Editing Cult

{{Short description|Group controlled by a leader and/or an idea}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Update|reason=Entire article needs updating, with attention paid to sources. Some sources cited are over 50 years old, and academic thinking in this area has changed profoundly even in the past 25 years|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date= July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date= March 2019}}

'''Cults''' are [[social group]]s which have unusual, and often extreme, [[Religion|religious]], [[spirituality|spiritual]], or [[Philosophy|philosophical]] beliefs and [[ritual]]s. Extreme devotion to a particular person, object, or [[goal]] is another characteristic often ascribed to cults. The term has different, and sometimes divergent or [[pejorative]], definitions both in [[popular culture]] and academia and has been an ongoing source of contention among scholars across several fields of study.

Beginning in the 1930s, new religious movements became an object of [[sociological]] study within the context of the [[Study of religion|study of religious behavior]]. Since the 1940s, the [[Christian countercult movement]] has opposed some [[sect]]s and new religious movements, labeling them cults because of their [[Heterodoxy|unorthodox beliefs]]. Since the 1970s, the secular [[anti-cult movement]] has opposed certain groups, which they call cults, accusing them of practicing [[brainwashing]].

Groups labelled cults are found around the world and range in size from small localized groups to some international organizations with up to millions of members.

== Definition and usage ==
The word "cult" is derived from the Latin term {{Lang|la|cultus}}, which means worship.{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=321}} In modern English the term ''cult'' is  generally a [[pejorative]], carrying derogatory connotations.{{sfn|Dubrow-Marshall|2024|p=103}} The term is variously applied to abusive or coercive groups of many categories, including gangs, organized crime, and terrorist organizations.{{sfn|Dubrow-Marshall|2024|p=96}}

An older sense of the word cult, which is not pejorative, indicates [[Cult (religious practice)|a set of religious devotional practices]] that is conventional within its culture, is related to a particular figure, and is frequently associated with a particular place, or generally the collective participation in rites of religion.<ref>{{oed|cult}} – "2.a. A particular form or system of religious worship or veneration, esp. as expressed in ceremonies or rituals which are directed towards a specified figure or object. Chiefly in historical, archaeological, or anthropological contexts."</ref>{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=321}} References to the [[Roman imperial cult|imperial cult of ancient Rome]], for example, use the word in this sense. A derived sense of "excessive devotion" arose in the 19th century, and usage is not always strictly religious.{{efn|Compare the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' note for usage in 1875: "cult:...b. A relatively small group of people having (esp. religious) beliefs or practices regarded by others as strange or sinister, or as exercising excessive control over members.… 1875 ''Brit. Mail 30'' Jan. 13/1 Buffaloism is, it would seem, a cult, a creed, a secret community, the members of which are bound together by strange and weird vows, and listen in hidden conclave to mysterious lore." {{Cite OED|cult}}}}{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=321}}

[[Sociological classifications of religious movements]] may identify a cult as a social group with [[Deviance (sociology)|socially deviant]] or novel beliefs and practices,{{sfn|Stark|Bainbridge|1996|p=124}} although this is often unclear.{{sfn|Stark|Bainbridge|1980|p=1377}}{{sfn|Olson|2006}} Other researchers present a less-organized picture of cults, saying that they arise spontaneously around novel beliefs and practices.{{sfn|Stark|Bainbridge|1987}} Cults have been compared to miniature [[totalitarian]] political systems.{{sfn|Stein|2016}} Such groups are typically described as being led by a [[charismatic]] leader who tightly controls its members.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Kenton |date=2013 |title=cult |url=https://sociologydictionary.org/cult/ |access-date=March 17, 2023 |website=Open Education Sociology Dictionary.}}</ref> 

In its pejorative sense, the term is often used for [[new religious movement]]s and other [[social group]]s defined by their unusual [[Religion|religious]], [[Spirituality|spiritual]], or [[Philosophy|philosophical]] beliefs and [[ritual]]s,<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|cult}}</ref> or their [[Followership|group belief]] in a particular person, object, or goal. This sense of the term is weakly defined, having divergent definitions both in [[popular culture]] and in academia, where it has been an ongoing source of contention among scholars across several fields of study.{{sfn|Rubin|2001|p=473}}{{sfn|Richardson|1993|pp=348–356}} According to Susannah Crockford, "[t]he word 'cult' is a shapeshifter, semantically morphing with the intentions of whoever uses it. As an analytical term, it resists rigorous definition." She argues that the least subjective definition of cult refers to a religion or religion-like group "self-consciously building a new form of society", but that the rest of society rejects as unacceptable.{{sfn|Crockford|2024|p=172}} 

The term cult has been criticized as lacking "scholarly rigour"; Benjamin E. Zeller stated "[l]abelling any group with which one disagrees and considers deviant as a cult may be a common occurrence, but it is not scholarship".{{sfn|Thomas|Graham-Hyde|2024a|p=4}} Religious scholar [[Catherine Wessinger]] argued the term was dehumanizing of the people within the group, as well as their children; following the [[Waco siege]], it was argued by some scholars that the defining of the [[Branch Davidians]] as a cult by the media, government and former members is a significant factor as to what lead to the deaths.{{sfn|Olson|2006|p=97}} However, it has also been viewed as ''empowering'' for ex-members of groups who have had traumatic experiences.{{sfn|Thomas|Graham-Hyde|2024a|p=4}} The term was noted to carry "considerable cultural legitimacy".{{sfn|Bromley|Melton|2002|p=231}}

In the 1970s, with the rise of [[Secularity|secular]] [[anti-cult movement]]s, scholars (though not the general public) began to abandon the use of the term ''cult'', regarding it as pejorative. By the end of the 1970s, the term cult was largely replaced in academia with the term "new religion" or "[[new religious movement]]".{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=322}}{{sfn|Lewis|2004}} Other proposed alternative terms that have been used were "emergent religion", "alternative religious movement", or "marginal religious movement", though new religious movement is the most popular term.{{sfn|Olson|2006|p=97}} The anti-cult movement mostly regards the term "new religious movement" as a [[euphemism]] for "cult" that loses the implication that they are harmful.{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=322}}

== Scholarly studies ==
{{Further information|Academic study of new religious movements}}[[File:Church-sect continuum.svg|right|thumb|400px|[[Howard P. Becker]]'s church–sect typology, based on [[Ernst Troeltsch]]'s original theory and providing the basis for the modern concepts of cults, [[sect]]s, and [[new religious movement]]s]]
Beginning in the 1930s, new religious movements perceived as cults became an object of [[sociological]] study within the context of the [[Study of religion|study of religious behavior]].{{sfn|Fahlbusch|Bromiley|1999|p=897}} The term in this context saw its origins in the work of sociologist [[Max Weber]] (1864–1920). Weber is an important theorist in the academic study of cults, which often draws on his theorizations of [[charismatic authority]], and of the [[Church-sect typology|distinction he drew]] between [[Church (congregation)|churches]] and [[sect]]s.{{sfn|Weber|1985}}{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=321}} This concept of church-sect division was further elaborated upon by German theologian [[Ernst Troeltsch]], who added a "mystical" categorization to define more personal religious experiences.{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=321}} American sociologist [[Howard P. Becker]] further bisected Troeltsch's first two categories: ''church'' was split into [[Christian Church|''ecclesia'']] and [[Religious denomination|''denomination'']]; and ''sect'' into ''[[sect]]'' and ''cult''.{{sfn|Swatos|1998a|pp=90–93}}{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=321}} Like Troeltsch's "mystical religion", Becker's ''cult'' refers to small religious groups that lack in organization and emphasize the private nature of personal beliefs.{{sfn|Campbell|1998|pp=122–123}}[[File:Max Weber 1894.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Max Weber]] (1864–1920), an important theorist in the study of cults]]Later sociological formulations built on such characteristics, placing an additional emphasis on cults as [[deviant]] religious groups, "deriving their inspiration from outside of the predominant religious culture."{{sfn|Richardson|1993|p=349}} This is often thought to lead to a high degree of tension between the group and the more mainstream culture surrounding it, a characteristic shared with religious sects.{{sfn|Stark|Bainbridge|1987|p=25}} According to this sociological terminology, ''sects'' are products of religious [[schism (religion)|schism]] and therefore maintain a continuity with traditional beliefs and practices, whereas ''cults'' arise spontaneously around novel beliefs and practices.{{sfn|Stark|Bainbridge|1987|p=124}}

Scholars [[William Sims Bainbridge]] and [[Rodney Stark]] have argued for a further distinction between three kinds of cults: cult movements, client cults, and audience cults, all of which share a "compensator" or rewards for the things invested into the group. In their typology, a "cult movement" is an actual complete organization, differing from a "sect" in that it is not a splinter of a bigger religion, while "audience cults" are loosely organized, and propagated through media, and "client cults" offer services (i.e. psychic readings or meditation sessions).  One type can turn into another, for example the [[Church of Scientology]] changing from audience to client cult.{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=322}} Sociologists who follow their definition tend to continue using the word "cult", unlike most other academics; however Bainbridge later stated he regretted having used the word at all.{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=322}} Stark and Bainbridge, in discussing the process by which individuals join new religious groups, have even questioned the utility of the concept of ''[[Religious conversion|conversion]]'', suggesting that ''[[Religious affiliation|affiliation]]'' is a more useful concept.{{sfn|Bader|Demaris|1996}}

In the early 1960s, sociologist [[John Lofland (sociologist)|John Lofland]] studied the activities of [[Unification Church]] members in California in trying to promote their beliefs and win new members. Lofland noted that most of their efforts were ineffective and that most of the people who joined did so because of personal relationships with other members, often family relationships.{{sfn|Richardson|1998}}{{sfn|Barker|1998}} Lofland published his findings in 1964 as a [[Thesis|doctoral thesis]] entitled "The World Savers: A Field Study of Cult Processes", and in 1966 in book form by as ''[[Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and Maintenance of Faith|Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization and Maintenance of Faith]]''. It is considered to be one of the most important and widely cited studies of the process of religious conversion.{{sfn|Ashcraft|2006|p=180}}{{sfn|Chryssides|1999|p=1}}

[[J. Gordon Melton]] stated that, in 1970, "one could count the number of active researchers on new religions on one's hands." However, [[James R. Lewis (scholar)|James R. Lewis]] writes that the "meteoric growth" in this field of study can be attributed to the cult controversy of the early 1970s. Because of "a wave of nontraditional religiosity" in the late 1960s and early 1970s, academics perceived new religious movements as different phenomena from previous religious innovations.{{sfn|Lewis|2004}}

== Types ==
=== Destructive cults ===
''Destructive cult'' is a term frequently used by the [[anti-cult movement]].{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=322}} Members of the anti-cult movement typically define a destructive cult as a group that is unethical, deceptive, and one that uses "strong influence" or mind control techniques to affect [[critical thinking]] skills.{{sfn|Shupe|Darnell|2006|p=214}} This term is sometimes presented in contrast to a "benign cult", which implies that not all "cults" would be harmful, though others apply it to all cults.{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=322}} [[Psychologist]] [[Michael Langone]], executive director of the anti-cult group [[International Cultic Studies Association]], defines a destructive cult as "a highly manipulative group which exploits and sometimes physically and/or psychologically damages members and recruits."{{sfn|Turner|Bloch|Shor|1995|p=1146}}

In ''Cults and the Family'', the authors cite Eli Shapiro, who defines a ''destructive cultism'' as a [[Psychopathy|sociopathic]] [[syndrome]], whose distinctive qualities include: "behavioral and [[personality change]]s, loss of [[personal identity]], cessation of scholastic activities, estrangement from family, disinterest in society and pronounced mental control and enslavement by cult leaders."{{sfn|Kaslow|Sussman|1982|p=34}} Writing about [[Bruderhof communities]] in the book ''[[Misunderstanding Cults]]'', Julius H. Rubin said that American religious innovation created an unending diversity of sects. These "new religious movements…gathered new converts and issued challenges to the wider society. Not infrequently, public controversy, contested narratives and litigation result."{{sfn|Rubin|2001|p=473}} In his work ''Cults in Context'' author [[Lorne L. Dawson]] writes that although the [[Unification Church]] "has not been shown to be violent or volatile," it has been described as a destructive cult by "anticult crusaders."{{sfn|Dawson|1998|p=349}} In 2002, the German government was held by the [[Federal Constitutional Court]] to have [[defamation|defamed]] the [[Osho movement]] by referring to it, among other things, as a "destructive cult" with no factual basis.{{sfn|Seiwert|2003}}

Some researchers have criticized the term ''destructive cult'', writing that it is used to describe groups which are not necessarily harmful in nature to themselves or others. In his book ''Understanding New Religious Movements'', [[John A. Saliba]] writes that the term is overgeneralized. Saliba sees the [[Peoples Temple]] as the "paradigm of a destructive cult", where those that use the term are implying that other groups will also commit [[mass suicide]].{{sfn|Saliba|2003|p=144}}

=== Doomsday cults ===
{{Main|Doomsday cult}}
''Doomsday cult'' is a term which is used to describe groups that believe in [[apocalypticism]] and [[millenarianism]], and it can also be used to refer both to groups that predict [[disaster]], and groups that attempt to bring it about.{{sfn|Jenkins|2000|pp=216, 222}}{{sfn|Chryssides|Zeller|2014|p=322}} In the 1950s, American [[social psychology|social psychologist]] [[Leon Festinger]] and his colleagues observed members of a small [[UFO religion]] called the Seekers for several months, and recorded their conversations both prior to and after a failed prophecy from their charismatic leader.{{sfn|Stangor|2004|pp=42–43}}{{sfn|Newman|2006|p=86}}{{sfn|Petty|Cacioppo|1996|p=139}} Their work was later published in the book ''[[When Prophecy Fails|When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group that Predicted the Destruction of the World]]''.{{sfn|Stangor|2004|pp=42–43}}

In the late 1980s, doomsday cults were a major topic of news reports, with some reporters and commentators considering them a serious threat to society.{{sfn|Jenkins|2000|pp=215–216}} A 1997 psychological study by Festinger, Riecken, and Schachter found that people turned to a cataclysmic [[world view]] after they had repeatedly failed to find meaning in mainstream movements.{{sfn|Pargament|1997|pp=150–153, 340}}

=== Political cults ===
A political cult is a cult with a primary interest in [[Politics|political action]] and [[ideology]]. Groups that some have described as "political cults", mostly advocating [[far-left]] or [[far-right]] agendas, have received some attention from journalists and scholars. In their 2000 book ''[[On the Edge: Political Cults Right and Left]]'', Dennis Tourish and [[Tim Wohlforth]] discuss about a dozen organizations in the United States and Great Britain that they characterize as cults.{{sfn|Tourish|Wohlforth|2000}}

==Anti-cult movements==

===Christian countercult movement===
{{Main|Christian countercult movement}}
In the 1940s, the long-held opposition by some established [[Christian denomination]]s to non-Christian religions and [[heresy|heretical]] or counterfeit Christian sects crystallized into a more organized Christian countercult movement in the United States.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024|reason=what source says it was the 1940s?}} For those belonging to the movement, all religious groups claiming to be Christian, but deemed outside of Christian [[orthodoxy]], were considered cults.{{sfn|Cowan|2003|p=20}} The countercult movement is mostly evangelical Protestants.{{sfn|Chryssides|2024|p=41}} The Christian countercult movement asserts that Christian groups whose teachings deviate from the belief that the bible is inerrant,{{sfn|Cowan|2003|p=31}} but also focuses on non-Christian religions like Hinduism.{{sfn|Chryssides|2024|p=41}} Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians to [[evangelism|evangelize]] to followers of cults.{{sfn|Cowan|2003|p=25}}

===Secular anti-cult movement===
{{Main|Anti-cult movement}}
[[File:Anti-Aum Shinrikyo protest.JPG|thumb|An anti-[[Aum Shinrikyo]] protest in Japan, 2009]]Starting in the late 1960s, a different strand of anti-cult groups arose, with the formation of the [[secular]] anti-cult movement (ACM).{{sfn|Chryssides|2024|p=46}} This was in response to the rise of new religions in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the events at [[Jonestown]] and the deaths of nearly 1000 people.{{sfn|Chryssides|2024|p=47}} The organizations that formed the secular anti-cult movement (ACM) often acted on behalf of relatives of "cult" [[religious conversion|converts]] who did not believe their loved ones could have altered their lives so drastically by their own [[free will]]. A few [[psychologist]]s and [[sociologist]]s working in this field suggested that [[brainwashing]] techniques were used to maintain the loyalty of cult members.{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001}}{{sfn|Chryssides|2024|p=46}}

The belief that cults brainwashed their members became a unifying theme among cult critics and in the more extreme corners of the anti-cult movement techniques like the sometimes forceful "[[deprogramming]]" of cult members was practised.{{sfn|Shupe|Bromley|1998a|p=27}} In the [[mass media]], and among average citizens, "cult" gained an increasingly negative connotation, becoming associated with things like [[kidnapping]], brainwashing, [[psychological abuse]], [[sexual abuse]], and other [[crime|criminal activity]], and [[mass suicide]]. While most of these negative qualities usually have real documented precedents in the activities of a very small minority of new religious groups, mass culture often extends them to any religious group viewed as culturally [[Deviance (sociology)|deviant]], however peaceful or law abiding it may be.{{sfn|Wright|1997}}{{sfn|van Driel|Richardson|1988}}{{sfn|Hill|Hickman|McLendon|2001}}{{sfn|Richardson|1993|pp=348–356}}

While some psychologists were receptive to these theories, sociologists were for the most part sceptical of their ability to explain conversion to [[New religious movement|NRMs]].{{sfn|Barker|1986}} In the late 1980s, psychologists and sociologists started to abandon theories like brainwashing and mind control. While scholars may believe that various less dramatic [[coercion|coercive]] psychological mechanisms could influence group members, they came to see conversion to new religious movements principally as an act of a [[Rational choice theory|rational choice]].{{sfn|Ayella|1990}}{{sfn|Cowan|2003|p=ix}}

==Governmental policies and actions==
{{main|Governmental lists of cults and sects}}
The application of the labels ''cult'' or ''sect'' to religious movements in government documents signifies the popular and negative use of the term ''cult'' in English and a functionally similar use of words translated as 'sect' in several European languages.{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001|pp=143–168}} Sociologists critical to this negative politicized use of the word ''cult'' argue that it may adversely impact the religious freedoms of group members.{{sfn|Davis|1996}} At the height of the counter-cult movement and ritual abuse scare of the 1990s, some governments published lists of cults.{{efn|Or "sects" in German or French-speaking countries, the German term ''sekten'' and the French term ''sectes'' having assumed the same derogatory meaning as English "cult".}} Groups labelled "cults" are found around the world and range in size from local groups with a few members to international organizations with millions.{{sfn|Barker|1999}}

While these documents utilize similar terminology, they do not necessarily include the same groups nor is their assessment of these groups based on agreed criteria.{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001|pp=143–168}} Other governments and world bodies also report on new religious movements but do not use these terms to describe the groups.{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001|pp=143–168}} Since the 2000s, some governments have again distanced themselves from such classifications of religious movements.{{efn|{{Multiref2
|1=Austria: Beginning in 2011, the [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]]'s [[International Religious Freedom Report]] no longer distinguishes sects in Austria as a separate group. {{Cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2012|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2012&dlid=208288|access-date=3 September 2013|publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor}}
|2=Belgium: The Justice Commission of the [[Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)|Belgian House of Representatives]] published a report on cults in 1997. A Brussels Appeals Court in 2005 condemned the House of Representatives on the grounds that it had damaged the image of an organization listed.
|3=France: A parliamentary commission of the National Assembly compiled a list of purported cults in 1995. In 2005, the Prime Minister stated that the concerns addressed in the list "had become less pertinent" and that the government needed to balance its concern with cults with respect for public freedoms and [[laїcité]].
|4=Germany: The legitimacy of a [[Governmental lists of cults and sects#Germany|1997 Berlin Senate report]] listing cults (''sekten'') was defended in a court decision of 2003 (Oberverwaltungsgericht Berlin [OVG 5 B 26.00] 25 September 2003). The list is still maintained by Berlin city authorities: [http://www.berlin.de/sen/familie/sekten-psychogruppen/ Sekten und Psychogruppen – Leitstelle Berlin].
}}}} While the official response to new religious groups has been mixed across the globe, some governments aligned more with the critics of these groups to the extent of distinguishing between "legitimate" religion and "dangerous", "unwanted" cults in [[public policy]].{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001}}{{sfn|Edelman|Richardson|2003}}

=== China ===
{{Main|Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)}}
[[File:Destruction d'ouvrages du Falun Gong lors de la répression de 1999 en Chine.jpg|thumb|right|[[Falun Gong]] books being symbolically destroyed by the [[Chinese government]]]]

For centuries, governments in China have categorized certain religions as ''[[Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)|xiéjiào]]'' ({{Lang-zh|c=[[wikt:邪教|邪教]]|s=|t=|p=|labels=no}}), translated as "evil cults" or "heterodox teachings".{{sfn|Penny|2012}} In [[imperial China]], the classification of a religion as {{Lang|zh-latn|xiejiao}} did not necessarily mean that a religion's teachings were believed to be false or inauthentic; rather, the label was applied to religious groups that were not authorized by the state, or it was applied to religious groups that were believed to challenge the legitimacy of the state.{{sfn|Penny|2012}}{{sfn|Zhu|2010|p=487}} Groups branded ''{{Lang|zh-latn|xiejiao}}'' face suppression and punishment by authorities.{{sfn|Heggie|2020|p=257}}{{sfn|Zhu|2010|p=}}

===Russia===
In 2008 the [[Russian Interior Ministry]] prepared a list of "extremist groups".  At the top of the list were Islamic groups outside of "traditional Islam", which is supervised by the Russian government. Next listed were "[[Neopaganism|Pagan cults]]".{{sfn|Soldatov|Borogan|2010|pp=65–66}} In 2009 the [[Russian Ministry of Justice]] created a council which it named the "Council of Experts Conducting State Religious Studies Expert Analysis."  The new council listed 80 large sects which it considered potentially dangerous to Russian society, and it also mentioned that there were thousands of smaller ones.  The large sects which were listed included: [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and other sects which were loosely referred to as "[[neo-Pentecostal]]s".{{sfn|Marshall|2013}}

=== United States ===
In the 1970s, the scientific status of the "[[Brainwashing|brainwashing theory]]" became a central topic in [[List of courts of the United States|U.S. court]] cases where the theory was used to try to justify the use of the forceful [[deprogramming]] of cult members.{{sfn|Lewis|2004}}{{sfn|Davis|1996}} Meanwhile, sociologists who were critical of these theories assisted advocates of [[religious freedom]] in defending the legitimacy of new religious movements in court.{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001}}{{sfn|Edelman|Richardson|2003}} In the United States the religious activities of cults are protected under the [[First Amendment of the United States Constitution]], which prohibits governmental [[establishment of religion]] and protects [[freedom of religion]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], and [[freedom of assembly]]; however, no members of religious groups or cults are granted any special [[Legal immunity|immunity]] from [[Prosecutor|criminal prosecution]].{{sfn|Ogloff|Pfeifer|1992}}

In 1990, the [[Legal case|court case]] of ''United States v. Fishman'' (1990) ended the usage of brainwashing theories by expert witnesses such as [[Margaret Singer]] and [[Richard Ofshe]]. In the case's ruling, the court cited the [[Frye standard]], which states that the [[scientific theory]] which is utilized by expert witnesses must be generally accepted in their respective fields. The court deemed [[brainwashing]] to be inadmissible in expert testimonies, using supporting documents which were published by the [[APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control]], literature from previous court cases in which brainwashing theories were used, and expert testimonies which were delivered by scholars such as [[Dick Anthony]].{{sfn|Introvigne|2014|pp=313–316}}

=== Western Europe ===
{{See also|MIVILUDES|Union nationale des associations de défense des familles et de l'individu|Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France}}
The governments of France and Belgium have taken policy positions which accept "brainwashing" theories uncritically, while the governments of other European nations, such as those of Sweden and Italy, are cautious with regard to brainwashing and as a result, they have responded more neutrally with regard to new religions.{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001|pp=144–146}} Scholars have suggested that the outrage which followed the mass murder/suicides perpetuated by the [[Order of the Solar Temple|Solar Temple]], have significantly contributed to European anti-cult positions.{{sfn|Richardson|Introvigne|2001|p=144}}{{sfn|Robbins|2002|p=174}} In the 1980s, clergymen and officials of the French government expressed concern that some [[Religious order|orders]] and other groups within the [[Roman Catholic Church]] would be adversely affected by anti-cult laws which were then being considered.{{sfn|Richardson|2004|p=48}}

== See also ==
* [[Cabal]]
* [[Cargo cult]]
* [[Clique]]
* [[Cult of personality]]
* [[Cult following]]
* [[Fanaticism]]
* [[New religious movements and cults in popular culture]]
* [[Secret society]]

== References ==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== General and cited references ===
==== Books ====
* {{Cite book |last=Ashcraft |first=W. Michael |year=2006 |chapter=African Diaspora Traditions and Other American Innovations |editor-last=Gallagher |editor-first=Eugene V. |title=Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-275-98717-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Barker |first=Eileen |author-link=Eileen Barker |year=1999 |chapter=New Religious Movements: Their Incidence and Significance |editor-last1=Wilson |editor-first1=Bryan |editor-last2=Cresswell |editor-first2=Jamie |title=New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-20050-9 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Bromley |editor-first=David G. |editor-link=David G. Bromley |editor-last2=Melton |editor-first2=J. Gordon |editor-link2=J. Gordon Melton |date=2002 |title=Cults, Religion, and Violence |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-66064-8 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chryssides |first=George D. |author-link=George D. Chryssides |year=1999 |title=Exploring New Religions |series=Issues in Contemporary Religion |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell]] |isbn=978-0-304-33652-4 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Chryssides |editor-first=George D. |editor-link=George D. Chryssides |year=2014 |editor-last2=Zeller |editor-first2=Benjamin E. |chapter=Resources: A–Z |title=The Bloomsbury Companion to New Religious Movements |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |isbn=978-1-4411-9005-5 |series=Bloomsbury Companions |location=London |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cowan |first=Douglas E. |author-link=Douglas E. Cowan |year=2003 |title=Bearing False Witness? An Introduction to the Christian Countercult |location=Westport, CT |publisher=[[Praeger Paperback|Praeger]] |isbn=978-0-275-97459-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dawson |first=Lorne L. |author-link=Lorne L. Dawson |year=1998 |title=Cults in Context: Readings in the Study of New Religious Movements |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-7658-0478-5}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Erwin |editor-last=Fahlbusch |editor-link=Erwin Fahlbusch |editor-first2=Geoffrey W. |editor-last2=Bromiley |editor-link2=Geoffrey W. Bromiley |year=1999 |chapter=Sect |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |volume=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA897 |page=897 |isbn=978-90-04-14595-5 |access-date=2013-03-21 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Phillip |title=Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History |title-link=Mystics and Messiahs |year=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], US |isbn=978-0-19-514596-0}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kaslow |first1=Florence Whiteman |last2=Sussman |first2=Marvin B. |year=1982 |title=Cults and the Family |publisher=Haworth Press |isbn=978-0-917724-55-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=James R. |author-link=James R. Lewis (scholar) |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements |location=US |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-514986-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Paul |year=2013 |title=Persecuted: The Global Assault on Christians |publisher=[[Thomas Nelson Inc]]}}
* {{Cite book |last=Newman |first=Dr. David M. |year=2006 |title=Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life |publisher=Pine Forge Press |isbn=978-1-4129-2814-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pargament |first=Kenneth I. |author-link=Kenneth Pargament |year=1997 |title=The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-57230-664-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Benjamin |date=2012 |title=The Religion of Falun Gong |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-65501-7 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Petty |first=Richard E. |author-last2=Cacioppo |author-first2=John T. |year=1996 |title=Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=0-8133-3005-X}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saliba |first=John A. |title=Understanding New Religious Movements |edition=2nd |location=Walnut Creek |publisher=[[Altamira Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7591-0356-6 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Stark |first1=Rodney |author-link1=Rodney Stark |last2=Bainbridge |first2=William Sims |author-link2=William Sims Bainbridge |year=1987 |title=The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival and Cult Formation |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05731-9}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Stark |first1=Rodney |author-link1=Rodney Stark |last2=Bainbridge |first2=William Sims |author-link2=William Sims Bainbridge |year=1996 |title=A Theory of Religion |publisher=[[Peter Lang Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8135-2330-9}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Swatos |editor-first=William H. Jr. |year=1998 |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Society |location=Walnut Creek, CA |publisher=AltaMira |pages=90–93 |isbn=978-0-7619-8956-1}}
** {{Harvc |last=Barker |first=Eileen |year=1998 |chapter=Conversion |url=http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/conversion.htm |in=Swatos}}
** {{Harvc |last=Campbell |first=Colin |year=1998 |chapter=Cult |in=Swatos |url=http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/cult.htm}}
** {{Harvc |last=Richardson |first=James T. |year=1998 |chapter=Unification Church |in=Swatos |url=http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/Unification.htm}}
** {{Harvc |last=Shupe |first=Anson |last2=Bromley |first2=David G. |year=1998a |anchor-year=1998a |chapter=Anti-Cult Movement |url=http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/anticult.htm |in=Swatos}}
** {{Harvc |last=Swatos |first=William H. Jr. |chapter=Church-Sect Theory |year=1998a |anchor-year=1998a |url=http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/cstheory.htma |in=Swatos}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Richardson |editor-first=James T. |editor-link=James T. Richardson |year=2004 |title=Regulating Religion: Case Studies from Around the Globe |series=Critical Issues in Social Justice |location=New York |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-306-47887-1 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Shupe |first1=Anson |last2=Darnell |first2=Susan |date=2006 |title=Agents of Discord: Deprogramming, Pseudo-science, and the American Anti-cult Movement |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-7658-0323-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Soldatov |first1=Andreĭ |first2=I. |last2=Borogan |author-link=Andrei Soldatov |year=2010 |title=The New Nobility: The Restoration of Russia's Security State and the Enduring Legacy of the KGB |location=New York |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-61039-055-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stangor |first=Charles |title=Social Groups in Action and Interaction |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-84169-407-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Stein |first1=Alexandra |title=Terror, Love and Brainwashing: Attachment in Cults and Totalitarian Systems |publisher=Taylor and Francis |year=2016 |isbn=9781138677951}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Thomas |editor-first=Aled |language=en |editor-last2=Graham-Hyde |editor-first2=Edward |year=2024 |title='Cult' Rhetoric in the 21st Century: Deconstructing the Study of New Religious Movements |series=Religion at the Boundaries |location=London |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-33323-9}}
** {{Harvc |last=Chryssides |first=George D. |author-link=George D. Chryssides |year=2024 |chapter=A History of Anticult Rhetoric |in=Thomas |in2=Graham-Hyde}}
** {{Harvc |last=Crockford |first=Susannah |year=2024 |chapter='There Is No QAnon': Cult Accusations in Contemporary American Political and Online Discourse |in=Thomas |in2=Graham-Hyde}}
** {{Harvc |last=Dubrow-Marshall |first=Roderick P. |year=2024 |chapter=The Recognition of Cults |in=Thomas |in2=Graham-Hyde}}
** {{Harvc |last=Thomas |first=Aled |last2=Graham-Hyde |first2=Edward |author-link=George D. Chryssides |chapter='Cult' Rhetoric in the Twenty-First Century: The Disconnect between Popular Discourse and the Ivory Tower |year=2024 |in=Thomas |in2=Graham-Hyde |anchor-year=2024a}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tourish |first1=Dennis |last2=Wohlforth |first2=Tim |author-link2=Tim Wohlforth |year=2000 |title=On the Edge: Political Cults Right and Left |title-link=On the Edge: Political Cults Right and Left |location=Armonk |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |isbn=978-0-7656-0639-6}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Turner |first1=Francis J. |first2=Arnold Shanon |last2=Bloch |last3=Shor |first3=Ron |year=1995 |chapter=105: From Consultation to Therapy in Group Work With Parents of Cultists |title=Differential Diagnosis & Treatment in Social Work |edition=4th |publisher=Free Press |page=1146 |isbn=978-0-02-874007-2}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Zablocki |editor-first=Benjamin |editor-link=Benjamin Zablocki |editor-last2=Robbins |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-link2=Thomas Robbins (sociologist) |year=2001 |title=Misunderstanding Cults: Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field |title-link=Misunderstanding Cults |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |isbn=978-0-8020-8188-9 |language=en}}
** {{Harvc |first=Julius H. |last=Rubin |year=2001 |chapter=Contested Narratives: A Case Study of the Conflict Between a New Religious Movement and Its Critics |in=Zablocki |in2=Robbins}}

==== Articles ====
* {{Cite journal |last=Ayella |first=Marybeth |year=1990 |title=They Must Be Crazy: Some of the Difficulties in Researching 'Cults' |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=562–577 |doi=10.1177/0002764290033005005 |s2cid=144181163}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Bader |first1=Chris |last2=Demaris |first2=Alfred |date=1996 |title=A Test of the Stark-Bainbridge Theory of Affiliation with Religious Cults and Sects |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=285–303 |doi=10.2307/1386560 |issn=0021-8294 |jstor=1386560}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Barker |first=Eileen |year=1986 |title=Religious Movements: Cult and Anti-Cult Since Jonestown |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=12 |pages=329–346 |doi=10.1146/annurev.so.12.080186.001553}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Davis |first=Dena S. |date=1996 |title=Joining a Cult: Religious Choice or Psychological Aberration |journal=Journal of Law and Health |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=145–172}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=van Driel |first1=Barend |last2=Richardson |first2=James T. |date=1988 |title=Categorization of New Religious Movements in American Print Media |journal=Sociological Analysis |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=171–183 |doi=10.2307/3711011 |issn=0038-0210 |jstor=3711011}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Edelman |first1=Bryan |last2=Richardson |first2=James T. |year=2003 |title=Falun Gong and the Law: Development of Legal Social Control in China |journal=Nova Religio |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=312–331 |doi=10.1525/nr.2003.6.2.312}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Heggie |first=Rachel |date=2020 |title=When Violence Happens: The McDonald's Murder and Religious Violence in the Hands of the Chinese Communist Party |journal=Journal of Religion and Violence |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=253–280 |doi=10.5840/jrv202131682 |issn=2159-6808 |jstor=27212326}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=Harvey |last2=Hickman |first2=John |last3=McLendon |first3=Joel |date=2001 |title=Cults and Sects and Doomsday Groups, Oh My: Media Treatment of Religion on the Eve of the Millennium |journal=Review of Religious Research |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–38 |jstor=3512241 |doi=10.2307/3512241 |issn=0034-673X}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Introvigne |first1=Massimo |title=Advocacy, brainwashing theories, and new religious movements |journal=Religion |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=303–319 |doi=10.1080/0048721X.2014.888021 |year=2014 |s2cid=144440076}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Ogloff |first1=J. R. |last2=Pfeifer |first2=J. E. |title=Cults and the law: A discussion of the legality of alleged cult activities. |journal=Behavioral Sciences & the Law |year=1992 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=117–140 |doi=10.1002/bsl.2370100111}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Olson |first=Paul J. |date=2006 |title=The Public Perception of 'Cults' and 'New Religious Movements' |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=97–106 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-5906.2006.00008.x |issn=0021-8294 |jstor=3590620}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=James T. |last2=Introvigne |first2=Massimo |author-link2=Massimo Introvigne |year=2001 |title='Brainwashing' Theories in European Parliamentary and Administrative Reports on 'Cults' and 'Sects'. |journal=[[Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion]] |volume=40 |number=2 |pages=143–168 |doi=10.1111/0021-8294.00046}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Richardson |first=James T. |author-link=James T. Richardson |year=1993 |title=Definitions of Cult: From Sociological-Technical to Popular-Negative. |journal=[[Review of Religious Research]] |volume=34 |pages=348–356 |doi=10.2307/3511972 |jstor=3511972 |number=4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Seiwert |first=Hubert |date=2003 |title=Freedom and Control in the Unified Germany: Governmental Approaches to Alternative Religions Since 1989 |journal=Sociology of Religion |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=367–375 |doi=10.2307/3712490 |issn=1069-4404 |jstor=3712490}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Robbins |first=Thomas |year=2002 |title=Combating 'Cults' and 'Brainwashing' in the United States and Europe: A Comment on Richardson and Introvigne's Report |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=169–176 |doi=10.1111/0021-8294.00047}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Stark |first1=Rodney |last2=Bainbridge |first2=William Sims |date=1980 |title=Networks of Faith: Interpersonal Bonds and Recruitment to Cults and Sects |journal=[[American Journal of Sociology]] |language=en |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=1376–1395 |doi=10.1086/227169 |issn=0002-9602 |jstor=2778383}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=Max |title='Churches' and 'Sects' in North America: An Ecclesiastical Socio-Political Sketch |journal=Sociological Theory |date=Spring 1985 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=7–13 |doi=10.2307/202166 |jstor=202166 |language=en}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Stuart A. |date=1997 |title=Media Coverage of Unconventional Religion: Any 'Good News' for Minority Faiths? |journal=Review of Religious Research |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=101–115 |doi=10.2307/3512176 |issn=0034-673X |jstor=3512176}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Zhu |first=Guobin |date=2010 |title=Prosecuting 'Evil Cults:' A Critical Examination of Law Regarding Freedom of Religious Belief in Mainland China |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=471–501 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0004 |issn=0275-0392 |jstor=40784053}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Borden |first=Jane |year=2025 |title=Cults Like Us: Why Doomsday Thinking Drives America |url= |url-access= |archive-url= |archive-date= |url-status= |edition=1st hardcover |location=New York |publisher=One Signal Publishers/Atria Books |isbn=978-1668007808 |oclc=1510770522 |access-date=}}

== External links ==
* {{Wiktionary inline}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline|Cult}}

{{New Religious Movements}}
{{Opposition_to_NRMs}}

[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]
[[Category:Pejorative terms]]