Editing Creation and annihilation operators

{{Use American English|date=January 2019}}
{{Short description|Operators useful in quantum mechanics}}
'''Creation operators''' and '''annihilation operators''' are [[Operator (mathematics)|mathematical operators]] that have widespread applications in [[quantum mechanics]], notably in the study of [[quantum harmonic oscillator]]s and many-particle systems.<ref name="Feynman1998p151">{{harvnb|Feynman|1998|p=151}}</ref> An annihilation operator (usually denoted <math>\hat{a}</math>) lowers the number of particles in a given state by one. A creation operator (usually denoted <math>\hat{a}^\dagger</math>) increases the number of particles in a given state by one, and it is the [[Hermitian adjoint|adjoint]] of the annihilation operator. In many subfields of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], the use of these operators instead of [[wavefunction]]s is known as [[second quantization]]. They were introduced by [[Paul Dirac]].<ref> Dirac, P. A. M. (1927). "The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation", ''Proc Roy Soc London Ser A'', '''114''' (767), 243-265. </ref>

Creation and annihilation operators can act on states of various types of particles. For example, in [[quantum chemistry]] and [[many-body theory]] the creation and annihilation operators often act on [[electron]] states. They can also refer specifically to the [[ladder operators]] for the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]]. In the latter case, the creation operator is interpreted as a raising operator, adding a quantum of energy to the oscillator system (similarly for the lowering operator). They can be used to represent [[phonons]]. Constructing Hamiltonians using these operators has the advantage that the theory automatically satisfies the [[cluster decomposition theorem]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Steven|last=Weinberg|author-link=Steven Weinberg|title=The Quantum Theory of Fields Volume 1|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1995|chapter=4|page=169|isbn=9780521670531}}</ref>

The mathematics for the creation and annihilation operators for [[bosons]] is the same as for the [[ladder operators]] of the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]].<ref name='Feynman1998p167'>{{harvnb|Feynman|1998|p=167}}</ref> For example, the [[Commutator#Ring_theory|commutator]] of the creation and annihilation operators that are associated with the same boson state equals one, while all other commutators vanish. However, for [[fermions]] the mathematics is different, involving [[anticommutator]]s instead of commutators.<ref name='Feynman1998p174-5'>{{harvnb|Feynman|1998|pp=174–5}}</ref>

==Ladder operators for the quantum harmonic oscillator==
{{main|Quantum harmonic oscillator#Ladder operator method}}
{{see also|Ladder operator}}

In the context of the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]], one reinterprets the ladder operators as creation and annihilation operators, adding or subtracting fixed [[quantum|quanta]] of energy to the oscillator system.

Creation/annihilation operators are different for [[boson]]s (integer spin) and [[fermion]]s (half-integer spin). This is because their [[wavefunction]]s have different [[identical particles|symmetry properties]].

First consider the simpler bosonic case of the photons of the quantum harmonic oscillator.
Start with the [[Schrödinger equation]] for the one-dimensional time independent [[quantum harmonic oscillator]],
<math display="block">\left(-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{d^2}{d x^2} + \frac{1}{2}m \omega^2 x^2\right) \psi(x) = E \psi(x).</math>

Make a coordinate substitution to [[nondimensionalization|nondimensionalize]] the differential equation
<math display="block">x \ = \ \sqrt{ \frac{\hbar}{m \omega}} q.</math>

The Schrödinger equation for the oscillator becomes
<math display="block"> \frac{\hbar \omega}{2} \left(-\frac{d^2}{d q^2} + q^2 \right) \psi(q) = E \psi(q).</math>

Note that the quantity <math> \hbar \omega = h \nu </math> is the same energy as that found for light [[quantum|quanta]] and that the parenthesis in the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] can be written as
<math display="block"> -\frac{d^2}{dq^2} + q^2 = \left(-\frac{d}{dq}+q \right) \left(\frac{d}{dq}+ q \right) + \frac {d}{dq}q - q \frac {d}{dq} .</math>

The last two terms can be simplified by considering their effect on an arbitrary differentiable function <math> f(q), </math>

<math display="block">\left(\frac{d}{dq} q- q \frac{d}{dq} \right)f(q) = \frac{d}{dq}(q f(q)) - q \frac{df(q)}{dq} = f(q) </math>
which implies,
<math display="block">\frac{d}{dq} q- q \frac{d}{dq} = 1 ,</math>
coinciding with the usual canonical commutation relation <math> -i[q,p]=1 </math>, in position space representation: <math>p:=-i\frac{d}{dq}</math>.

Therefore,
<math display="block"> -\frac{d^2}{dq^2} + q^2 = \left(-\frac{d}{dq}+q \right) \left(\frac{d}{dq}+ q \right) + 1 </math>
and the Schrödinger equation for the oscillator becomes, with substitution of the above and rearrangement of the factor of 1/2,
<math display="block"> \hbar \omega \left[\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left(-\frac{d}{dq}+q \right)\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left(\frac{d}{dq}+ q \right) + \frac{1}{2} \right] \psi(q) = E \psi(q).</math>

If one defines
<math display="block">a^\dagger \ = \ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left(-\frac{d}{dq} + q\right)</math>
as the '''"creation operator"''' or the '''"raising operator"''' and
<math display="block"> a \ \ = \ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left(\frac{d}{dq} + q\right)</math>
as the '''"annihilation operator"''' or the '''"lowering operator"''', the Schrödinger equation for the oscillator reduces to
<math display="block"> \hbar \omega \left( a^\dagger a + \frac{1}{2} \right) \psi(q) = E \psi(q).</math>
This is significantly simpler than the original form. Further simplifications of this equation enable one to derive all the properties listed above thus far.

Letting <math>p = - i \frac{d}{dq}</math>, where <math>p</math> is the nondimensionalized [[momentum operator]]
one has

<math display="block"> [q, p] = i \,</math>
and
<math display="block">\begin{align}
a &= \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(q + i p) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left( q + \frac{d}{dq}\right) \\[1ex]
a^\dagger &= \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(q - i p) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left( q - \frac{d}{dq}\right).
\end{align}</math>

Note that these imply
<math display="block"> [a, a^\dagger ] = \frac{1}{2} [ q + ip , q-i p] = \frac{1}{2} ([q,-ip] + [ip, q]) = -\frac{i}{2} ([q, p] + [q, p]) = 1. </math>

The operators <math>a\,</math> and <math>a^\dagger\,</math> may be contrasted to [[normal operators]], which commute with their adjoints.<ref group="nb">A normal operator has a representation {{math|''A''{{=}} ''B + i C''}}, where {{math|''B'',''C''}} are self-adjoint and [[commutative property|commute]], i.e. <math>BC=CB</math>. By contrast, {{mvar|a}} has the representation <math>a=q+ip</math> where <math>p,q</math> are self-adjoint but <math>[p,q]=1</math>. Then {{mvar|B}} and {{mvar|C}} have a common set of eigenfunctions (and are simultaneously diagonalizable), whereas {{mvar|p}} and {{mvar|q}} famously don't and aren't.</ref>

Using the commutation relations given above, the Hamiltonian operator can be expressed as
<math display="block">\hat H = \hbar \omega \left( a \, a^\dagger - \frac{1}{2}\right) = \hbar \omega \left( a^\dagger \, a + \frac{1}{2}\right).\qquad\qquad(*)</math>

One may compute the commutation relations between the <math>a\,</math> and <math>a^\dagger\,</math> operators and the Hamiltonian:<ref name="Branson">{{cite web|last=Branson|first=Jim|title=Quantum Physics at UCSD|url=http://quantummechanics.ucsd.edu/ph130a/130_notes/node170.html#section:HOraise|access-date=16 May 2012}}</ref>
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\left[\hat H, a \right] &= \left[\hbar \omega \left ( a a^\dagger - \tfrac{1}{2}\right ) , a\right] = \hbar \omega \left[ a a^\dagger, a\right] = \hbar \omega \left( a [a^\dagger,a] + [a,a] a^\dagger\right) = -\hbar \omega a. \\[1ex]
\left[\hat H, a^\dagger \right] &= \hbar \omega \, a^\dagger .
\end{align}</math>

These relations can be used to easily find all the energy eigenstates of the quantum harmonic oscillator as follows.

Assuming that <math>\psi_n</math> is an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian <math>\hat H \psi_n = E_n\, \psi_n</math>. Using these commutation relations, it follows that<ref name="Branson"/>
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\hat H\, a\psi_n &= (E_n - \hbar \omega)\, a\psi_n . \\[1ex]
\hat H\, a^\dagger\psi_n &= (E_n + \hbar \omega)\, a^\dagger\psi_n .
\end{align}</math>

This shows that <math>a\psi_n</math> and <math>a^\dagger\psi_n</math> are also eigenstates of the Hamiltonian, with eigenvalues <math>E_n - \hbar \omega</math> and <math>E_n + \hbar \omega</math> respectively. This identifies the operators <math>a</math> and <math>a^\dagger</math> as "lowering" and "raising" operators between adjacent eigenstates. The energy difference between adjacent eigenstates is <math>\Delta E = \hbar \omega</math>.

The ground state can be found by assuming that the lowering operator possesses a nontrivial kernel: <math>a\, \psi_0 = 0</math> with <math>\psi_0\ne0</math>. Applying the Hamiltonian to the ground state,

<math display="block">\hat H\psi_0 = \hbar\omega\left(a^\dagger a+\frac{1}{2}\right)\psi_0 = \hbar\omega a^\dagger a \psi_0 + \frac{\hbar\omega}{2}\psi_0=0+\frac{\hbar\omega}{2}\psi_0=E_0\psi_0.</math>
So <math>\psi_0</math> is an eigenfunction of the Hamiltonian.

This gives the ground state energy <math>E_0 = \hbar \omega /2</math>, which allows one to identify the energy eigenvalue of any eigenstate <math>\psi_n</math> as<ref name="Branson"/>
<math display="block">E_n = \left(n + \tfrac{1}{2}\right)\hbar \omega.</math>

Furthermore, it turns out that the first-mentioned operator in (*), the '''number operator''' <math>N=a^\dagger a\,,</math> plays the most important role in applications, while the second one, <math>a a^\dagger \,</math> can simply be replaced by <math>N+1</math>.

Consequently,
<math display="block">\hbar\omega \,\left(N+\tfrac{1}{2}\right)\,\psi (q) =E\,\psi (q)~.</math>

The [[Propagator|time-evolution operator]] is then
<math display="block">\begin{align}
U(t)
&= \exp ( -it \hat{H}/\hbar)
= \exp (-it\omega (a^\dagger a+1/2)) ~, \\[1ex]
&= e^{-it \omega /2} ~ \sum_{k=0}^{\infty} {(e^{-i\omega t}-1)^k \over k!} a^{{\dagger} {k}} a^k ~.
\end{align}</math>

=== Explicit eigenfunctions ===
The ground state <math>\ \psi_0(q)</math> of the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] can be found by imposing the condition that
<math display="block"> a \ \psi_0(q) = 0.</math>

Written out as a differential equation, the wavefunction satisfies
<math display="block">q \psi_0 + \frac{d\psi_0}{dq} = 0</math>
with the solution
<math display="block">\psi_0(q) = C \exp\left(-\tfrac 1 2 q^2\right).</math>

The normalization constant {{mvar|C}} is found to be <math>1/ \sqrt[4]{\pi}</math> from <math display="inline">\int_{-\infty}^\infty \psi_0^* \psi_0 \,dq = 1</math>, &nbsp;using the [[Gaussian integral]]. Explicit formulas for all the eigenfunctions can now be found by repeated application of <math> a^\dagger</math> to <math> \psi_0</math>.<ref>This, and further operator formalism, can be found in Glimm and Jaffe, ''Quantum Physics'', pp. 12–20.</ref>

=== Matrix representation ===
The matrix expression of the creation and annihilation operators of the quantum harmonic oscillator with respect to the above orthonormal basis is
<math display="block"> \begin{align}
a^\dagger &= \begin{pmatrix}
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \dots & 0 & \dots \\
\sqrt{1} & 0 & 0 & 0 & \dots & 0 & \dots \\
0 & \sqrt{2} & 0 & 0 & \dots & 0 & \dots \\
0 & 0 & \sqrt{3} & 0 & \dots & 0 & \dots \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \ddots & \dots & \dots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & \dots & \sqrt{n} & 0 & \dots & \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \ddots \end{pmatrix}
\\[1ex]
a &= \begin{pmatrix}
0 & \sqrt{1} & 0 & 0 & \dots & 0 & \dots \\
0 & 0 & \sqrt{2} & 0 & \dots & 0 & \dots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & \sqrt{3} & \dots & 0 & \dots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ddots & \vdots & \dots \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \sqrt{n} & \dots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \dots & 0 & \ddots \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{pmatrix}
\end{align}
</math>

These can be obtained via the relationships <math>a^\dagger_{ij} = \left\langle\psi_i \right| a^\dagger \left| \psi_j\right\rangle</math> and <math>a_{ij} = \left\langle\psi_i \right| a \left| \psi_j\right\rangle</math>. The eigenvectors <math>\psi_i</math> are those of the quantum harmonic oscillator, and are sometimes called the "number basis".

== Generalized creation and annihilation operators ==

{{Main|CCR and CAR algebras}}
{{see also|Ladder operator}}

Thanks to [[representation theory]] and [[C*-algebras]] the operators derived above are actually a specific instance of a more generalized notion of creation and annihilation operators in the context of [[CCR and CAR algebras]]. Mathematically and even more generally [[ladder operators]] can be understood in the context of a [[root system]] of a [[semisimple Lie group]] and the associated [[semisimple Lie algebra]] without the need of realizing the [[representation theory|representation]] as [[Operator (mathematics)|operators]] on a functional [[Hilbert space]].<ref>{{citation| first=Fulton |last= Harris|title=Representation Theory}} pp. 164</ref>

In the [[Hilbert space]] representation case the operators are constructed as follows: Let <math>H</math> be a one-particle [[Hilbert space]] (that is, any Hilbert space, viewed as representing the state of a single particle).
The ([[boson]]ic) [[CCR algebra]] over <math>H</math> is the algebra-with-conjugation-operator (called ''*'') abstractly generated by elements <math>a(f)</math>, where <math>f\,</math>ranges freely over <math>H</math>, subject to the relations

<math display="block">\begin{align}
\left[a(f), a(g)\right] &= \left[a^\dagger(f), a^\dagger(g)\right] = 0 \\[1ex]
\left[a(f), a^\dagger(g)\right] &= \langle f\mid g \rangle,
\end{align}</math>
in [[bra–ket notation]].

The map <math>a: f \to a(f)</math> from <math>H</math> to the bosonic CCR algebra is required to be complex [[antilinear]] (this adds more relations). Its [[Hermitian adjoint|adjoint]] is <math>a^\dagger(f)</math>, and the map <math>f\to a^\dagger(f)</math> is [[linear|complex linear]] in {{mvar|H}}. Thus <math>H</math> embeds as a complex vector subspace of its own CCR algebra. In a representation of this algebra, the element <math>a(f)</math> will be realized as an annihilation operator, and <math>a^\dagger(f)</math> as a creation operator.

In general, the CCR algebra is infinite dimensional. If we take a Banach space completion, it becomes a [[C*-algebra]]. The CCR algebra over <math>H</math> is closely related to, but not identical to, a [[Weyl algebra]].{{Clarify|date=December 2023|reason=Obscure reference: How ?|text=  |pre-text= |post-text= }}

For fermions, the (fermionic) [[CAR algebra]] over <math>H</math> is constructed similarly, but using [[anticommutator]] relations instead, namely

<math display="block">\begin{align}
\{a(f),a(g)\} &= \{a^\dagger(f),a^\dagger(g)\} = 0 \\[1ex]
\{a(f),a^\dagger(g)\} &= \langle f\mid g \rangle.
\end{align}</math>

The CAR algebra is finite dimensional only if <math>H</math> is finite dimensional. If we take a Banach space completion (only necessary in the infinite dimensional case), it becomes a <math>C^*</math> algebra. The CAR algebra is closely related, but not identical to, a [[Clifford algebra]].
{{Clarify|date=December 2023|reason=Obscure reference: How ?|text=  |pre-text= |post-text= }}

Physically speaking, <math>a(f)</math> removes (i.e. annihilates) a particle in the state <math>|f\rangle</math> whereas <math>a^\dagger(f)</math> creates a particle in the state <math>|f\rangle</math>.

The [[free field]] [[vacuum state]] is the state <math display="inline">\left\vert0\right\rangle</math> with no particles, characterized by
<math display="block">a(f) \left| 0\right\rangle=0.</math>

If <math>|f\rangle</math> is normalized so that <math>\langle f|f\rangle = 1</math>, then <math>N=a^\dagger(f)a(f)</math> gives the number of particles in the state <math>|f\rangle</math>.

== In reaction-diffusion equations ==
The annihilation and creation operator description has also been useful to analyze classical reaction diffusion equations, such as the situation when a gas of molecules <math>A</math> diffuse and interact on contact, forming an inert product: <math>A+A\to \empty</math>. To see how this kind of reaction can be described by the annihilation and creation operator formalism, consider <math>n_{i}</math> particles at a site {{mvar|i}} on a one dimensional lattice. Each particle moves to the right or left with a certain probability, and each pair of particles at the same site annihilates each other with a certain other probability.

The probability that one particle leaves the site during the short time period '''{{math|''dt''}}''' is proportional to <math>n_i \, dt</math>, let us say a probability <math>\alpha n_{i}dt</math> to hop left and <math>\alpha n_i \, dt</math> to hop right. All <math>n_i</math> particles will stay put with a probability <math>1-2\alpha n_i \, dt</math>. (Since '''{{math|''dt''}}''' is so short, the probability that two or more will leave during '''{{math|''dt''}}''' is very small and will be ignored.)

We can now describe the occupation of particles on the lattice as a 'ket' of the form <math>|\dots, n_{-1}, n_0, n_1, \dots\rangle</math>. It represents the juxtaposition (or conjunction, or tensor product) of the number states <math>\dots, |n_{-1}\rangle</math> <math>|n_{0}\rangle</math>, <math>|n_{1}\rangle, \dots</math> located at the individual sites of the lattice. Recall that

<math display="block">a\left| n \right\rangle = \sqrt{n} \left|n-1\right\rangle</math>
and
<math display="block">a^\dagger \left| n\right\rangle= \sqrt{n+1}\left| n+1\right\rangle,</math>
for all {{math|''n'' ≥ 0}}, while
<math display="block">[a,a^{\dagger}] = \mathbf 1</math>

This definition of the operators will now be changed to accommodate the "non-quantum" nature of this problem and we shall use the following definition:<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pruessner |first1=Gunnar |title=Analysis of Reaction-Diffusion Processes by Field Theoretic Methods |url=http://wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/~pruess/publications/talk_usp_reduced.pdf |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref>

<math display="block">\begin{align}
a \left|n\right\rangle &= (n) \left|n{-}1\right\rangle \\[1ex]
a^\dagger \left|n\right\rangle &=  \left| n{+}1\right\rangle
\end{align}</math>

note that even though the behavior of the operators on the kets has been modified, these operators still obey the commutation relation
<math display="block">[a,a^{\dagger}]=\mathbf 1</math>

Now define <math> a_i</math> so that it applies <math> a</math> to <math> |n_i\rangle</math>. Correspondingly, define <math> a^\dagger_i</math> as applying <math> a^\dagger</math> to <math> |n_i\rangle</math>. Thus, for example, the net effect of <math> a_{i-1} a^\dagger_i</math> is to move a particle from the {{nowrap|<math>(i-1)</math>-th}} to the {{mvar|i}}-th site while multiplying with the appropriate factor.

This allows writing the pure diffusive behavior of the particles as
<math display="block">\partial_{t}\left| \psi\right\rangle
= -\alpha \sum_i \left(2a_i^\dagger a_i-a_{i-1}^\dagger a_i-a_{i+1}^\dagger a_i\right) \left|\psi\right\rangle
= -\alpha\sum_i \left(a_i^\dagger-a_{i-1}^\dagger\right)(a_i-a_{i-1}) \left|\psi\right\rangle. </math>

The reaction term can be deduced by noting that <math>n</math> particles can interact in <math>n(n-1)</math> different ways, so that the probability that a pair annihilates is <math>\lambda n(n-1)dt</math>, yielding a term
<math display="block">\lambda \sum_i (a_i a_i-a_i^\dagger a_i^\dagger a_i a_i)</math>

where number state {{mvar|n}} is replaced by number state {{math|''n'' − 2}} at site <math>i</math> at a certain rate.

Thus the state evolves by
<math display="block">\partial_t\left|\psi\right\rangle = -\alpha\sum_i \left(a_i^\dagger-a_{i-1}^\dagger\right) \left(a_i-a_{i-1}\right) \left|\psi\right\rangle + \lambda\sum_i \left(a_i^2-a_i^{\dagger 2}a_i^2\right) \left|\psi\right\rangle </math>

Other kinds of interactions can be included in a similar manner.

This kind of notation allows the use of quantum field theoretic techniques to be used in the analysis of reaction diffusion systems.<ref>Baez, John&nbsp;Carlos (2011). Network theory (blog post series; [https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/networks/networks_1.html first post]).  Later adapted into {{cite book|last1=Baez|first1=John&nbsp;Carlos|last2=Biamonte|first2=Jacob&nbsp;D.|title=Quantum Techniques in Stochastic Mechanics|date=April 2018|doi=10.1142/10623}}</ref>

==In quantum field theories==

{{Main|Second quantization|Quantum field theory#Second quantization}}

In [[Quantum field theory|quantum field theories]] and [[many-body problem]]s one works with creation and annihilation operators of quantum states, <math>a^\dagger_i</math> and <math>a^{\,}_i</math>. These operators change the eigenvalues of the [[number operator]],
<math display="block">N = \sum_i n_i = \sum_i a^\dagger_i a^{\,}_i,</math>
by one, in analogy to the harmonic oscillator. The indices (such as <math>i</math>) represent [[quantum numbers]] that label the single-particle states of the system; hence, they are not necessarily single numbers. For example, a [[tuple]] of quantum numbers <math>(n, \ell, m, s)</math> is used to label states in the [[hydrogen atom]].

The commutation relations of creation and annihilation operators in a multiple-[[boson]] system are,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\left[a^{\,}_i, a^\dagger_j\right] &\equiv a^{\,}_i a^\dagger_j - a^\dagger_ja^{\,}_i = \delta_{i j}, \\[1ex]
\left[a^\dagger_i, a^\dagger_j\right] &= [a^{\,}_i, a^{\,}_j] = 0,
\end{align}</math>
where <math>[\cdot , \cdot ]</math> is the [[commutator]] and <math>\delta_{i j}</math> is the [[Kronecker delta]].

For [[fermion]]s, the commutator is replaced by the [[anticommutator]] {{nowrap|<math>\{\cdot , \cdot \}</math>,}}
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\{a^{\,}_i, a^\dagger_j\} &\equiv a^{\,}_i a^\dagger_j +a^\dagger_j a^{\,}_i = \delta_{i j}, \\[1ex]
\{a^\dagger_i, a^\dagger_j\} &= \{a^{\,}_i, a^{\,}_j\} = 0.
\end{align}</math>
Therefore, exchanging disjoint (i.e. <math>i \ne j</math>) operators in a product of creation or annihilation operators will reverse the sign in fermion systems, but not in boson systems.

If the states labelled by ''i'' are an orthonormal basis of a Hilbert space ''H'', then the result of this construction coincides with the CCR algebra and CAR algebra construction in the previous section but one. If they represent "eigenvectors" corresponding to the continuous spectrum of some operator, as for unbound particles in QFT, then the interpretation is more subtle.

===Normalization conventions===
While Zee<ref name=Zee>{{cite book |last1=Zee |first1=A. |title=Quantum field theory in a nutshell |date=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691010199 |page=63}}</ref> obtains the [[momentum space]] normalization <math>[\hat a_{\mathbf p},\hat a_{\mathbf q}^\dagger] = \delta(\mathbf{p} - \mathbf{q})</math> via the [[Fourier transform#Other conventions|symmetric convention]] for Fourier transforms, Tong<ref name=Tong>{{cite book |last1=Tong |first1=David |title=Quantum Field Theory |date=2007 |page=24,31 |url=http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/tong/qft.html |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> and Peskin & Schroeder<ref name="peskin">{{cite book |last1=Peskin |first1=M. |author-link=Michael Peskin |last2=Schroeder |first2=D.
 |year=1995
 |title=An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i35LALN0GosC
 |publisher=Westview Press
 |isbn=978-0-201-50397-5 }}</ref> use the common asymmetric convention to obtain <math>[\hat a_{\mathbf p},\hat a_{\mathbf q}^\dagger] = (2\pi)^3\delta(\mathbf{p} - \mathbf{q})</math>. Each derives <math>[\hat \phi(\mathbf x), \hat \pi(\mathbf x')] = i\delta(\mathbf x - \mathbf x')</math>.

Srednicki additionally merges the Lorentz-invariant measure into his asymmetric Fourier measure, <math>\tilde{dk}=\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi)^3 2\omega}</math>, yielding <math>[\hat a_{\mathbf k},\hat a_{\mathbf k'}^\dagger] = (2\pi)^3 2\omega\,\delta(\mathbf{k} - \mathbf{k}')</math>.<ref name=Srednicki>{{cite book |last1=Srednicki |first1=Mark |title=Quantum field theory |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521-8644-97 |pages=39,41 |url=https://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~mark/qft.html |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Fock space]]
* [[Segal–Bargmann space]]
* [[Optical phase space]]
* [[Coherent state]]
* [[Bogoliubov–Valatin transformation]]
* [[Holstein–Primakoff transformation]]
* [[Jordan–Wigner transformation]]
* [[Jordan–Schwinger transformation]]
* [[Klein transformation]]
* [[Canonical commutation relations]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
<references group="nb"/>
==References==
<references/>
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book | last = Feynman | first = Richard P. | author-link = Richard Feynman | title = Statistical Mechanics: A Set of Lectures | publisher = Addison-Wesley | year = 1998 | orig-year = 1972 | edition=2nd | location = Reading, Massachusetts | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ou4ltPYiXPgC&pg=Front | isbn = 978-0-201-36076-9}}
* [[Albert Messiah]], 1966. ''Quantum Mechanics'' (Vol. I), English translation from French by G. M. Temmer. North Holland, John Wiley & Sons. Ch. XII. [https://archive.org/details/QuantumMechanicsVolumeI online]
{{refend}}

{{Physics operator}}

[[Category:Quantum operators]]
[[Category:Quantum field theory]]