Editing Concrete ship

{{Short description|Ship whose hull is primarily made of concrete}}
'''Concrete ships''' are built primarily with [[ferrocement]] ([[reinforced concrete]]) hulls, reinforced with [[steel]] bars.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Concrete Ship {{!}} MARAD |url=https://www.maritime.dot.gov/multimedia/concrete-ship |access-date=2023-06-11 |website=www.maritime.dot.gov}}</ref> This contrasts against more traditional materials, such as pure steel or wood. The advantage of ferrocement construction is that materials are cheap and readily available, while the disadvantages are that construction labor costs are high, as are operating costs. (Ferrocement ships require thick hulls, which results in either a larger cross-sectional area that hurts hydrodynamics, or leaves less space for cargo.) During the late 19th century, there were concrete river barges in Europe, and during both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], steel shortages led the US military to order the construction of small fleets of ocean-going concrete ships, the largest of which was the [[SS Selma (1919)|SS ''Selma'']].<ref name="SSselmaMarker">{{cite web
|title=S.S. Selma Ship Texas Historical Marker
|url=http://www.stoppingpoints.com/texas/sights.cgi?marker=SS+Selma&cnty=galveston
|author=State Historical Commission
}}</ref> [[United States Maritime Administration]] (MARAD) designation for concrete ships-barges was [[Type_B_ship#Concrete_Barge|Type B ship]]. Few concrete ships were completed in time to see wartime service during World War I, but during 1944 and 1945, concrete ships and barges were used to support U.S. and British invasions in Europe and the Pacific. Since the late 1930s, there have also been ferrocement [[pleasure boat]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://shipbuildinghistory.com/shipyards/emergencylarge/wwtwoconcrete.htm |title=WWII Builders of Concrete Ships and Barges |access-date=2019-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924224714/http://shipbuildinghistory.com/shipyards/emergencylarge/wwtwoconcrete.htm |archive-date=2018-09-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.concreteships.org/history/ A Brief History of Concrete Ships]</ref>

==History==
[[Image:ConcreteBoatPlans.JPG|thumb|upright|Blueprints for a concrete boat]]
[[Image:ConcreteBoat pic1.JPG|thumb|Concrete boat constructed by Walter Dowsey hauled out in [[Chicago]]]]
[[File:Namsenfjord - no-nb digifoto 20160405 00015 NB NS NM 09922.jpg|thumb|The ''Namsenfjord'']]

The oldest known ferrocement watercraft was a [[dinghy]] built by [[Joseph-Louis Lambot]] in Southern [[France]] in 1848. Lambot's boat was featured in the [[Exposition Universelle (1855)|Exposition Universelle]] held in [[Paris]] in 1855.

Beginning in the 1860s, ferrocement [[barge]]s were built in Europe for use on canals, and around 1896, an Italian engineer, Carlo Gabellini, began building small ships out of ferrocement. The most famous of his ships was the ''Liguria''.<ref name="eberhardt">Eberhardt, Robert. "Concrete Shipbuilding in San Diego, 1918–1920," ''Journal of San Diego History'', 41:2, Spring 1995.[http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/95spring/shipbuilding.htm]</ref>

Between 1908 and 1914, larger ferrocement barges began to be made in Germany, United Kingdom,<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/yourplaceandmine/topics/work/Y040226.shtml "Working Lives--Pat Durkin."]</ref> the Netherlands, Norway and United States.<ref name="svenska">[http://www.mareud.com/Ferro-Concrete/fc_historygbr.htm Svenska, På. "The History about the Ferro-Concrete Ships."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307231217/http://www.mareud.com/Ferro-Concrete/fc_historygbr.htm |date=2007-03-07 }}</ref> The remains of a British ship of this type, the auxiliary coaster ''Violette'' (built 1919), can be seen at [[Hoo St Werburgh|Hoo]], [[Kent]], England.<ref>National Register of Historic Vessels, Name: Violette, Certificate Number 716.{{cite web |url=http://nationalhistoricships.org.uk/index.cfm/event/getVessel/vref/716 |title=Violette (716) |accessdate=2008-04-21 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420162849/http://nationalhistoricships.org.uk/index.cfm/event/getVessel/vref/716 |archivedate=2008-04-20 }}</ref>

On August 2, 1917, Nicolay Fougner of Norway launched the first self-propelled ferrocement ship intended for ocean travel. This was an {{convert|84|foot|adj=on}} vessel of 400 tons named ''Namsenfjord''. With the success of this ship, additional ferrocement vessels were ordered, and in October 1917, the U.S. government invited Fougner to head a study into the feasibility of building ferrocement ships in the United States.<ref>Fougner, Nicolay Knudtzon. ''Seagoing and Other Concrete Ships.'' H. Frowde and Hodder & Stoughton, 1922.</ref><ref>Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Division for Economics and History. ''Preliminary Economic Studies of the War.'' London: Oxford University Press, 1919.</ref> The Fougner Concrete Shipbuilding Company, [[Flushing Bay]], [[New York City|New York]], reported calculated cost was of $290 per deadweight ton for the ''Cape Fear'' ([[List of shipwrecks in 1920]] "10.21 30 October") and the ''Sapona'' which they presumably built.<ref name="eberhardt"/>

About the same time, the California businessman [[William Leslie Comyn|W. Leslie Comyn]] took the initiative to build ferrocement ships on his own. He formed the San Francisco Ship Building Company (in [[Oakland, California]]), and hired Alan Macdonald and Victor Poss to design the first American ferrocement ship, a 6,125-ton steamer named the {{SS|Faith}}. ''Faith'' was launched March 18, 1918. She cost $750,000 to build. She was used to carry [[bulk cargo]] for trade until 1921, when she was sold and scrapped as a [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwater]] in Cuba.<ref name="eberhardt"/>

[[File:SS Palo Alto.jpg|thumb|The American concrete oil tanker ''[[SS Palo Alto|Palo Alto]]'', originally meant for merchant service in the first World War, but completed in 1919. (Naval History and Heritage Command - Photo NH 799)]]

On April 12, 1918, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] approved the [[United States Shipping Board Merchant Fleet Corporation|Emergency Fleet Corporation]] program which oversaw the construction of 24 ferrocement ships for the war. However, when the war ended in November 1918, only 12 ferrocement ships were under construction and none of them had been completed. These 12 ships were eventually completed, but soon sold to private companies who used them for light-trading, storage, and scrap.<ref name="eberhardt"/>

Other countries that looked into ferrocement ship construction during this period included Canada, Denmark, Italy, Spain, Sweden<ref name="svenska"/> and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |title=Concrete Barge Elmarine 1919 |url=https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/~cmi/books/miscWr/concrete.html |website=www.liverpool.ac.uk |access-date=3 September 2022}}</ref>

Between the world wars, there was little commercial or military interest in concrete ship construction. The reason was that other shipbuilding methods were cheaper and less labor-intensive, and other kinds of ships were cheaper to operate. However, in 1942, after the U.S. entered [[World War II]], the U.S. military found that its contractors had steel shortages. Consequently, the U.S. government contracted [[Matthew McCloskey|McCloskey & Company]]<ref>[http://www.mareud.com/Ferro-Concrete/mccloskey_tampa1.html "McCloskey & Co., Hookers Point, Tampa, Florida, U.S.A."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821230454/http://www.mareud.com/Ferro-Concrete/mccloskey_tampa1.html |date=2007-08-21 }}</ref> of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] to build 24 self-propelled concrete ships. Construction started in July 1943. The shipyard was at Hookers Point in [[Tampa, Florida]], and at its peak, it employed 6,000 workers.<ref name="builders">[http://www.coltoncompany.com/shipbldg/ussbldrs/wwii/merchantshipbuilders/concreteships.htm "Builders of Concrete Ships: WWII Construction Record"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711235205/http://www.coltoncompany.com/shipbldg/ussbldrs/wwii/merchantshipbuilders/concreteships.htm |date=2007-07-11 }}</ref> The U.S. government also contracted with two companies in California for the construction of [[Concrete barge|concrete barge ships]].<ref name="builders"/> Barge ships were large vessels that lacked engines to propel them. Instead, they were towed by tugs.

In Europe, ferrocement barges (FCBs) played a crucial role in World War II operations, particularly in the [[Normandy Landings|D-Day Normandy landings]], where they were used as part of the [[Mulberry harbour]] defenses, for fuel and munitions transportation, as [[blockship]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usmm.org/concrete.html |title=D-Day 1944 and Why They Owe Me a Trip on the Queen Mary by Richard R. Powers |access-date=2016-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928035838/http://www.usmm.org/concrete.html |archive-date=2018-09-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and as floating [[Pontoon bridge|pontoons]]. In 1940, 200 were commissioned to serve as petrol-carrying barges. The barges weighed 160 tons and were constructed on the London dockside before being craned into the water by a giant crane.<ref name=Rainham/>

Some barges were fitted with engines and used as mobile canteens and troop carriers. Some of these vessels survive as abandoned wrecks or sea defenses (against storm surges) in the [[River Thames|Thames Estuary]] including near [[Rainham Marshes Nature Reserve|Rainham Marshes]].<ref name=Rainham>{{cite web |title=Local History - Concrete Barges and The Diver |url=https://www.londonriversidebid.co.uk/news-and-events/local-history-concrete-barges-and-the-diver |website=www.londonriversidebid.co.uk |access-date=3 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>) Two remain in civil use as [[Mooring (watercraft)|moorings]] at [[Westminster]]. 

One notable wartime FCB, previously beached at [[Canvey Island]], was partially removed in 2003 by the local sailing club, whose land it was on, for fear it was a "danger to children". Local historians disagreed with the club and were displeased with their actions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hallmann |first1=Robert |title=Canvey's Concrete Barge |url=https://www.canveyisland.org/history-2/memories/the-1950s-and-beyond/canveys-concrete-barge-2 |website=CanveyIsland.org |access-date=4 September 2022 |language=en |date=20 October 2010}}</ref>

In 1944 a concrete firm in California proposed a [[submarine]] shaped [[Cargo ship|freighter]] which they claimed could achieve speeds of 75 knots. The war ended any more research into the project. In retrospect many believe the claims were greatly overstated.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=mCYDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1931+plane&pg=PA80 "Concrete Liner"] ''Popular Science'', June 1944</ref>

Concrete barges also served in the [[Pacific Ocean theater of World War II|Pacific]] during 1944 and 1945.<ref>See, for example, {{USS|Quartz}}.</ref> From the [[Charleroi, Pennsylvania]], ''Mail'', February 5, 1945:

{{Quote|Largest unit of the Army's fleet is a BRL, (Barge, Refrigerated, Large) which is going to the South Pacific to serve fresh frozen foods&nbsp;– even ice cream&nbsp;– to troops weary of dry rations. The vessel can keep 64 carloads of frozen meats and 500 tons of fresh produce indefinitely at 12°F. Equipment on board includes an ice machine of five-ton daily capacity and a freezer that turns out more than a gallon of ice cream a minute. Three of the floating warehouses, designed for tropical warfare, have been built of concrete at National City, Calif., and cost $1,120,000 each. In the crew of the 265-ft. barges are 23 Army men.}}

One concrete barge under tow by ''Jicarilla'' (ATF-104) was lost off [[Saipan]] during a [[typhoon]], and another barge damaged the [[Moreton Bay Pile Light]] in [[Brisbane]],<ref>{{cite loa|QLD|Moreton%20Bay|Moreton Bay Pile Light}}</ref> but the rest served admirably.<ref>Carter, Worrall Reed. ''Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil: The Story of Fleet Logistics Afloat in the Pacific during World War II''. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1953.[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/BBBO/BBBO-10.html]</ref>

==Today==
[[File:DSC01115 - Tall Ship Larinda.jpg|thumb|upright|The concrete-hulled [[schooner]] [[Larinda]] was launched in 1996.]]
Modern hobbyists also build ferrocement boats ({{not a typo|ferroboats}}),<ref>[http://www.ferroboats.com "The World of Ferro-Cement Boats."]</ref> as their construction methods do not require special tools, and the materials are comparatively cheap. Since the 1960s, the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] has sponsored the National [[concrete canoe|Concrete Canoe]] Competition.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.asce.org/inside/nccc2004/history.cfm |title=History of the Concrete Canoe Competition |access-date=2007-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407160503/http://www.asce.org/inside/nccc2004/history.cfm |archive-date=2007-04-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In Europe, especially the Netherlands, concrete is still used to build some of the barges on which [[houseboat]]s are built.<ref>[http://www.xs4all.nl/~jheeck/boot1eng.html "Amsterdam Houseboat Trivia"]</ref>

=== Remaining wartime ships ===
Surviving wartime concrete ships are no longer in use as ships. Several continue in use in various forms, mostly as museums or breakwaters.

==== North America ====
The largest collection is at [[Powell River, British Columbia|Powell River]], [[British Columbia]], {{coord|49.865238| -124.555821}}, where a lumber mill uses ten floating ferrocement ships as a breakwater,<ref>[http://www.concreteships.org/ships/powellriver/ "The Powell River Floating Breakwater"]. ''Concrete Ships''</ref> known as [[The Hulks]].

The [[Kiptopeke State Park|Kiptopeke]] Breakwater in [[Chesapeake Bay]], Virginia, {{coord|37.164267|-75.991402}}, is formed by nine sunken concrete ships built in World War II.<ref>[http://www.concreteships.org/ships/kiptopeke/ "Kiptopeke Breakwater"]. ''Concrete Ships''</ref>

{{SS|San Pasqual}}, a former oil tanker, lies off the coast of [[Cayo Las Brujas]], [[Cuba]], {{coord|22.623439|-79.22327}}, where it served as a hotel, then as a base for divers. Currently, the ''San Pasqual'' is abandoned.<ref name="concrete">[http://www.concreteships.org "Concrete Ships.org: An Experiment in Ship Building"].</ref>{{nonspecific|reason=not helpful to cite the entire website|date=February 2023}}

The wreckage of {{SS|Atlantus}} (commissioned in 1919, sunk in 1926) is visible off [[Sunset Beach (New Jersey)|Sunset Beach]] near [[Cape May]], [[New Jersey]], {{coord|38.944322|-74.972083}}.<ref name="concrete"/>{{nonspecific|reason=not helpful to cite the entire website|date=February 2023}}

The tanker {{SS|Selma|1919|6}} is located northwest of the fishing pier at [[Seawolf Park]] in [[Galveston]], {{coord|29.344249|-94.786343}}. The ship was launched the same day Germany signed the [[Treaty of Versailles]], ending the war, so it never saw wartime duty and instead was used as an oil tanker in the [[Gulf of Mexico]].<ref name="SSselmaMarker" />

The {{SS|Palo Alto}}, a concrete tanker launched on May 29, 1919, was purchased and turned into an amusement pier, and is still visible at [[Seacliff State Beach]], near [[Aptos]], [[California]], {{coord|36.969704|-121.913947}}.<ref name="concrete"/> It broke up during a January 2017 storm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Famed-Calif-cement-ship-flipped-broken-up-by-10875861.php |title=Famed Calif. 'cement ship' flipped, broken up by strong waves| date=23 January 2017 |work=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref>

The SS ''McKittrick'', launched in 1921 in [[Wilmington, North Carolina]], later became the {{SS|Monte Carlo}}, a gaming ship off [[Coronado, California]], that ran aground on December 31, 1936. The wreck is periodically exposed by strong storm tides.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2010/jan/31/one-gamble-that-didnt-pay-off/ |title=Tide, storms expose gaming ship|publisher=San Diego Union-Tribune|date=2010-01-31 |accessdate=2012-08-21}}</ref>

The vessel aground in the surf at Shipwreck Beach on the north shore of [[Lanai]], Hawaii is the wreck of [[YOG-42]], {{coord|20.921299|-156.910139}}, a concrete gasoline barge built for the US Navy in 1942 and placed in service in 1943. The wreck is often misidentified as a [[Liberty ship]].<ref>Roberts, Stephen S. (September 14, 2010). [http://www.shipscribe.com/usnaux/IX2/YO144.html "Class: Concrete Barges (YO-144, YOG-40)"]; Van Tilburg, Hans K. 2003. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100410185604/http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/UA_ResourcesMgt.pdf "Department of Defense Legacy Management Program. Underwater Cultural Resources Management and Protection. Project (01-121)"]. Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, pp. 373–375.</ref>

The remains of the ''[[Col. J. E. Sawyer]]'' can be seen near the {{USS|Yorktown|CV-10|6}} in Charleston Harbor, {{coord|32.798761|-79.906863}}, South Carolina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sc-mountpleasant.civicplus.com/DocumentCenter/View/5676 |title=Mount Pleasant Old Sunken Hull Historical Marker|publisher=Mount Pleasant Historical Commission |date=2012-02-13 |accessdate=2015-01-05}}</ref>

The wreckage of the {{SS|Sapona}} is visible slightly south of Bimini Island in the Bahamas, {{coord|25.65063|-79.29337}}. It is a popular snorkeling site and boating landmark in the area.
<gallery>
File:Powell River Aerial 2004.jpg|At [[Powell River, British Columbia|Powell River]]
File:Walkway at Kiptopeke State Park.jpg|At Kiptopeke
File:Atlantus.jpg|{{SS|Atlantus}}
File:S.S. Selma, Galveston, TX - DSC 0125.jpg|{{SS|Selma|1919|6}}
File:SS Palo Alto - DSC 7069cementBoat-w.JPG|{{SS|Palo Alto}}
File:SS Monte Carlo Shipwreck 2010-01-30.jpg|{{SS|Monte Carlo}}
File:Shipwreck - Shipwreck Beach.jpg|YOGN 42
</gallery>

==== Europe ====
One of the few concrete ships built for but not completed in time to be used in World War I, the SS ''Crete Boom'', lies abandoned in the [[River Moy]], {{coord|54.135515|-9.138452}} just outside the town of [[Ballina, County Mayo|Ballina]], [[County Mayo]], Ireland, and is considered of much interest to the area's many tourists.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.northmayo.ie/visit-the-ss-crete-boom-the-fabled-concrete-ship-in-ballina/ |title=Visit the SS Crete Boom – the fabled concrete ship in Ballina |author=m4Y0N04TH |date=17 June 2019 |access-date=10 February 2023 |work=Mayo North |publisher=Ballina Tourist Office}}</ref> 

A concrete barge, the ''Cretetree'', is beached in the harbour of the [[Scalpay, Outer Hebrides|Isle of Scalpay]] near [[Tarbert, Harris|Tarbert]], Harris, Scotland, {{coord|57.876873|-6.699965}}. It was built by [[Aberdeen Concrete Ships]], and completed in 1919.<ref name="aberdeenships">{{cite web|url=http://www.aberdeenships.com/single.asp?index=100840|title=Aberdeen Ships {{!}}&nbsp;Cretetree|publisher=aberdeenships.com|accessdate=2014-06-01}}</ref>

The [[Purton Hulks]], a collection of vessels intentionally beached at [[Purton, Berkeley|Purton]] during the first half of the twentieth century as a method to prevent coastal erosion, includes eight ferro-concrete barges. {{coord|51.737178|-2.455798}}<ref name="purton">[http://www.friendsofpurton.org.uk "Friends of Purton"]</ref>{{nonspecific|reason=not helpful to cite the entire website|date=February 2023}}

A large collection of abandoned concrete barges are seen at River Thames in [[Rainham, London]].<ref name=Rainham/> {{coord|51.498608|0.18202}}

The wreckage of the {{lang|de|italic=yes|Ulrich Finsterwalder}}, a small [[Nazi Germany|Nazi-era German]] tanker, is visible in [[Dąbie Lake]], near [[Szczecin]], Poland. It was sunk during a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] air raid on 20 March 1945. In the late 1950s Polish authorities decided to lift it and tow it to another location to be converted into swimming pools, but during that operation it began sinking again, so it was abandoned in shallow water, where it has remained since.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Historia betonowych wraków na jeziorze Dąbie i Bałtyku |publisher=Nortus & Potworna spółka |url=http://nortus.pinger.pl/m/1464330|access-date=2020-07-12}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:The_ss_creteboom_side_view.jpg|SS ''Creteboom''
File:Boat_graveyard_-_geograph.org.uk_-_103070.jpg|At [[Purton, Berkeley|Purton]]
File:Ferro-concrete_barges,_Rainham_waterfront_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1022440.jpg|At [[Rainham, London|Rainham]]
File:1109 Urlich Finsterwalde Wreck.jpg|''Ulrich Finsterwalder''
</gallery> 

During the [[Axis occupation of Greece|German occupation of Greece]] (1942–1944) during World War II, the [[German Army (Wehrmacht)|German Army]] built 24 concrete cargo vessels for transporting goods to various [[Greek islands]], including [[Crete]]. These were constructed in the [[Perama]] shipbuilding area of [[Piraeus]]. After the war, many of the vessels were used as piers (e.g., in [[Rafina]], {{coord|38.022056|24.010368}}) and [[breakwater (structure)|breakwater]]s (e.g., in Agios Georgios, [[Methana]], {{coord|37.638340|23.394544}}).

Due to the need to deliver necessary raw materials (such as oil, weapons, ammunition, food and drugs) through mined river currents, [[Adolf Hitler]] ordered the production of 50 concrete ships for different purposes. Most were concrete barges made for oil transportation from Romania, and needed raw materials that were driven to the Baltic front. A smaller number of ships was intended for transporting food (specializing in cold storages). The most valuable ships were the specialized ship-hospitals, which evacuated seriously wounded and "important" soldiers to German hospitals along rivers.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

==== Japan ====
Several concrete ships were aground on the west beach of [[Iwo To]] (Iwo Jima) in Japan, {{coord|24.78238|141.293095}}, to make a breakwater by the US forces in 1945.<ref>[http://www.justinmuseum.com/jkjustin2/gibson4.html Beachead Cargo, Iwo Jima, Arvin S. Gibson, Staff Sergeant, U.S. Army, Transportation Corps, Hq. and Hq. Co., AGF, APO 86]</ref> Most of them were broken by typhoons but one was used as a pier.<ref>[http://hotair.com/archives/2006/08/23/photos-from-iwo-jima/ "Photos from Iwo Jima"]. ''Hot Air''</ref>

Japan built four concrete ships named [[Takechi Maru class|''Takechi Maru'' No. 1 to 4]] ({{lang|ja|武智丸}}) during World War II. After the war, two of them turned into a breakwater in [[Kure, Hiroshima]], {{coord|34.280089|132.756295}}.
<gallery>
File:US Navy 070314-N-4124C-162 Dock landing ship USS Harpers Ferry (LSD 49) steams close to shore of Iwo Jima while on station to support the 62nd Commemoration of the Battle of Iwo Jima.jpg|At Iwo To
File:Concrete ship.jpg|''Takechi Maru'' No.2
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Concrete canoe]]
*[[Capella (concrete ship)]]
*[[Concrete Ship]], former concrete hospital ship
*[[Trefoil class concrete barge]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Concrete ships}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070307231217/http://www.mareud.com/Ferro-Concrete/fc_historygbr.htm History of ferro-concrete ships]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071015190601/http://mareud.com/Ferro-Concrete/f-c-list.htm Comprehensive list of ferro-concrete builders]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180930081300/http://viewfinder.english-heritage.org.uk/search/results.aspx?index=0&form=advanced&collection=Koos%20(concrete%20ships) Images of concrete vessels from the National Monuments Record ] Photographic record of the construction and launch of the ''Cretemanor'' at Preston and the Seacraft Concrete Co on the Mersey.
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=7igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA73 "Pour in the Concrete and Take Out a Ship"], February 1919 ''[[Popular Science]]''
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=uicDAAAAMBAJ&dq=popular+science+1943+brothers+under+the+skin&pg=PA124 '' "How Pour Ships Are Made" '', June 1943, Popular Science]

{{Design 1100 tankers}}
{{Trefoil class concrete barge}}
{{MARCOMships}}
{{Design 1070 ships}}

[[Category:Concrete ships| ]]
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