Pulsar X2 CrazyLight (Aqua Zest), rechts -- 2025 -- 0182-3.jpg|thumb|A Pulsar X2 CrazyLight with a weight of 35g]]

These mice are specifically designed for use in [[PC game|computer games]]. They typically employ a wider array of controls and buttons and have designs that differ radically from traditional mice. They may also have decorative monochrome or programmable RGB LED lighting. The additional buttons can often be used for changing the sensitivity of the mouse<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.pcmag.com/reviews/razer-viper-8k-gaming-mouse| title = Razer Viper 8K Gaming Mouse Review {{!}} PCMag| date = 28 January 2021}}</ref> or they can be assigned (programmed) to [[Macro (computer science)|macros]] (i.e., for opening a program or for use instead of a key combination).<ref>{{cite web| url = https://support.razer.com/articles/1522236721| title = How to create macros on a Razer mouse}}</ref>

It is also common for game mice, especially those designed for use in [[real-time strategy]] games such as ''[[StarCraft]]'', or in [[multiplayer online battle arena]] games such as [[League of Legends]] to have a relatively high sensitivity, measured in [[dots per inch]] (DPI),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.microsoft.com/hardware/en-au/help/windows-8/how-to/mouse/change-mouse-sensitivity |title=Windows 8 How-to: Mice |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |work=Microsoft Hardware}}</ref> which can be as high as 25,600.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.pcgamer.com/logitech-is-pushing-out-a-25600-dpi-software-update-to-several-gaming-mice/| title = Logitech is pushing out a 25,600 DPI software update to several gaming mice {{!}} PC Gamer| website = PC Gamer| date = 16 September 2020| last1 = Lilly| first1 = Paul}}</ref> DPI and CPI are the same values that refer to the mouse's sensitivity. DPI is a misnomer used in the gaming world, and many manufacturers use it to refer to CPI, counts per inch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thetechwire.com/what-does-cpi-button-on-mouse-do/|title=What Does CPI Button On A Mouse Do? (Explained)|first=Casper|last=Feeney|date=4 February 2023}}</ref>

Some advanced mice from gaming manufacturers also allow users to adjust the weight of the mouse by adding or subtracting weights to allow for easier control.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.pcgamer.com/gigabyte-launches-a-gaming-mouse-with-adjustable-weights-and-16000-dpi-sensor/| title = Gigabyte launches a gaming mouse with adjustable weights and 16,000 dpi sensor {{!}} PC Gamer| website = PC Gamer| date = 6 August 2018| last1 = Lilly| first1 = Paul}}</ref> Ergonomic quality is also an important factor in gaming mouse, as extended gameplay times may render further use of the mouse to be uncomfortable. Some mice have been designed to have adjustable features such as removable and/or elongated palm rests, horizontally adjustable thumb rests and pinky rests. Some mice may include several different rests with their products to ensure comfort for a wider range of target consumers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cyborggaming.com/prod/rat9.htm |title=Mad Catz R.A.T. 9 Product Page |access-date=2014-12-25}}</ref>

Gaming mice are held by [[gamer]]s in three styles of [[wikt:grip|grip]]:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gamezone.com/reviews/2013/07/11/peripheral-vision-logitech-g600-mmo-gaming-mouse |title=Peripheral Vision: Logitech G600 MMO Gaming Mouse |access-date=2013-08-09 |website=GameZone |author-first=Thomas |author-last=Adams|date=11 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalstormonline.com/unlocked/pc-gaming-101-mouse-grip-styles-idnum28/ |title=PC Gaming 101: Mouse Grip Styles |website=[[Digital Storm Online, Inc.]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429192138/http://www.digitalstormonline.com/unlocked/pc-gaming-101-mouse-grip-styles-idnum28/|archive-date=2015-04-29}}</ref>
# Palm Grip: the hand rests on the mouse, with extended fingers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.razerzone.com/mouseguide/ergonomic |title=The palm grip |publisher=Razer |work=Ergonomics guide |access-date=2013-08-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031085822/http://www.razerzone.com/mouseguide/ergonomic |archive-date=2013-10-31}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Razer Mamba 2012 {{!}} RZ01-00120 Support |url=https://mysupport.razer.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/3777 |access-date=2022-09-22 |website=mysupport.razer.com}}</ref>
# Claw Grip: palm rests on the mouse, bent fingers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.razerzone.com/mouseguide/ergonomic/clawgrip |title=The claw grip |publisher=Razer |work=Ergonomics guide |access-date=2013-08-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423150633/http://www.razerzone.com/mouseguide/ergonomic/clawgrip |archive-date=2013-04-23}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
# Finger-Tip Grip: bent fingers, palm does not touch the mouse.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.razerzone.com/mouseguide/ergonomic/fingertipgrip |title=The fingertip grip |publisher=Razer |work=Ergonomics guide |access-date=2013-08-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022015451/http://www.razerzone.com/mouseguide/ergonomic/fingertipgrip |archive-date=2011-10-22}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

== Connectivity and communication protocols ==
[[File:MS-Arc-Mouse.jpg|thumb|A Microsoft wireless [[Arc Mouse]], marketed as "travel-friendly" and foldable but otherwise operated exactly like other 3-button wheel-based optical mice]]

To transmit their input, typical cabled mice use a thin electrical cord terminating in a standard connector, such as [[RS-232C]], [[PS/2 connector|PS/2]], [[Apple Desktop Bus|ADB]], or [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]. Cordless mice instead transmit data via [[infrared]] radiation (see [[infrared Data Association|IrDA]]) or [[radio]] (including [[Bluetooth]]), although many such cordless interfaces are themselves connected through the aforementioned wired serial buses.

While the electrical interface and the format of the data transmitted by commonly available mice is currently standardized on USB, in the past it varied between different manufacturers. A [[bus mouse]] used a dedicated interface card for connection to an [[IBM Personal Computer|IBM PC]] or compatible computer.

Mouse use in DOS applications became more common after the introduction of the [[Microsoft Mouse]], largely because Microsoft provided an open standard for communication between applications and mouse driver software. Thus, any application written to use the Microsoft standard could use a mouse with a driver that implements the same API, even if the mouse hardware itself was incompatible with Microsoft's. This driver provides the state of the buttons and the distance the mouse has moved in units that its documentation calls "[[#Mouse speed|mickeys]]".<ref name="int33h">{{cite web |url=http://gd.tuwien.ac.at/languages/c/programming-bbrown/advcw3.htm#mouse |title=Interfacing to mouse.sys |access-date=2011-10-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819232148/http://gd.tuwien.ac.at/languages/c/programming-bbrown/advcw3.htm#mouse |archive-date=2011-08-19}}</ref>

=== Early mice ===
[[File:Computer Museum of America (02).jpg|thumb|Xerox Alto mouse]]
In the 1970s, the [[Xerox Alto]] mouse, and in the 1980s the Xerox [[optical mouse]], used a [[rotary encoder#Incremental rotary encoder|quadrature-encoded]] X and Y interface. This two-bit encoding per dimension had the property that only one bit of the two would change at a time, like a [[Gray code]] or [[Johnson counter]], so that the transitions would not be misinterpreted when asynchronously sampled.<ref name="Lyon_1981" /> The 1985 [[Sun-3]] workstations would ship with a ball based, bus mouse, connected via an 3 pin mini din socket. Sun later replacing the ball for an optical mechanism dependent on a patterned, reflective, metallic mouse mat, with their type M4 mouse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sun M4 Optical Mouse |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/collections/catalog/102689966 |website=Computer History Museum}}</ref>

The earliest mass-market mice, such as the [[Apple mouse#Models|original Macintosh]], [[Amiga]], and [[Atari ST]] mice used a [[D-subminiature]] 9-pin connector to send the quadrature-encoded X and Y axis signals directly, plus one pin per mouse button. The mouse was a simple optomechanical device, and the decoding circuitry was all in the main computer. The 1987 [[Acorn Archimedes]] line kept the quadrature-encoded mice of the 68000 computers, and the aftermarket mice sold for 8-bit home computers, like the [[AMX Mouse]], but opted for its own propriety 9 pin mini din connector.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SmallyMouse |url=https://www.domesday86.com/?page_id=245 |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Domesday86.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Serial interface and protocol ===
[[File:Mouse quadrature encoding Lyon 1980.png|thumb|Signals XA and XB in [[quadrature phase|quadrature]] convey X-direction motion, while YA and YB convey Y-dimension motion; here the pointer (cursor) is shown drawing a small curve.]]

Because the IBM PC did not have a [[quadrature decoder]] built in, early PC mice used the [[RS-232C]] serial port to communicate encoded mouse movements, as well as provide power to the mouse's circuits. The [[Mouse Systems Corporation]] (MSC) version used a five-byte protocol and supported three buttons. The Microsoft version used a three-byte protocol and supported two buttons. Due to the incompatibility between the two protocols, some manufacturers sold serial mice with a mode switch: "PC" for MSC mode, "MS" for Microsoft mode.<ref name="Paul_2002">{{cite web |title=Re: [fd-dev] ANNOUNCE: CuteMouse 2.0 alpha 1 |author-first=Matthias R. |author-last=Paul |work=freedos-dev |date=2002-04-06 |url=https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=101807226917577 |access-date=2020-02-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130948/https://marc.info/?l=freedos-dev&m=101807226917577&w=2 |archive-date=2020-02-07}}</ref><ref name="Isaja_2003">{{cite web |title=FreeDOS-32&nbsp;– Serial Mouse driver |author-first=Salvatore |author-last=Isaja |date=2003-09-03 |url=http://freedos-32.sourceforge.net/showdoc.php?page=sermouse |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302000300/http://freedos-32.sourceforge.net/showdoc.php?page=sermouse |archive-date=2009-03-02}}</ref>

=== Apple Desktop Bus ===
[[File:Apple Macintosh Plus mouse.jpg|thumb|[[Macintosh Plus|Apple Macintosh Plus]] mice: beige mouse (left), platinum mouse (right), 1986]]

In 1986 [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] first implemented the [[Apple Desktop Bus]] allowing the [[daisy chain (electrical engineering)|daisy chaining]] of up to 16 devices, including mice and other devices on the same bus with no configuration whatsoever. Featuring only a single data pin, the bus used a purely polled approach to device communications and survived as the standard on mainstream models (including a number of non-Apple workstations) until 1998 when Apple's [[iMac]] line of computers joined the industry-wide switch to using [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]. Beginning with the Bronze Keyboard PowerBook G3 in May 1999, Apple dropped the external ADB port in favor of USB, but retained an internal ADB connection in the [[PowerBook G4]] for communication with its built-in keyboard and trackpad until early 2005.

=== PS/2 interface and protocol ===
{{Further|PS/2 port|l1=PS/2 connector}}
[[File:ps-2-ports.jpg|thumb|Color-coded PS/2 connection ports; purple for keyboard and green for mouse]]

With the arrival of the [[IBM Personal System/2|IBM PS/2]] personal-computer series in 1987, IBM introduced the [[eponym]]ous [[PS/2 port]] for mice and keyboards, which other manufacturers rapidly adopted. The most visible change was the use of a round 6-pin [[mini-DIN connector|mini-DIN]], in lieu of the former 5-pin MIDI style full sized [[DIN 41524]] connector. In default mode (called ''stream mode'') a PS/2 mouse communicates motion, and the state of each button, by means of 3-byte packets.<ref>{{cite web |author-first=Adam |author-last=Chapweske |url=http://www.computer-engineering.org/ps2mouse/ |title=Computer Engineering Tips – PS/2 Mouse Interface |publisher=Computer-engineering.org |date=2003-04-01 |access-date=2013-03-10 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-09-16  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916065845/http://www.computer-engineering.org/ps2mouse/}}</ref> For any motion, button press or button release event, a PS/2 mouse sends, over a bi-directional serial port, a sequence of three bytes, with the following format:

{|class="wikitable"
|- align=center
!||Bit 7||Bit 6||Bit 5||Bit 4||Bit 3||Bit 2||Bit 1||Bit 0
|- align=center
!Byte 1
|YV||XV||YS||XS||1||MB||RB||LB
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Byte 2
|colspan="8"|X movement
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Byte 3
|colspan="8"|Y movement
|}

Here, XS and YS represent the sign bits of the movement vectors, XV and YV indicate an overflow in the respective vector component, and LB, MB and RB indicate the status of the left, middle and right [[mouse button]]s (1 = pressed). PS/2 mice also understand several commands for reset and self-test, switching between different operating modes, and changing the resolution of the reported motion vectors.<ref name="Paul_2002"/>

A [[IntelliMouse|Microsoft IntelliMouse]] relies on an extension of the PS/2 protocol: the ImPS/2 or IMPS/2 protocol (the abbreviation combines the concepts of "IntelliMouse" and "PS/2"). It initially operates in standard PS/2 format, for [[backward compatibility]]. After the host sends a special command sequence, it switches to an extended format in which a fourth byte carries information about wheel movements. The IntelliMouse Explorer works analogously, with the difference that its 4-byte packets also allow for two additional buttons (for a total of five).<ref>[http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/device/input/mcompat.mspx Retrieved 31 December 2006] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408164755/http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/device/input/mcompat.mspx|date=2008-04-08}}</ref>

Mouse vendors also use other extended formats, often without providing public documentation.<ref name="Paul_2002"/> The Typhoon mouse uses 6-byte packets which can appear as a sequence of two standard 3-byte packets, such that an ordinary PS/2 [[device driver|driver]] can handle them.<ref>{{cite web |title=Keyboard scancodes: The PS/2 Mouse|url=http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/linux/kbd/scancodes-13.html |publisher=Win.tue.nl |access-date=2017-12-08}}</ref> For 3D (or 6-degree-of-freedom) input, vendors have made many extensions both to the hardware and to software. In the late 1990s, Logitech created ultrasound based tracking which gave 3D input to a few millimeters accuracy, which worked well as an input device but failed as a profitable product. In 2008, Motion4U introduced its "OptiBurst" system using IR tracking for use as a Maya (graphics software) plugin.

[[File:Usb head Cable.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A USB connector soon superseded the [[PS/2]] keyboard and computer mouse connectors shown above.]]

=== USB ===
Almost all wired mice today use [[USB]] and the [[USB human interface device class]] for communication.

=== Cordless or wireless ===
Cordless or wireless mice transmit data via [[radio]]. Some mice connect to the computer through [[Bluetooth]] or [[Wi-Fi]], while others use a receiver that plugs into the computer, for example through a USB port.

Many mice that use a USB receiver have a storage compartment for it inside the mouse. Some "nano receivers" are designed to be small enough to remain plugged into a laptop during transport, while still being large enough to easily remove.<ref>{{cite web |author-first=Lisa |author-last=Johnston |url=http://peripherals.about.com/od/glossaryofpcterms/g/WhatIsANanoReceiver.htm |title=What Is a Nano Wireless Receiver? |access-date=2010-09-03 |archive-date=2010-09-24  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924003656/http://peripherals.about.com/od/glossaryofpcterms/g/WhatIsANanoReceiver.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Logitech metaphor-P4191183-black.jpg|The [[Logitech]] Metaphor, the first wireless mouse (1984). On display at the [[Musée Bolo]], [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]]
File:Microsoft-wireless-mouse.jpg|An older Microsoft wireless mouse made for notebook computers
File:Microsoft Bluetooth Mobile Mouse 3600.jpg|Microsoft Bluetooth Mobile Mouse 3600
</gallery>

== Operating system support ==
MS-DOS and Windows 1.0 support connecting a mouse such as a [[Microsoft Mouse]] via multiple interfaces: BallPoint, [[Bus mouse|Bus (InPort)]], [[Serial port]] or PS/2.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.betaarchive.com/wiki/index.php/Microsoft_KB_Archive/71663| title = Features and Benefits of Version 8.0-Series Mouse Drivers}}</ref>

Windows 98 added built-in support for [[USB Human Interface Device class]] (USB HID),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/w2kbd.mspx |title=Human Interface Devices Design Guide |publisher=Microsoft |work=microsoft.com |access-date=December 26, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222201727/http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/w2kbd.mspx |archive-date=December 22, 2010}}</ref> with native vertical scrolling support.<ref name="MSWheel">{{cite web| url = http://download.microsoft.com/download/b/d/1/bd1f7ef4-7d72-419e-bc5c-9f79ad7bb66e/wheel.docx| title = Enhanced Wheel Support in Windows}}</ref> Windows 2000 and Windows Me expanded this built-in support to 5-button mice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/hardware/gg454511.aspx |title=Windows and the 5-Button Wheel Mouse |date=December 4, 2001 |website=[[Microsoft Developer Network]] |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |access-date=April 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314033300/http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/hardware/gg454511.aspx |archive-date=March 14, 2013}}</ref>

Windows XP Service Pack 2 introduced a Bluetooth stack, allowing Bluetooth mice to be used without any USB receivers.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://support.microsoft.com/en-in/help/952818/connect-a-bluetooth-device-that-does-not-have-or-require-a-transceiver| title = Connect a Bluetooth device that does not have or require a transceiver}}</ref> Windows Vista added native support for horizontal scrolling and standardized wheel movement granularity for finer scrolling.<ref name="MSWheel" />

[[Windows 8]] introduced BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) mouse/[[list of Bluetooth profiles#Human Interface Device Profile (HID)|HID]] support.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/bluetooth/bluetooth-low-energy-overview| title = Bluetooth Low Energy Overview| date = 29 September 2023}}</ref>

== Multiple-mouse systems ==
Some systems allow two or more mice to be used at once as input devices. Late-1980s era [[home computer]]s such as the [[Amiga]] used this to allow computer games with two players interacting on the same computer ([[Lemmings (video game)|Lemmings]] and [[The Settlers]] for example). The same idea is sometimes used in [[collaborative software]], e.g. to simulate a [[whiteboard]] that multiple users can draw on without passing a single mouse around.

[[Microsoft Windows]], since [[Windows 98]], has supported multiple simultaneous pointing devices. Because Windows only provides a single screen cursor, using more than one device at the same time requires cooperation of users or applications designed for multiple input devices.

Multiple mice are often used in multi-user gaming in addition to specially designed devices that provide several input interfaces.

Windows also has full support for multiple input/mouse configurations for multi-user environments.

Starting with Windows XP, Microsoft introduced [[Windows Multipoint Mouse|an SDK]] for developing applications that allow multiple input devices to be used at the same time with independent cursors and independent input points. However, it no longer appears to be available.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.microsoft.com/multipoint/mouse-sdk/developer.aspx |title=Multipoint Mouse SDK |website=Microsoft Developer |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |access-date=2012-08-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216031430/https://www.microsoft.com/multipoint/mouse-sdk/developer.aspx |archive-date=2015-02-16}}</ref>

The introduction of [[Windows Vista]] and Microsoft Surface (now known as [[Microsoft PixelSense]]) introduced a new set of input APIs that were adopted into Windows 7, allowing for 50 points/cursors, all controlled by independent users. The new input points provide traditional mouse input; however, they were designed with other input technologies like touch and image in mind. They inherently offer 3D coordinates along with pressure, size, tilt, angle, mask, and even an image bitmap to see and recognize the input point/object on the screen.

{{as of|2009}}, [[Linux]] distributions and other [[operating system]]s that use [[X.Org Server|X.Org]], such as [[OpenSolaris]] and [[FreeBSD]], support 255 cursors/input points through [[Multi-Pointer X]]. However, currently no window managers support Multi-Pointer X leaving it relegated to custom software usage.

There have also been propositions of having a single operator use two mice simultaneously as a more sophisticated means of controlling various graphics and multimedia applications.<ref>{{cite conference |author-last1=Nakamura |author-first1=S. |author-last2=Tsukamoto |author-first2=M. |author-last3=Nishio |author-first3=S. |title=2001 IEEE Pacific Rim Conference on Communications, Computers and Signal Processing (IEEE Cat. No.01CH37233) |date=26–28 August 2001 |chapter=Design and implementation of the double mouse system for a Window environment |conference=IEEE Pacific Rim Conference on Communications, Computers and Signal Processing |publisher=IEEE |volume=1 |pages=204–207 |doi=10.1109/PACRIM.2001.953558 |hdl=11094/14053 |isbn=0-7803-7080-5 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== Buttons ==
{{Main|Mouse button}}
[[File:Razer Naga 2014 MMO Gaming Mouse (14714867599).jpg|thumb|[[Razer Inc.|Razer]] Mouse with additional buttons]]

Mouse buttons are [[miniature snap-action switch|microswitches]] which can be pressed to select or interact with an element of a [[graphical user interface]], producing a distinctive clicking sound.

Since around the late 1990s, the three-button scrollmouse has become the de facto standard. Users most commonly employ the second button to invoke a [[context menu|contextual menu]] in the computer's software user interface, which contains options specifically tailored to the interface element over which the mouse cursor currently sits. By default, the primary mouse button sits located on the left-hand side of the mouse, for the benefit of right-handed users; left-handed users can usually reverse this configuration via software.

== Scrolling ==
{{Main|Scroll wheel}}

Nearly all mice now have an integrated input primarily intended for [[scrolling]] on top, usually a single-axis digital wheel or rocker switch which can also be depressed to act as a third button. Though less common, many mice instead have two-axis inputs such as a tiltable wheel, [[trackball]], or [[touchpad]]. Those with a trackball may be designed to stay stationary, using the trackball instead of moving the mouse.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.lifewire.com/logitech-m570-wireless-trackball-mouse-review-4691293| title = Logitech M570 Wireless Trackball Mouse Review: Unconventional Features| work = Lifewire}}</ref>

{{anchor|Mouse speed}}
== Speed ==
[[Mickey (unit)|Mickeys]] per second is a unit of measurement for the speed and movement direction of a computer mouse,<ref name="int33h" /> where direction is often expressed as "horizontal" versus "vertical" mickey count. However, speed can also refer to the ratio between how many pixels the cursor moves on the screen and how far the mouse moves on the mouse pad, which may be expressed as [[pixels]] per mickey, pixels per [[inch]], or pixels per [[centimeter]].

The computer industry often measures mouse sensitivity in terms of counts per inch (CPI), commonly expressed as dots per inch (DPI){{spaced en dash}}the number of steps the mouse will report when it moves one inch. In early mice, this specification was called pulses per inch (ppi).<ref name="hawley" /> The mickey originally referred to one of these counts, or one resolvable step of motion. If the default mouse-tracking condition involves moving the cursor by one screen-pixel or dot on-screen per reported step, then the CPI does equate to DPI: dots of cursor motion per inch of mouse motion. The CPI or DPI as reported by manufacturers depends on how they make the mouse; the higher the CPI, the faster the cursor moves with mouse movement. However, operating system and application software can adjust the mouse sensitivity, making the cursor move faster or slower than its CPI. {{As of|2007|post=,}} software can change the speed of the cursor dynamically, taking into account the mouse's absolute speed and the movement from the last stop-point.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Müller |first=Jörg |date=26 Feb 2018 |title=Dynamics of Pointing with Pointer Acceleration |url=https://inria.hal.science/hal-01717219/document |journal=IFIP Conference on Human-Computer Interaction  |pages=475–495 |quote=[Pointer acceleration] functions increase the mouse gain with increasing mouse velocity. |via=HAL}}</ref>

For simple software, when the mouse starts to move, the software will count the number of "counts" or "mickeys" received from the mouse and will move the cursor across the screen by that number of pixels (or multiplied by a rate factor, typically less than 1). The cursor will move slowly on the screen, with good precision. When the movement of the mouse passes the value set for some threshold, the software will start to move the cursor faster, with a greater rate factor. Usually, the user can set the value of the second rate factor by changing the "acceleration" setting.

Operating systems sometimes apply acceleration, referred to as "[[ballistics]]", to the motion reported by the mouse. For example, versions of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] prior to [[Windows XP]] doubled reported values above a configurable threshold, and then optionally doubled them again above a second configurable threshold. These doublings applied separately in the X and Y directions, resulting in very [[nonlinear system|nonlinear]] response.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/pointer-bal.mspx |title=Pointer ballistics for Windows XP |date=2002 |work=Windows Hardware Developer Center Archive |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |access-date=2010-04-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222190833/http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/pointer-bal.mspx |archive-date=2010-12-22}}</ref>

== Mousepads ==
{{Main|Mousepad}}

Engelbart's original mouse did not require a mousepad;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gruntville.com/reviews/mousepads/corepad_roundup/index.php |title=Corepad Victory & Deskpad XXXL |author-first=Eric "Unit24" |author-last=Guy |access-date=2007-10-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20060406032138/http://www.gruntville.com/reviews/mousepads/corepad_roundup/index.php |archive-date=2006-04-06}}</ref> the mouse had two large wheels which could roll on virtually any surface. However, most subsequent mechanical mice starting with the steel roller ball mouse have required a mousepad for optimal performance.

The mousepad, the most common mouse accessory, appears most commonly in conjunction with mechanical mice, because to roll smoothly the ball requires more friction than common desk surfaces usually provide. So-called "hard mousepads" for gamers or optical/laser mice also exist.

Most optical and laser mice do not require a pad, the notable exception being early optical mice which relied on a grid on the pad to detect movement (e.g. [[Mouse Systems]]). Whether to use a hard or soft mousepad with an optical mouse is largely a matter of personal preference. One exception occurs when the desk surface creates problems for the optical or laser tracking, for example, a transparent or reflective surface, such as glass.

Some mice also come with small "pads" attached to the bottom surface, also called mouse feet or mouse skates, that help the user slide the mouse smoothly across surfaces.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sam |first1=Raymond |title=Mouse Feet Replacement Guide – Are Hyperglides worth it? |url=https://thegamingsetup.com/gaming-mouse/buying-guides/mouse-feet-replacement |website=thegamingsetup |date=6 July 2019 |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref>

== In the marketplace ==
[[File:Assorted computer mice - MfK Bern.jpg|thumb|Computer mice built between 1986 and 2007]]

Around 1981, Xerox included mice with its [[Xerox Star]], based on the mouse used in the 1970s on the Alto computer at [[PARC (company)|Xerox PARC]]. [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Symbolics]], [[Lisp Machines]] Inc., and [[Tektronix]] also shipped workstations with mice, starting in about 1981. Later, inspired by the Star, [[Apple Inc.|Apple Computer]] released the [[Apple Lisa]], which also used a mouse. However, none of these products achieved large-scale success. Only with the release of the [[Macintosh 128K|Apple Macintosh]] in 1984 did the mouse see widespread use.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=HWM |title=The Macintosh Phenomenon: Celebrating Twenty Years of the World's Most Adored Desktop Computers |author-first=Andrew |author-last=Chan |pages=74–77 |date=November 2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-oDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA76}}</ref>

The Macintosh design,<ref>{{cite magazine |author-last=Gladwell |author-first=Malcolm |title=Creation Myth – Xerox PARC, Apple, and the truth about innovation |magazine=The New Yorker |date=2011-05-16 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/05/16/110516fa_fact_gladwell?currentPage=all |access-date=2011-08-31 |quote=The mouse was conceived by the computer scientist Douglas Engelbart, developed by Xerox PARC, and made marketable by Apple}}</ref> commercially successful and technically influential, led many other vendors to begin producing mice or including them with their other computer products (by 1986, [[Atari ST]], [[Amiga]], [[Windows 1.0]], [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] for the [[Commodore 64]], and the [[Apple IIGS]]).<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Popular Mechanics |title=Colorful New Apple |author-first=Stephen A. |author-last=Booth |volume=164 |issue=1 |page=16 |issn=0032-4558 |date=January 1987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOMDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA16}}</ref>

The widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces in the software of the 1980s and 1990s made mice all but indispensable for controlling computers. In November 2008, [[Logitech]] built their billionth mouse.<ref>{{cite news |author-last=Shiels |author-first=Maggie |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/technology/7751627.stm |title=Logitech's billionth mouse |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2008-12-03 |access-date=2010-05-29}}</ref>

== Use in games ==
[[File:Logitech-G5-Mouse-Rust.jpg|thumb|[[Logitech G5]] [[laser mouse]] designed for games, with adjustable weights (on left)]]

The device often functions as an interface for PC-based [[video game|computer games]] and sometimes for [[video game console]]s. The [[Classic Mac OS]] [[Desk Accessory]] ''Puzzle'' in 1984 was the first game designed specifically for a mouse.<ref name="mace19840507">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ti4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA56 |title=In Praise of Classics |work=[[InfoWorld]] |date=1984-05-07 |access-date=2015-02-06 |author-last=Mace |author-first=Scott |page=56}}</ref>

=== First-person shooters ===
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2012}}

[[First-person shooter|FPSs]] naturally lend themselves to separate and simultaneous control of the player's movement and aim, and on computers this has traditionally been achieved with a combination of keyboard and mouse. Players use the X-axis of the mouse for looking (or turning) left and right, and the Y-axis for looking up and down; the keyboard is used for movement and supplemental inputs.

Many shooting genre players prefer a mouse over a [[gamepad]] [[analog stick]] because the wide range of motion offered by a mouse allows for faster and more varied control. Although an analog stick allows the player more granular control, it is poor for certain movements, as the player's input is relayed based on a vector of both the stick's direction and magnitude. Thus, a small but fast movement (known as "flick-shotting") using a gamepad requires the player to quickly move the stick from its rest position to the edge and back again in quick succession, a difficult maneuver. In addition the stick also has a finite magnitude; if the player is currently using the stick to move at a non-zero velocity their ability to increase the rate of movement of the camera is further limited based on the position their displaced stick was already at before executing the maneuver. The effect of this is that a mouse is well suited not only to small, precise movements but also to large, quick movements and immediate, responsive movements; all of which are important in shooter gaming.<ref name="gi2006">Chris Klochek and I. Scott MacKenzie (2006). ''[http://www.yorku.ca/mack/GI2006.pdf Performance measures of game controllers in a three-dimensional environment]''. Proceedings of Graphics Interface 2006. pp. 73–79. Canadian Information Processing Society. {{ISBN|1-56881-308-2}}</ref> This advantage also extends in varying degrees to similar game styles such as [[third-person shooter]]s.

Some incorrectly [[porting|ported]] games or [[game engine]]s have acceleration and interpolation curves which unintentionally produce excessive, irregular, or even negative acceleration when used with a mouse instead of their native platform's non-mouse default input device.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} Depending on how deeply hardcoded this misbehavior is, internal user patches or external 3rd-party software may be able to fix it. Individual [[game engine]]s will also have their own sensitivities.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} This often restricts one from taking a game's existing sensitivity, transferring it to another, and acquiring the same 360 rotational measurements. A sensitivity converter is the preferred tool that FPS gamers use to translate correctly the rotational movements between different mice and between different games. Calculating the conversion values manually is also possible but it is more time-consuming and requires performing complex mathematical calculations, while using a sensitivity converter is a lot faster and easier for gamers.<ref>{{cite web |date=2024-04-10 |title=Sensitivity Converter & Calculator – 3D Aim Trainer |url=https://www.3daimtrainer.com/mouse-sensitivity-converter/ |website=3DAimTrainer}}</ref>

Due to their similarity to the [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]] [[desktop metaphor]] interface for which mice were originally designed, and to their own [[tabletop game]] origins, computer [[strategy video game|strategy games]] are most commonly played with mice. In particular, [[real-time strategy]] and [[multiplayer online battle arena|MOBA]] games usually require the use of a mouse.

The left button usually controls primary fire. If the game supports multiple fire modes, the right button often provides secondary fire from the selected weapon. Games with only a single fire mode will generally map secondary fire to ''[[ADS (video gaming)|aim down the weapon sights]]''. In some games, the right button may also invoke accessories for a particular weapon, such as allowing access to the scope of a sniper rifle or allowing the mounting of a bayonet or silencer.

Players can use a scroll wheel for changing weapons (or for controlling scope-zoom magnification, in older games). On most first person shooter games, programming may also assign more functions to additional buttons on mice with more than three controls. A keyboard usually controls movement (for example, [[WASD keys|WASD]] for moving forward, left, backward, and right, respectively) and other functions such as changing posture. Since the mouse serves for aiming, a mouse that tracks movement accurately and with less lag (latency) will give a player an advantage over players with less accurate or slower mice. In some cases the right mouse button may be used to move the player forward, either in lieu of, or in conjunction with the typical WASD configuration.

Many games provide players with the option of mapping their own choice of a key or button to a certain control. An early technique of players, [[circle strafing]], saw a player continuously strafing while aiming and shooting at an opponent by walking in circle around the opponent with the opponent at the center of the circle. Players could achieve this by holding down a key for strafing while continuously aiming the mouse toward the opponent.

Games using mice for input are so popular that many manufacturers make mice specifically for gaming. Such mice may feature adjustable weights, high-resolution optical or laser components, additional buttons, ergonomic shape, and other features such as adjustable [[#Mouse speed|CPI]]. [[Mouse Bungee]]s are typically used with gaming mice because it eliminates the annoyance of the cable.

Many games, such as first- or third-person shooters, have a setting named "invert mouse" or similar (not to be confused with "button inversion", sometimes performed by [[handedness|left-handed]] users) which allows the user to look downward by moving the mouse forward and upward by moving the mouse backward (the opposite of non-inverted movement). This control system resembles that of aircraft control sticks, where pulling back causes pitch up and pushing forward causes pitch down; computer [[joystick]]s also typically emulate this control-configuration.

After [[id Software]]'s commercial hit of ''[[Doom (1993 video game)|Doom]]'', which did not support vertical aiming, competitor [[Bungie]]'s ''[[Marathon (video game)|Marathon]]'' became the first first-person shooter to support using the mouse to aim up and down.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-use-of-freelook-in-a-fps |title=First Use of Freelook in a FPS |publisher=[[Guinness World Records]] |access-date=2015-10-17}}</ref> Games using the [[Build engine]] had an option to invert the Y-axis. The "invert" feature actually made the mouse behave in a manner that users {{As of|2006|alt=now}} regard as non-inverted (by default, moving mouse forward resulted in looking down). Soon after, id Software released ''[[Quake (video game)|Quake]]'', which introduced the invert feature as users {{As of|2007|alt=now}} know it.

=== Home consoles ===
[[File:Sega-Dreamcast-Mouse-BL.jpg|thumb|[[Dreamcast]] mouse]]

In 1988, the [[VTech Socrates]] educational video game console featured a wireless mouse with an attached mouse pad as an optional controller used for some games. In the early 1990s, the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] video game system featured a [[SNES Mouse|mouse]] in addition to its controllers. A mouse was also released for the [[Nintendo 64]], although it was only released in Japan. The 1992 game ''[[Mario Paint]]'' in particular used the mouse's capabilities,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesfreepress.com/news/life/entertainment/story/2011/aug/19/0819-e1-super-nostalgia-local-gamers-fondly/56755/ |title=Super Nostalgia: Local Gamers Fondly Remember Super Nintendo on Its 20th Anniversary |author-first=Casey |author-last=Phillips |newspaper=[[Times Free Press]] |date=2011-08-19 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> as did its Japanese-only successor ''[[Mario Artist]]'' on the N64 for its [[64DD]] disk drive peripheral in 1999. [[Sega]] released official mice for their [[Sega Genesis|Genesis/Mega Drive]], [[Sega Saturn|Saturn]] and [[Dreamcast]] consoles. [[NEC]] sold official mice for its [[TurboGrafx-16|PC Engine]] and [[PC-FX]] consoles. [[Sony Computer Entertainment|Sony]] released an official mouse product for the [[PlayStation (console)|PlayStation]] console, included one along with the [[Linux for PlayStation 2]] kit, as well as allowing owners to use virtually any [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] mouse with the [[PlayStation 2|PS2]], [[PlayStation 3|PS3]], and [[PlayStation 4|PS4]]. Nintendo's [[Wii]] also had this feature implemented in a later software update, and this support was retained on its successor, the [[Wii U]]. [[Microsoft|Microsoft's]] [[Xbox]] line of game consoles (which used operaring systems based on modified versions of [[Windows NT]]) also had universal-wide mouse support using USB.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Electronics}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Computer accessibility]]
* [[Footmouse]]
* [[Graphics tablet]]
* [[Gesture recognition]]
* [[Human–computer interaction]] (HCI)
* [[Mouse keys]]
* [[Mouse tracking]]
* [[Optical trackpad]]
* [[Pointing stick]]
* [[Rotational mouse]]
* [[Trackball]]
{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group="nb"|refs=
<ref group="nb" name="NB_Plural">General dictionaries usually mention ''mouses'' as a possible alternative plural, but technical dictionaries usually omit this rare form, e.g. [https://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/mouse.html Webopedia], [https://foldoc.org/mouse FOLDOC], [https://www.netlingo.com/word/mouse.php Netlingo].</ref>
<ref group="nb" name="NB_Rollkugel_Encoder">{{anchor|NB-Encoder}}The 4-bit{{citeref|Yacoub|Turfa|Maurer|2016|A}}{{citeref|Müller|2021|B}} [[rotary encoder]]s (MCB CC27E08{{citeref|Yacoub|Turfa|Maurer|2016|A}}{{citeref|Müller|2021|B}}) used in the [[Telefunken]] {{lang|de|[[#Rollkugel|Rollkugel]]}} RKS&nbsp;100-86 provide 14 states repeated either 4{{citeref|Yacoub|Turfa|Maurer|2016|A}} or 5{{citeref|Müller|2021|B}} times per revolution for an effectively resulting resolution of {{circa}}{{sp}}35.6&nbsp;[[dpi]]<!-- not calculated in dpi but in mm in the source, hence converted into dpi for comparison -->{{citeref|Yacoub|Turfa|Maurer|2016|A}} or {{circa}}{{sp}}43.5&nbsp;dpi{{citeref|Müller|2021|B}}, respectively. Mallebrein erroneously remembers them even as 5-bit encoders.{{citeref|Mallebrein|2018|C}} The 14-cyclic [[unit-distance code]]s described in the first two sources are identical to a 4-bit [[Gray code]] with the two outmost states (0, 15) eliminated. At first glance the documented codes seem to differ between the two sources; in fact they are identical, but use inverted definitions of the 0/1 states and the direction of rotation:<small>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 4-bit 14-cyclic unit-distance {{lang|de|Rollkugel}} code
|-
| '''Bit''' || style="width:1em"|0 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|1 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|2 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|3 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|4 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|5 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|6 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|7 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|8 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|9 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|10 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|11 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|12 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|13 || style="background:lightgray;width:1em"|14 || style="width:1em"|15
|-
| colspan="23"|
|-
| style="background:lightgray"|'''4''' || style="background:#EEE"|{{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:lightgray"|{{mono|1}}
|-
| style="background:lightgray"|'''3''' || style="background:#EEE"|{{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#EEE"|{{mono|0}}
|-
| style="background:lightgray"|'''2''' || style="background:#EEE"|{{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#EEE"|{{mono|0}}
|-
| style="background:lightgray"|'''1''' || style="background:#EEE"|{{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || {{mono|0}} || {{mono|0}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#0FF"|{{mono|1}} || style="background:#EEE"|{{mono|0}}
|}</small>
</ref>
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="OED">Oxford English Dictionary, "mouse", sense 13</ref>
<ref name="Bardini_2000">{{cite book |author-last=Bardini |author-first=Thierry |title=Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing |date=2000 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3871-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bootstrapping00thie/page/98 98] |url=https://archive.org/details/bootstrapping00thie |url-access=registration}}</ref>
<ref name="English_1965">{{cite book |author-last1=English |author-first1=William Kirk |author-link1=William Kirk English |author-last2=Engelbart |author-first2=Douglas C. |author-link2=Douglas Carl Engelbart |author-last3=Huddart |author-first3=Bonnie |title=Computer-Aided Display Control |date=July 1965 |publisher=[[Stanford Research Institute]] |location=Menlo Park |page=[https://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19660020914/page/n59 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19660020914 |access-date=2017-01-03 |format=Final Report}}</ref>
<ref name="Bardini_2000_2">{{cite book |author-last=Bardini |author-first=Thierry |title=Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing |date=2000 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3871-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bootstrapping00thie/page/95 95] |url=https://archive.org/details/bootstrapping00thie |url-access=registration}}</ref>
<ref name="Ceruzzi_2012">{{cite book |author-last=Ceruzzi |author-first=Paul E. |title=Computing: A Concise History |date=2012 |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-262-31039-0 |page=121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1pJZ_GsO8_sC&pg=PA121}}</ref>
<ref name="Rheingold_2000">{{cite book |author-last=Rheingold |author-first=Howard |title=The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier |date=2000 |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-262-26110-4 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fr8bdUDisqAC&q=engelbart%20mouse&pg=PA64}}</ref>
<ref name="Lyon_1998">{{cite book |author-last1=Lyon |author-first1=Matthew |author-last2=Hafner |author-first2=Katie |title=Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet |date=1998 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-87216-2 |page=78 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLKxSvCBQZcC&pg=PA78}}</ref>
<ref name="Markoff_2005">{{cite book |title=What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry |chapter=2. Augmentation |author-first=John Gregory|author-last=Markoff |author-link=John Gregory Markoff |date=2005 |orig-date=2004-06-11 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] / [[Penguin Random House LLC]] |isbn=978-1-101-20108-4 |pages=123–124 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTyfxP-g2IIC&pg=PT123 |access-date=2021-08-26 |quote-pages=123–124 |quote=[…] Although it is commonly believed that the story of how the mouse got its name has been lost in history, Roger Bates, who was a young hardware designer working for [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]], has a clear recollection of how the name was chosen. […] He remembers that what today is called the cursor on the screen was at the time called a "CAT". Bates has forgotten what CAT stood for, and no one else seems to remember either, but in hindseight, it seems obvious that a CAT would chase the tailed mouse on the desktop. […]}} (336 pages)</ref>
<ref name="Markoff_2013">{{cite web |title=Douglas C. Engelbart, 1925–2013: Computer Visionary Who Invented the Mouse |author-first=John Gregory |author-last=Markoff |author-link=John Gregory Markoff |date=2013-07-03 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/technology/douglas-c-engelbart-inventor-of-the-computer-mouse-dies-at-88.html |access-date=2021-08-26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615064745/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/technology/douglas-c-engelbart-inventor-of-the-computer-mouse-dies-at-88.html |archive-date=2021-06-15 |quote=[…] When and under what circumstances the term "the mouse" arose is hard to pin down, but one hardware designer, Roger Bates, has contended that it happened under [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Mr. English]]'s watch. Mr. Bates was a college sophomore and Mr. English was his mentor at the time. Mr. Bates said the name was a logical extension of the term then used for the cursor on a screen: CAT. Mr. Bates did not remember what CAT stood for, but it seemed to all that the cursor was chasing their tailed desktop device. […]}}</ref>
<ref name="Neubauer_1968">{{cite periodical |title=Sichtgeräte in elektronischen Datenverarbeitungsanlagen |language=de |author-first=Günter |author-last=Neubauer |publisher=[[AEG-Telefunken]] |id=DK 621.385.832: 681.325 |location=Berlin, Germany |volume=1 |number=2 |date=1968-10-02 |periodical=Technische Mitteilungen: Beiheft Datenverarbeitung |pages=15–18 |url=http://www.e-basteln.de/file/rollkugel/AEG%20Telefunken%20Technische%20Mitteilungen%201968.pdf |access-date=2021-08-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121044022/http://e-basteln.de/file/rollkugel/AEG%20Telefunken%20Technische%20Mitteilungen%201968.pdf |archive-date=2021-01-21}} (1+4 pages)</ref>
<ref name="Telefunken_1966">{{cite book |title=Telefunken TR440 |language=de |chapter=Technische Angaben |publisher=[[Telefunken Aktiengesellschaft]], Fachbereich Anlagen Informationstechnik |publication-place=Ulm, Germany |edition= |id=AH 5.2 WB 160/1 |date=May 1966 |pages=19–20 [20] |url=ftp://computermuseum.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/telefunken/tr440/doku/TR440_Mai1966.pdf |access-date=2021-08-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928193401/ftp://computermuseum.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/telefunken/tr440/doku/TR440_Mai1966.pdf |archive-date=2021-09-28 |quote-page=20 |quote=Peripheriegeräte […] Bildschirmarbeitsplatz […] Steuermöglichkeiten […] Eingabetastatur, Funktionstastatur, Rollkugelsteuerung […]}} (22 pages)</ref>
<ref name="Telefunken_1971">{{cite book |title=Datenverarbeitung: Informationsblatt – TR 440 Arbeitsplatz – Sichtgerät SIG&nbsp;100, Tastatur – Fernschreiber FSR&nbsp;105 – Fernschreibmultiplexer FMP&nbsp;301 |language=de |publisher=[[AEG-Telefunken]], Fachbereich Informationstechnik |location=Konstanz, Germany |edition=0671 |id=MPN N31,A2.10 |date=June 1971 |pages=1–4 |url=ftp://computermuseum.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/telefunken/tr440/doku/SIG100_Jun1971.pdf |access-date=2021-08-24 |quote-page=2 |quote=[…] Sichtgerät SIG 100 […] Als Zusatzeinrichtung des Datensichtgerätes kann eine Rollkugelsteuerung geliefert werden. Für deren Inbetriebnahme ist jedoch der Besitz einer Tastatur-Sendeelektronik Voraussetzung. Die Rollkugelsteuerung erlaubt es, eine elektronisch eingeblendete Marke "von Hand" an jede beliebige Stelle des Bildschirms zu schieben. Mit ihrer Hilfe ist es möglich, an der gekennzeichneten Stelle eine neue Rechnerinformation sichtbar zu machen oder aber eine bereits vorhandene Information zu ändern, zu löschen oder zu erweitern. […]}} (4 pages)</ref>
<ref name="Telefunken_1972">{{cite book |title=Benutzerstation: Sichtgeräte SIG&nbsp;100, SIG&nbsp;50 – Fernschreiber FSR&nbsp;105 – Datenstation DAS&nbsp;3200 |language=de |series=System TR&nbsp;440 |publisher=[[Telefunken Computer GmbH]] |location=Konstanz, Germany |edition=0372 |id=MPN N31.A2.10 |date=March 1972 |pages=1–2 |url=ftp://computermuseum.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/telefunken/tr440/doku/SIG100_SIG50_Mar1972.pdf |access-date=2020-07-13 |quote=[…] Sichtgerät SIG 100 […] Beim Sichtgerät lassen sich die Daten leicht über die Tastatur und Positionen über die Rollkugel eingeben. […] Rollkugel […] Als Zusatzeinrichtung des SIG 100 kann eine Rollkugelsteuerung geliefert werden, die es erlaubt, eine elektronisch eingeblendete Marke von Hand an jede beliebige Stelle des Bildschirms zu schieben. […]}} (6 pages)</ref>
<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel">{{cite web |author-first=Ralf |author-last=Bulow |title=Auf den Spuren der deutschen Computermaus |trans-title=In the footsteps of the German computer mouse |language=de |work=[[Heise online]] |publisher=[[Heise Verlag]] |date=2009-04-28 |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Auf-den-Spuren-der-deutschen-Computermaus-216255.html |access-date=2013-01-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823232003/https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Auf-den-Spuren-der-deutschen-Computermaus-216255.html |archive-date=2021-08-23}}</ref>
<ref name="Mueller_2018">{{cite web |title=The first rolling-ball mouse |author-first=Jürgen |author-last=Müller |location=Hamburg, Germany |work=e-basteln – Solving yesterday's problems today |date=2021 |orig-date=2018 |url=http://www.e-basteln.de/computing/rollkugel/rollkugel/ |access-date=2021-08-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823162131/http://www.e-basteln.de/computing/rollkugel/rollkugel/ |archive-date=2021-08-23 |quote=[…] The encoders are made by MCB in France, „codeur à contacts“ type CC27E08. […] The encoders produce a 4-bit [[Gray code]] (only a single bit will change between adjacent states) with 14 states. Also, each individual output maintains its value for at least two successive states; that allows for a somewhat slower time constant on de-bouncing the contacts. […] This sequence is repeated 5 times for a full revolution of the encoder. Since the rubber O-ring on the encoder wheel has a diameter of {{cvt|13|mm|disp=sqbr}}, that makes for a resolution of 5*14 counts&nbsp;/ (π*13&nbsp;mm)&nbsp;= 1.7 counts/mm&nbsp;= 43.5 counts/inch. […] <!-- It was clear from earlier tests that the electro-mechanical contacts inside the encoders were quite worn and produced a lot of drop-outs; decent filtering and plausibility checks for the codes would be needed. […] microcontroller software looks for valid phase transitions which follow the expected Gray code pattern, and suppresses invalid states even if they last longer than 1&nbsp;ms […] -->}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20210823201846/http://www.e-basteln.de/file/rollkugel/rks_encoder.c] (NB. See also: [[#NB-Encoder|Encoder remarks]].)</ref>
<ref name="CHM_SIG-100">{{cite web |title=SIG-100 video terminal and mouse |id=[[AEG (German company)|AEG]] 969.68 |date=2011 |orig-date=1968 |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |location=Mountain View, California, US |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/input-output/14/346/1874 |access-date=2021-08-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821100518/https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/input-output/14/346/1874 |archive-date=2021-08-21}}</ref>
<ref name="CHM_RKS-100">{{cite web |title=RKS 100-86 mouse ("Rollkugel") |id=Item ID 102667911 |date=2011 |orig-date=1968 |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |location=Mountain View, California, US |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/input-output/14/350/1794 |access-date=2021-08-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823222645/https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/input-output/14/350/1794 |archive-date=2021-08-23}}</ref>
<ref name="HNF_2019_Presentation">{{cite web |title=Von Rollkugeln und Mäusen – Präsentation zur Computermaus im HNF |language=de |type=Press announcement |date=2019-05-14 |publisher=[[Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum]] |location=Paderborn, Germany |url=https://www.hnf.de/das-hnf/presse/pressemitteilungen/ansicht/artikel/von-rollkugeln-und-maeusen.html |access-date=2021-08-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823222755/https://www.hnf.de/das-hnf/presse/pressemitteilungen/ansicht/artikel/von-rollkugeln-und-maeusen.html |archive-date=2021-08-23}}</ref>
<ref name="HNF_2016_Blog">{{cite web |title=Wenn die Maus zweimal klingelt |language=de |date=2016-10-04 |work=HNF-Blog – Neues von gestern aus der Computergeschichte |publisher=[[Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum]] |location=Paderborn, Germany |url=https://blog.hnf.de/wenn-die-maus-zweimal-klingelt/ |access-date=2021-08-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225111239/https://blog.hnf.de/wenn-die-maus-zweimal-klingelt/ |archive-date=2021-02-25}}</ref>
<ref name="Holland_2019">{{cite web |title="Rollkugel": Erfinder gibt allererste PC-Maus nach Paderborn – Weltweit gibt es nur noch vier Exemplare: Der Erfinder der allerersten Computermaus hat eines der seltenen Geräte nach Nordrhein-Westfalen verschenkt. |language=de |date=2019-05-14 |author-first=Martin |author-last=Holland |work=[[Heise online]] |publisher=[[Heise Verlag]] |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Rollkugel-Erfinder-gibt-allerste-PC-Maus-nach-Paderborn-4421963.html |access-date=2021-08-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108000058/https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Rollkugel-Erfinder-gibt-allerste-PC-Maus-nach-Paderborn-4421963.html |archive-date=2020-11-08 |quote=[…] Mallebrein hatte die Maus für Telefunken entwickelt, das Unternehmen verkaufte sie ab 1968 zusammen mit seinem damaligen Spitzencomputer {{ill|Telefunken TR 440{{!}}TR 440|de|TR 440}}. Allerdings nur 46 Mal, vor allem an Universitäten, der Rechner war mit bis zu 20 Millionen Mark praktisch unerschwinglich teuer, sagt Mallebrein. […] Seine Maus – für 1500 Mark zu haben – geriet in Vergessenheit. Ein Patent gab es auch nicht. "Wegen zu geringer Erfindungshöhe", stand damals im Schreiben des Patentamts, erinnert sich der Senior. "Über Anwendungsmöglichkeiten war damals gar nicht gesprochen worden, nämlich dass die Maus Mensch-Maschine-Interaktion fahren kann." […]}} [https://heise.de/-4421963]<!-- This article erroneously talks about only 4 surviving devices in total, another article mentions a few more: 1 or 4 at Leibniz Supercomputing Centre (Garching/Munich), 1 or 2 at Museum of University Stuttgart, 1 (from RWTH Aachen) at the Computer History Museum in the USA, 1 at Jürgen Müller (Hamburg), 1 at Hamburg University, and possibly 1 owned by someone called "harper". --></ref>
<ref name="Ebner_2018">{{cite news |title=Entwickler aus Singen über die Anfänge der Computermaus: "Wir waren der Zeit voraus" |language=de |trans-title=Singen-based developer about the advent of the computer mouse: "We were ahead of time" |author-first=Susanne |author-last=Ebner |department=Leben und Wissen |date=2018-01-24 |newspaper=[[Südkurier]] |publisher=[[Südkurier GmbH]] |publication-place=Konstanz, Germany |oclc=1184800329 |id={{ZDB|1411183-4}} {{DNB-IDN|019058799}} |url=https://www.suedkurier.de/ueberregional/wissenschaft/Entwickler-aus-Singen-ueber-die-Anfaenge-der-Computermaus-Wir-waren-der-Zeit-voraus;art1350069,9590558 |access-date=2021-08-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302234231/https://www.suedkurier.de/ueberregional/wissenschaft/Entwickler-aus-Singen-ueber-die-Anfaenge-der-Computermaus-Wir-waren-der-Zeit-voraus;art1350069,9590558 |archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref>
<ref name="OldMouse_Telefunken">{{cite web |title=Telefunken's "Rollkugel" |publisher=oldmouse.com |location=Missoula, Montana, US |date=2009 |url=http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/misc/telefunken.shtml |access-date=2021-08-23 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822024815/http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/misc/telefunken.shtml |archive-date=2021-08-22}}</ref>
<ref name="Steinbach_2018">{{cite interview |title=Oral History of Rainer Mallebrein |language=de, en |author-first=Rainer |author-last=Mallebrein |author-link=:de:Rainer Mallebrein |interviewer-first=Günter |interviewer-last=Steinbach |id=CHM Ref: X8517.2018 |location=Singen am Hohentwiel, Germany / Mountain View, California, US |date=2018-02-18 |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |url=http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2018/05/102738746-05-01-acc.pdf |access-date=2021-08-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127162137/https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2018/05/102738746-05-01-acc.pdf |archive-date=2021-01-27}} (18 pages) (NB. See also: [[#NB-Encoder|Encoder remarks]].)</ref>
<ref name="Vaihingen_2016">{{cite web |title=50 Jahre Computer mit der Maus – Öffentliche Veranstaltung am 5. Dezember auf dem Campus Vaihingen |language=de |date=2016-11-28 |type=Invitation to a plenum discussion |publisher=Informatik-Forum Stuttgart (infos e.V.), GI- / ACM-Regionalgruppe Stuttgart / Böblingen, Institut für Visualisierung und Interaktive Systeme der Universität Stuttgart and SFB-TRR 161 |location=Stuttgart, Germany |url=https://www.visus.uni-stuttgart.de/presse-und-medien/news/detailansicht/article/50-jahre-computer-mit-der-maus.html |access-date=2017-11-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115204824/https://www.visus.uni-stuttgart.de/presse-und-medien/news/detailansicht/article/50-jahre-computer-mit-der-maus.html |archive-date=2017-11-15}}</ref>
<ref name="Borchers_2016">{{cite web |title=50 Jahre Mensch-Maschine-Interaktion: Finger oder Kugel? |language=de |date=2016-12-10 |author-first=Detlef Henning |author-last=Borchers |author-link=:de:Detlef Henning Borchers |work=[[Heise online]] |publisher=[[Heise Verlag]] |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/50-Jahre-Mensch-Maschine-Interaktion-Finger-oder-Kugel-3567899.html |access-date=2017-11-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115234257/https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/50-Jahre-Mensch-Maschine-Interaktion-Finger-oder-Kugel-3567899.html |archive-date=2017-11-15}}</ref>
<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016">{{cite book |title=Reverse Engineering of the Computer Mouse RKS 100 |chapter=2.1 Measurements and Properties |author-first1=Mousa |author-last1=Yacoub |author-first2=Majd |author-last2=Turfa |author-first3=Fabian |author-last3=Maurer |date=2016-08-19 |pages=2–3, 5 |url=https://www.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/studium/interessierte/bsc-studiengaenge/informatik/projekt-inf/2016-08-19/Projekt-INF-YacoubTurfaMaurer.pdf |access-date=2017-11-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115205037/https://www.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/studium/interessierte/bsc-studiengaenge/informatik/projekt-inf/2016-08-19/Projekt-INF-YacoubTurfaMaurer.pdf |archive-date=2017-11-15 |quote-page=2 |quote=[…] The Encoders made by MCB transmit rotation through a 4-bit [[Gray code]] alternating between 14 possible configurations while only changing one bit each […] The commitment to a Gray code with only 14 possible configurations instead of one with 16 configurations may be caused by limitations on the part of the encoders. Within a full rotation, the encoders cycle through the Gray code for four times, resulting in 56 signals per turn. To rotate the encoders by 90° (14 signals), the RKS needs to be moved by around {{cvt|10|mm|disp=sqbr}}. While modern encoders use a 2-bit (i.e. 4 configurations) Gray code, the advantage of this 4-bit encoder lies in the detection of missed bit changes. If up to 6 bit changes would pass undetected, it would still be possible to find out the direction the encoder rotated in and then interpolate the movement of the mouse cursor. The Encoders work completely passive and simply connect or disconnect the four data cables from an input cable that can be connected to either ground or a power supply. The button of the RKS works in a similar way using one cable for input and one for output and connecting those while pressed. […] In total, 12 cables are used to connect the RKS to the {{ill|Telefunken TR 440{{!}}TR-440|de|TR 440}} – four data cables for each encoder, one input cable for both encoders, one ground for the upper metal plate, one input for the button and one output for the button. […]}} (NB. Contains some historical photos. See also: [[#NB-Encoder|Encoder remarks]].)</ref>
<ref name="Lyon_1981">{{cite book |title=The Optical Mouse, and an Architectural Methodology for Smart Digital Sensors |author-first=Richard Francis |author-last=Lyon |author-link=Richard Francis Lyon |date=August 1981 |id=VLSI-81-1 |location=Palo Alto, California, US |publisher=[[Palo Alto Research Center]] (PARC), [[Xerox Corporation]] |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/parc/techReports/VLSI-81-1_The_Optical_Mouse.pdf |access-date=2021-08-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415081353/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/parc/techReports/VLSI-81-1_The_Optical_Mouse.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-15 |no-pp=yes |quote-page=Front-facing side of <!-- double-page -->10 |quote=The counters needed for X and Y simply count through four states, in either direction (up or down), changing only one bit at a time (i.e. 00, 01, 11, 10). This is a simple case of either a [[Gray-code counter]] or a [[Johnson counter]] ([[Moebius counter]]).}} (1+3+2*11+2+2*1+2+2*4+1 pages)</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web |title=Fire-Control and Human-Computer Interaction: Towards a History of the Computer Mouse (1940–1965) |author-first=Axel |author-last=Roch |author-link=:d:Q102435890 |others=Mindell, David |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], Program in Science, Technology, and Society |url=http://moon.zkm.de/hp_new/pdf/mouse.pdf |access-date=2021-08-24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628210444/http://moon.zkm.de/hp_new/pdf/mouse.pdf |archive-date=2021-06-28}} (11 pages) (NB. This is based on an earlier German article published in 1996 in ''Lab. Jahrbuch 1995/1996 für Künste und Apparate'' (350 pages) by [[Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln]] mit dem [[Verein der Freunde der Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln]]; {{ill|Buchhandlung Walther König{{!}}Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König|de|Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König}} in Cologne, Germany. {{ISBN|3-88375-245-2}}.)
* {{cite magazine |title=Mighty Mouse – In 1980, Apple Computer asked a group of guys fresh from Stanford's product design program to take a $400 device and make it mass-producible, reliable and cheap. Their work transformed personal computing. |author-last=Pang |author-first=Alex Soojung-Kim |editor-first=Kevin |editor-last=Candland |magazine=Stanford Magazine |publisher=Stanford Alumni Association, [[Stanford University]] |location=Stanford, California, US |date=March–April 2002 |url=http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=37694 |access-date=2021-08-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824102957/https://stanfordmag.org/contents/mighty-mouse |archive-date=2021-08-24}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiversity|Mouse (computing)}}
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.dougengelbart.org/content/view/162/000/ Doug Engelbart Institute mouse resources page] includes stories and links
* The video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yJDv-zdhzMY&t=33m37s segment] of [[The Mother of All Demos]] with [[Doug Engelbart]] showing the device from 1968

{{Basic computer components}}
{{Game controllers}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:American inventions]]
[[Category:Computer mice| ]]
[[Category:Computing input devices]]
[[Category:History of human–computer interaction]]
[[Category:Pointing devices]]
[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 1964]]