Editing Cropmark

{{short description|Means through which sub-surface features can be visible from the air}}
{{Other uses|Crop mark (disambiguation){{!}}Crop mark}}
[[Image:Grezac.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Cropmarks at a [[protohistoric]] site at [[Grézac]], France]]

'''Cropmarks''' or '''crop marks''' are a means through which sub-surface [[archaeological]], natural and recent features may be visible [[aerial archaeology|from the air]] or a vantage point on higher ground or a temporary platform. Such marks, along with parch marks,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.armadale.org.uk/rufford.htm#red| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122326/http://www.armadale.org.uk/rufford.htm#red| url-status=dead| archive-date=2018-12-15|title=Parch marks at Rufford Abbey (Near infra-red KAP) |access-date=2012-12-05}}</ref> [[soil mark]]s and frost marks, can reveal buried man-made structures that are not visible from the ground.

==Description==
[[Image:Diagramm bewuchs.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|right|Sketched diagram of a '''negative cropmark''' above a wall and a '''positive cropmark''' above a ditch]]
[[File:Kite aerial photo of crop marks at Nesley, near Tetbury, Gloucestershire.jpg|thumbnail|right|Crop marks in [[Gloucestershire]]. Cereal crop left, beans right. The relative intensity in the crops was reversed in the near infra-red.]]

Crop marks are due to the principle of differential growth. One of the factors controlling the growth of vegetation is the condition of the soil. A buried [[stone wall]], for example, will affect crop growth above it, as its presence channels water away from its area and occupies the space of the more fertile soil. Conversely, a buried [[ditch]], with a fill containing more organic matter than the natural earth, provides much more conducive conditions and water will naturally collect there, nourishing the plants growing above.

The differences in conditions will cause some plants to grow more strongly and therefore taller, and others less strongly and therefore shorter. Some species will also react through differential ripening of their fruits or their overall colour. 

Particularly effective crops that exhibit differential growth include [[cereal]] crops, [[pea]]s, and [[potato]]es. 

Differential growth will naturally follow any features buried below. Although the growth differences may appear small close up, from the air the pattern they make is more visible, as the small changes can be seen as marked differences in tone or colour in the context of the normally growing surrounding vegetation. When the sun is low to the horizon, shadows cast by the taller crops can also become visible.

By their nature crop marks are visible only seasonally and may not be visible at all except in exceptionally wet or dry years. [[Drought]]s can be especially useful to cropmark hunters, as the differential growth can become apparent in normally hardy species such as grass. The drought of 2010 produced particularly good conditions for observing crop marks in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11128297|title=Dry weather reveals archaeological 'cropmarks' in fields|work=BBC News |date=August 30, 2010}}</ref> Pre-parching stress in crops and grass, and others factors that may affect plant health, can be captured in near infra-red photography.

[[File:Near infra-red kite aerial photo at Rufford Abbey, Nottinghamshire, UK.jpg|thumb|Near infra-red kite aerial photo at [[Rufford Abbey]], Nottinghamshire, UK]]
[[File:Roman Road - The Via Julia, Bristol.jpg|thumb|Roman Road – The Via Julia, [[Clifton Down]], Bristol]]
An alternative approach is thermal imaging, where differential water loss (which is dependent of the availability of water at the roots) can create temperature differences, which result in thermal crop marks that are potentially visible at any time during crop growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/aarg/aerarch/papers/Thermal.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321081909/http://www.univie.ac.at/aarg/aerarch/papers/Thermal.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-03-21 |title=Thermal prospecting on vegetation |first=Ulrich |last=Kiesow<!--clearly not the same as the one with a Wikipedia article, who was already dead when this was written--> |date=21 December 2005 |location=Kaiserslautern |publication-place=Vienna |publisher=University of Vienna |access-date=2017-03-21}}</ref> Thermal imaging can also reveal archaeological residues as a result of thermal inertia (storage heater effect) or differential evaporation. The interaction of the processes involved can be complex and the prediction of optimal imaging time, for a given site, further complicated by environmental conditions including temperature variation and relative humidity.

[[File:Kite aerial thermogram of Statford Court Playingfields, Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK.jpg|thumb|Kite aerial thermogram of Statford Court Playingfields, [[Stroud]], Gloucestershire]]
Thermal inertia and differential transpiration/evaporation are involved.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.armadale.org.uk/aerialthermography.htm|url-status=dead|title=Archaeological Aerial Thermography and Near Infrared Photography|first=John|last=Wells|date=January 1, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230101141205/http://www.armadale.org.uk/aerialthermography.htm |archive-date=1 January 2023 }}</ref>

The usefulness of cropmarks to archaeologists has largely been a fruit of inspection from aircraft, but the possibility was suggested by Rev. [[Gilbert White]] in ''[[The Natural History of Selborne]]'' (1789), in a note appended to his Letter VI, to Thomas Pennant, with reference to local people's success in searching for [[bog-wood|bog oak]] for house construction, by discovering these trees "by the [[hoar frost]], which lay longer over the space where they were concealed, than on the surrounding morass." To White it suggested the query "might not such observations be reduced to domestic use, by promoting the discovery of old obliterated drains and wells about houses; and in Roman stations and camps lead to the finding of pavements, baths and graves, and other hidden relics of curious antiquity?"

==Examples==
[[File:Aa lawn flagstones cropmark.jpg|right|thumb|After a long hot dry period, cropmark on a lawn from a line of [[flagstone]]s  overgrown and buried by grass]]
Examples of archaeological sites where cropmarks have been observed are [[Balbridie]] and [[Fetteresso Castle|Fetteresso]] in Scotland.

In 2009, investigation of crop marks near [[Stonehenge]] revealed a variety of 6,000-year-old prehistoric subterranean structures.<ref name="natgeo">{{cite news|publisher=National Geographic|date=2009-06-15|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/06/090615-stonehenge-tombs-crop-circles.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620072414/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/06/090615-stonehenge-tombs-crop-circles.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 20, 2009|title=Huge Pre-Stonehenge Complex Found via "Crop Circles"|author=James Owen}}</ref>

Another example is the rediscovery of the Roman city [[Altinum]], a precursor to the city of [[Venice]], from a combination of visible and near-infrared photos of the area taken during a drought in 2007,  which stressed the maize and soy crops. <ref> Ninfo A., Fontana A., Mozzi P., Ferrarese F. 2009. The Map of Altinum, Ancestor of Venice. Science 31 July 2009:  Vol. 325 no. 5940 p. 577 </ref>

The [[Mucking excavation|multi period site at Mucking]] was discovered as a result of aerial photographs showing cropmarks and soil marks. The earliest photographs to reveal the site were taken by the [[Luftwaffe]] in 1943.<ref name=Clark>Clark, A. 1993. ''Excavations at Mucking, Volume 1: The Site Atlas'' (English Heritage Archaeological Report 20)</ref> The importance of the site was recognised following photographs taken by [[Kenneth St Joseph]] in 1959<ref name=Clark/> (published in 1964).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joseph |first=J. K. St. |date=1964 |title=Air Reconnaissance: Recent Results |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X00030982/type/journal_article |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=38 |issue=151 |pages=217–218 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00030982|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 1982, Margaret Jones (site director at the Mucking excavation) said that some sites were being interpreted on crop mark evidence alone. She said that some features do not produce crop marks and that some crop marks, when excavated, turn out not to be what they seem.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Margaret|last=Jones|title=Jottings from Mucking post-excavation|journal=Panorama|volume=25}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=February 2022}}

==See also==
*[[Archaeological field survey]]
*[[Aerial archaeology]]
* [[Crop circle]]
*[[Shadow marks]]

==References==
*Wilson, D. R . 2000  ''Air photo interpretation for archaeologists'' (2nd edn.), London.
*Agache, R. 1963. Détection des fossés comblés sur terrains sans végétation grâce à l'humidité rémanente des remblais. Bulletin de la société préhistorique française, 1963, vol. 60, n°9–10, p. 642–647
*Lasaponara R., N. Masini. 2007. Detection of archaeological crop marks by using satellite QuickBird multispectral imagery. In: Journal of Archaeological Science, 34(2), pp. 214–221
<references/>

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20230101140708/http://www.armadale.org.uk/groupmembers.htm Kite Aerial Photographers – Archaeology]

[[Category:Methods in archaeology]]