Editing Culture of the United Kingdom

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{{Use British English|date=January 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Very long|date=September 2024}}
[[File:The_Coldstream_Guards_Troop_Their_Colour_MOD_45165212.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[Trooping the Colour]] is an annual ceremony, most notably associated with the British Army, and involves a grand parade featuring hundreds of soldiers, horses, and musicians.]]
The '''culture of the United Kingdom''' is influenced by its [[History of the United Kingdom|combined nations' history]], its interaction with the cultures of [[Europe]], the individual diverse cultures of [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]] and [[Northern Ireland]], and the impact of the [[British Empire]]. The culture of the United Kingdom may also colloquially be referred to as '''British culture'''. Although British culture is a distinct entity, the individual [[Culture of England|cultures of England]], [[Culture of Scotland|Scotland]], [[Culture of Wales|Wales]] and [[Culture of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] are diverse. There have been varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness between these four cultures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-44361867|title=Scotland and Britain 'cannot be mistaken for each other'|last=Little|first=Allan|date=6 June 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=6 June 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref>{{Culture of the United Kingdom}}[[British literature]] is particularly esteemed. The [[Novel|modern novel]] was developed in Britain, and playwrights, poets, and authors are among its most prominent cultural figures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/restoration-18th-century-literature/articles/the-rise-of-the-novel|title=The rise of the novel|website=The British Library|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-date=4 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804200340/https://www.bl.uk/restoration-18th-century-literature/articles/the-rise-of-the-novel|url-status=dead}}</ref> Britain has also made notable contributions to [[Theatre of the United Kingdom|theatre]], [[Music of the United Kingdom|music]], [[British cinema|cinema]], [[Art of the United Kingdom|art]], [[Architecture of the United Kingdom|architecture]] and [[Television in the United Kingdom|television]]. The UK is also the home of the [[Church of England]], [[Church of Scotland]], [[Church in Wales]], the [[State religion|state church]] and [[mother church]] of the [[Anglican Communion]], the third-largest Christian denomination. Britain contains some of the world's oldest universities, has made many contributions to [[British philosophy|philosophy]], [[science]], [[technology]] and [[medicine]], and is the birthplace of many prominent [[scientist]]s and [[invention]]s. The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in the UK and had a profound effect on [[socioeconomics|socio-economic]] and cultural conditions around the world.

British culture has been influenced by historical and modern migration, the historical invasions of Great Britain, and the British Empire. As a [[Legacy of the British Empire|result of the British Empire]], significant [[Anglicisation|British influence]] can be observed in the language, law, culture and institutions of its former colonies, most of which are members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. A subset of these states form the [[Anglosphere]], and are among Britain's closest allies.<ref>Swaine, Jon (13 January 2009) [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/4226246/Barack-Obama-presidency-will-strengthen-special-relationship-says-Gordon-Brown.html Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown] ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''. Retrieved 3 March 2010.</ref><ref>E. J. Kirchner and J. Sperling, Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st Century (London: Taylor & Francis, 2007), p. 100.</ref> British colonies and dominions influenced British culture in turn, particularly [[British cuisine]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/8801370/Jeremy-Paxman-what-empire-did-for-Britain.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/8801370/Jeremy-Paxman-what-empire-did-for-Britain.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Jeremy Paxman: what empire did for Britain|access-date=19 November 2011|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=2 October 2011|location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Sport is an important part of British culture, and numerous sports originated in their organised, modern form in the country including [[cricket]], [[Association football|football]], [[boxing]], [[tennis]] and [[Rugby football|rugby]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sport and the British |url=https://www.dmu.ac.uk/research/research-faculties-and-institutes/art-design-humanities/icshc/sport-and-the-british/sport-and-the-british.aspx |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=www.dmu.ac.uk}}</ref> The UK has been described as a "cultural superpower",<ref>[http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf "The cultural superpower: British cultural projection abroad"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916155419/http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf |date=16 September 2018 }}. Journal of the British Politics Society, Norway. Volume 6. No. 1. Winter 2011</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/cameron-has-chance-to-make-uk-great-again/story-e6frg6zo-1225866975992|title=Cameron has chance to make UK great again|author=Sheridan, Greg|date=15 May 2010|work=The Australian|access-date=20 May 2012|location=Sydney}}</ref> and [[London]] has been described as a world cultural capital.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23389580-london-is-the-world-capital-of-the-21st-century-says-new-york.do|title=London is the world capital of the 21st century... says New York &#124; News|work=Evening Standard|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125224024/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23389580-london-is-the-world-capital-of-the-21st-century-says-new-york.do|archive-date=25 January 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=10 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/london-capital-of-the-world-766661.html|title=London, capital of the world|last=Calder|first=Simon|date=22 December 2007|work=The Independent|location=London}}</ref> A global opinion poll for the BBC saw the UK ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22624104|title=BBC poll: Germany most popular country in the world|date=23 May 2013|access-date=17 February 2018|work=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 June 2014 |title=World Service Global Poll: Negative views of Russia on the rise |work=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2014/world-service-country-poll |access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|Cultural history of the United Kingdom}}
Throughout its history, the culture of Great Britain has primarily consisted of the separate native traditions of England, Scotland and Wales. With regard to cultural influences, prior to the [[Territorial evolution of the British Empire|expansion of the British Empire]], the island had been most notably influenced by [[Culture of France|French culture]] (via the [[Normans]]), [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian culture]] (via the [[Vikings]]) and [[Culture of Italy|Italian culture]] (via the [[Roman Empire|Romans]]).

The arrival of [[Celts|Celtic]] and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes influenced Britain's early development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who were the Celts? |url=https://museum.wales/articles/1341/Who-were-the-Celts/ |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=Museum Wales |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Migration Story: The Making of Britain |url=https://www.ourmigrationstory.org.uk/oms/anglo-saxon-migrations |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=www.ourmigrationstory.org.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> The Celtic peoples introduced unique languages, traditions, and social structures. Subsequently, the migrations of Germanic tribes, such as the [[Anglo-Saxons]], further influenced Britain's cultural landscape. The ancient [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation of Britain]], lasting almost 400 years, also impacted the linguistic and cultural identity of Great Britain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman Britain |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/romans/ |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=English Heritage}}</ref>

Following the expansion of the British Empire, England, Scotland and Wales absorbed different peoples from around the world, and, post-World War II, Britain developed a more diverse cultural landscape through higher levels of immigration. Furthermore, following the [[Fall of the Berlin Wall]] in 1989 and EU enlargement in 2004 and 2007, the UK experienced a significant rise in immigration from [[Eastern Europe]]. Today, the UK has a sizable immigrant population, and encompasses the cultures of British people from various backgrounds, with [[South Asian ethnic groups|South Asian]], [[Continental Europe]]an, [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|African]] and [[Caribbean]] descent being most prevalent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnic group, England and Wales - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/bulletins/ethnicgroupenglandandwales/census2021 |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref>

==Language==
{{Main|Languages of the United Kingdom}}

[[File:BLBeowulf.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Old English]] heroic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'' is located in the British Library.]]
First spoken in [[early medieval England]], the [[English language]] is the ''de facto'' [[official language]] of the UK, and is spoken monolingually by an estimated 95% of the [[Demographics of the United Kingdom|British population]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/countries/uk.shtml BBC – Languages – United Kingdom] ''[[BBC]]''</ref>{{efn|1=English is established by ''de facto'' usage. In Wales, the [[Welsh Language Board|Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg]] is legally tasked with ensuring that "in the conduct of public business and the administration of justice, the English and [[Welsh language]]s should be treated on a basis of equality".{{Citation |url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1993/Ukpga_19930038_en_2.htm |title=Welsh Language Act 1993 |publisher=Office of Public Sector Information |access-date=3 September 2007 }} [[Bòrd na Gàidhlig]] is tasked with "securing the status of the [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] language as an [[official language]] of Scotland commanding equal respect to the English language" {{Citation |url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/acts2005/asp_20050007_en_1 |title=Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 |publisher=Office of Public Sector Information |access-date=9 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315015310/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/acts2005/asp_20050007_en_1 |archive-date=15 March 2010 }} }} Seven other languages are recognised by the British Government under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] – [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]], and [[British Sign Language]].

In Wales, all pupils at state schools must either be taught through the medium of Welsh or study it as an additional language until age 16, and the [[Welsh Language Act 1993]] and the [[Government of Wales Act 1998]] provide that the Welsh and English languages should be treated equally in the public sector, so far as is reasonable and practicable. Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. The [[Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act]], passed by the [[Scottish Parliament]] in 2005, recognised Gaelic as an official language of Scotland and required the creation of a national plan for Gaelic to provide strategic direction for the development of the Gaelic language.{{efn|1=Under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] the Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Irish Language|Irish]], [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] and [[Scots language]]s are officially recognised as [[Regional language|Regional]] or [[Minority language]]s by the [[United Kingdom Government|UK Government]] ({{Citation |publisher=Scottish Executive |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/ArtsCulture/gaelic/gaelic-english/17910/europeancharter |title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages |access-date=23 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012182532/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/ArtsCulture/gaelic/gaelic-english/17910/europeancharter |archive-date=12 October 2008 }}) See also [[Languages of the United Kingdom]].}} The Cornish language is a [[List of revived languages|revived language]] that became extinct as a first language in [[Cornwall]] in the late 18th century.

===Regional accents===
{{Main|Regional accents of English}}Dialects and regional accents vary heavily amongst the four [[countries of the United Kingdom]], as well as within the countries themselves. This is partially the result of the long history of immigration to the UK, for example [[English language in Northern England|Northern English]] dialects contain many words with Old Norse roots.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/changlang/activities/lang/vikings/vikinglang.html|title=Viking words|website=www.bl.uk|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223174636/http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/changlang/activities/lang/vikings/vikinglang.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Scottish English]], [[Welsh English]], and [[Hiberno-English|Hiberno-Irish]] are varieties of English distinct from both [[English language in England|English English]] and the native languages of those countries. [[Received Pronunciation]] is the [[Standard English]] accent in England and Wales, while in Scotland [[Scottish English|Scottish Standard English]] is a distinct dialect. Although these accents have a [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|high social prestige]], since the 1960s a greater permissiveness toward regional English varieties has taken hold in education.<ref>{{citation |last=McArthur |first=Tom |title=The Oxford Guide to World English |page=43 |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780198662488}}</ref>

The great variety of British accents is often noted, with nearby regions often having highly distinct dialects and accents, for example there are large differences between [[Scouse]] and [[Manchester dialect|Mancunian]] despite Liverpool and Manchester being only 35 miles (56&nbsp;km) apart.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/why-does-the-uk-have-so-many-accents-88434|title=Why does the UK have so many accents?|last=Braber|first=Natalie|website=The Conversation|date=10 January 2018 |language=en|access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The origins of Scous|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/liverpool/content/articles/2005/01/11/voices_liverpoolaccent_feature.shtml|work=BBC|date=12 December 2016}}</ref> Dialectal English is often found in literature, for example [[Emily Brontë]]'s novel ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' contains Yorkshire dialect.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nath |first1=Kirsten |url=https://www.grin.com/document/45274 |title=Yorkshire Dialect in 19th Century Fiction and 20 th Century Reality. A Study of Dialectal Change with the Example of Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights and the Survey of English Dialects |date=12 October 2005 |website=GRIN |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=9783638427067 |language=en |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref>

==Arts==
===Literature===
{{Main|Literature of the United Kingdom}}
The United Kingdom inherited the literary traditions of England, Scotland and Wales. These include [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian literature]] and its Welsh origins, Norse-influenced [[Old English literature]], the works of English authors [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] and [[William Shakespeare]], and Scots works such as [[John Barbour (poet)|John Barbour]]'s ''[[The Brus]].'' <ref>{{Cite web |last=Alvarez |first=Sandra |date=2013-03-18 |title=Chaucer's Arthuriana |url=https://www.medievalists.net/2013/03/chaucers-arthuriana/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=Medievalists.net |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Robert Burns 1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Burns]] is regarded as the [[national poet]] of Scotland.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-12243438 "New Scots Makar opens Robert Burns Birthplace Museum"]. BBC News. Retrieved 15 June 2011</ref>|alt=]]

====Augustan Age====
The early 18th century period of British literature is known as the [[Augustan literature|Augustan Age]] and included the development of the novel. [[Daniel Defoe|Daniel Defoe's]] ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' <ref>{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Smithsonian |title=The Real Robinson Crusoe |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-real-robinson-crusoe-74877644/ |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> (1719) and ''[[Moll Flanders]]'' (1722) <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/moll-the-life-and-times-of-moll-flanders/ |title=Moll: The Life and Times of Moll Flanders |website=History Extra |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428084347/https://www.historyextra.com/period/moll-the-life-and-times-of-moll-flanders/ |archive-date=28 April 2019 |access-date=30 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kibbie |first=Ann Louise |title=Monstrous Generation: The Birth of Capital in Defoe's Moll Flanders and Roxana |journal=PMLA |date=1995 |volume=110 |issue=5 |pages=1023–1034 |doi=10.2307/463027 |jstor=463027 |s2cid=163996973}}</ref> are often seen as the first English novels. Alongside these works, [[poetry]] also flourished, with notable examples such as ''[[The Rape of the Lock]]'' (1712) by [[Alexander Pope]], a mock-heroic poem that satirized the social mores of the time.<ref>Sherburn, G., Eed. ''Correspondence of Alexander Pope'', Oxford University Press, 1956, I, 201.</ref> However, the development of the novel took place in a wider literary context that included the rise of prose satires – which reached a high point with ''[[Gulliver's Travels]] '' (1729) by [[Anglo-Irish]] writer [[Jonathan Swift]],<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Britannica | entry-url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jonathan-Swift | entry= Jonathan Swift | date=2022 | last1= Luebering | first1= J.E. | last2= Quintana | first2= Ricardo }}</ref> and earlier foreign works like the [[Spanish literature|Spanish]] ''[[Don Quixote]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to English Literature|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|editor-last=Drabble|editor-first=Margaret|location=Oxford|pages=265|chapter=Defoe}}</ref> Other novels by Jonathan Swift include  ''[[A Tale of a Tub]]'' (1704), ''[[An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity]]'' (1712), and [[A Modest Proposal]] (1729).<ref name="Britannica" /> With the publishing of these books, he gained literary fame and formed lifelong friendships with Alexander Pope, [[John Gay]], and [[John Arbuthnot]], who, with Swift, created the [[Martinus Scriblerus Club]] in 1713. Other novels made at this time are: ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'' (1749), by [[Henry Fielding]]; ''[[Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded|Pamela]]'' (1740) and ''[[Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady|Clarissa]]'' (1748), by [[Samuel Richardson]]; [[Laurence Sterne]] – [[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman]] (1759–1767). ''[[Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded|Pamela]]'' is hailed as one of the first true novels in English literature while ''[[Clarissa; or, The History of a Young Lady|Clarissa]]'' is regarded as Richardson's magnum opus and one of the greatest novels in the English language. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman is an experimental novel.

Also linked to the Augustan period is [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]''. Published in 1755, it was viewed as the pre-eminent [[British Dictionary]] until the completion of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' 150 years later. Each word defined in detail, with descriptions of their various uses and numerous literary quotes as illustrations. This was the first dictionary of its kind, containing 40,000 words and nearly 114,000 quotes packed together with Johnson's personal touch.<ref>Lynch, Jack (2003). "Samuel Johnson's Dictionary". p. 1.</ref><ref>Advertisement in ''Derby Mercury'' 4 April 1755, page 4 'This day is published a Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson'</ref> It is among the most influential [[dictionary|dictionaries]], or among most authoritative, in the history of the [[English language]] and considered to be a monumental achievement in [[lexicography]]. A group of London booksellers contracted Johnson to write a dictionary for the sum of 1,500 [[Guinea (British coin)|guineas]] (£1,575), equivalent to about £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|1575|1746|r=-4}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}.{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}} Johnson took seven years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. A warm reception greeted Johnson's Dictionary as it was the first dictionary that could be read with pleasure. The definitions full of wit and depth of thought supported by passages from beloved poets and philosophers, meant a reader could be content spending an evening poring over its pages. Johnson's choice of structure and format has certainly shaped future English dictionaries and lexicons and the role they play in language development.

[[Richard Steele]], another famous author known for [[comedies]] and [[pamphlets]] during the Augustan Period, began his literary career with "The Christian Hero" (1701), a moral pamphlet that was criticized due to his personal lifestyle, followed by the successful comedy ''The Funeral'' later that year. In 1703, he wrote ''[[The Lying Lover]]'', an early sentimental comedy that failed on stage. In 1705, he collaborated with [[Joseph Addison]] on ''[[The Tender Husband]]'' and contributed the prologue to [[John Vanbrugh]]’s ''The Mistake''. Steele's major breakthrough came in 1709 with the creation of ''[[The Tatler]]'', a tri-weekly [[periodical]] in which he wrote the majority of the essays under the pseudonym [[Isaac Bickerstaff]], aiming to expose societal vices and promote simplicity. Despite its success, ''The Tatler'' was shut down in 1711 due to political pressure, prompting Steele and Addison to co-found ''[[The Spectator]]'' in 1711 and ''[[The Guardian]]'' in 1713, solidifying Steele's role as a leading figure in early British journalism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Elizabeth (Steele), Lady Trevor |url=http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw06401/Elizabeth-Steele-Lady-Trevor#sitter |publisher=[[National Portrait Gallery, London]]}}</ref>

====Romantic Period====

The [[Romantic Period]] was marked by a revival of [[poetry]] and a focus on emotion, nature, and individualism, responding to the growing rationalism of the Enlightenment. This era gave rise to many literary works that explored the tension between reason and imagination. [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]’s ''[[Lyrical Ballads]]'' (1798) <ref>See {{Cite book |year=1798 |title=Lyrical Ballads|edition=1|publisher=  J. & A. Arch |publication-date=1798 |location=London  |url= https://archive.org/details/lyricalballadswi00word |access-date=13 November 2014 }} via archive.org</ref> is considered a landmark collection, emphasizing the beauty of nature and the primacy of emotion, and marking the official start of the [[Romantic Movement]]. [[Mary Shelley]]’s ''[[Frankenstein|Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus]]'' (1818), one of the earliest science fiction novels, delves into themes of creation, responsibility, and the consequences of unchecked scientific ambition, framed within Gothic conventions. [[Jane Austen]]’s ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' (1813) offered a brilliant social satire, critiquing class structures and the courtship rituals of [[Regency England]], and remains one of the most beloved novels in [[British Literature]]. [[Lord Byron]]’s ''[[Don Juan]]'' (1819–1824) is a satirical epic poem that details the adventures of the legendary lover, displaying Byron's wit, irony, and irreverence toward societal norms.

[[Sir Walter Scott]]’s ''[[Waverley (novel)|Waverley]]'' (1814), widely considered the first historical novel, vividly recreates the [[Jacobite Rebellion]] of 1745, cementing Scott's place as a major figure in British literature. William Blake’s ''Songs of Innocence and of Experience'' (1794) blends art and poetry to explore themes of innocence, experience, and societal corruption, providing a unique vision of the Romantic spirit. Percy Bysshe Shelley’s ''Prometheus Unbound'' (1820), a lyrical drama, explores themes of rebellion, tyranny, and human freedom, standing as one of his most radical and imaginative works. [[Robert Burns]], the famed Scottish poet, revived interest in Scots literature with works such as [[Auld Lang Syne]], which celebrated the vernacular tradition. Lastly, [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]’s "[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]" (1792) stands as one of the earliest and most influential works of feminist philosophy, advocating for women's education and equal rights in a male-dominated society.

Although primarily associated with the [[Victorian Era]], [[Lewis Carroll]]’s ''[[Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland]]'' (1865) emerged from the later part of this broader Romantic tradition, blending imaginative fantasy with playful wordplay. This whimsical novel follows young Alice's journey through a dreamlike world populated by peculiar characters, exploring themes of logic, absurdity, and identity. ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' remains a pioneering work of literary nonsense, captivating readers with its inventive narrative and surreal exploration of the boundaries between reality and imagination.

====Victorian Era====

The late [[Georgian Era]] and [[Victorian literature|Victorian era]] saw a renewed focus on the novel. A key theme of these novels was social commentary. Early in the period [[Jane Austen]] satirised the lifestyle of the gentry and nobility, while the later novels of [[Charles Dickens]] often used humour and keen observations to criticise poverty and social stratification. One of his novels, ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', describes [[Victorian Era|Victorian Times]] and the sordid lives of criminals and exposes the cruel treatment of the many orphans in [[London]]. Another novel by Charles Dickens, ''[[Great Expectations]]'' (1861), is a [[bildungsroman]] that follows the life of [[Pip (Great Expectations)|Pip]], an orphan navigating ambition, love, and personal growth while critiquing social mobility and class divisions. [[Charlotte Brontë]]’s ''[[Jane Eyre]]'' (1847) blends [[Gothic fiction|Gothic]] romance with social commentary, focusing on a young woman's quest for independence against the rigid structures of [[Victorian society]]. The three [[Brontë family|Brontë sisters]] and [[George Eliot]] commented on [[Northern England]] and the [[Midlands]] respectively, though all four women wrote under male pen names during their lifetimes, partly to deflect anti-feminist criticism. Nevertheless, openly female authors achieved considerable success in the period, such as the predominantly religious poems of [[Elizabeth Barrett Browning]] and [[Christina Rossetti]]. [[George Eliot]]’s ''[[Middlemarch]]'' (1871–1872), often regarded as one of the greatest English novels, explores themes of politics, marriage, and ambition in the setting of a provincial English town.

[[Elizabeth Gaskell]]’s ''[[North and South (Gaskell novel)|North and South]]'' (1854–1855) contrasts the industrial north with the agricultural south, addressing issues such as class conflict, industrialization, and gender roles. [[Thomas Hardy]]’s ''[[Tess of the d’Urbervilles]]'' (1891) offers a tragic critique of Victorian society's treatment of women, sexuality, and class, while [[Oscar Wilde]]’s ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' (1890) examines themes of aestheticism, morality, and vanity in a Gothic narrative where the protagonist's portrait ages as his soul corrupts. In [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]’s ''[[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' (1886), the novella delves into themes of duality, identity, and morality through the split personality of its protagonist. [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]’s ''[[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]]'' (1892), a group of short stories, which popularised the detective genre and introduced one of literature's most iconic characters: Sherlock Holmes.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s literature exemplifies the [[British Empire]]’s influence on [[British literature]] through his works that often reflect the ethos of [[imperialism]] and [[colonialism]]. His novels ''[[The Jungle Book]]'', which is considered to be classic piece of literature, and ''[[The Man Who Would Be King]]'' are both set in [[British India]], showcasing the cultural and political impact of British rule in the region. His poem If— famously captures the concept of the "stiff upper lip," a British ideal of stoicism and self-discipline. Additionally, ''[[The White Man’s Burden]]'' conveys a white supremacist and imperialist perspective, encouraging the colonial domination of non-European peoples under the guise of a civilizing mission. Kipling's works, while celebrated for their literary qualities, remain controversial for their imperialist themes.

[[File:Roald Dahl.jpg|thumb|upright|Welsh native [[Roald Dahl]] is frequently ranked the best children's author in British polls.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/11444349/Survey-reveals-50-books-that-every-child-should-read-by-16.html "Survey reveals 50 books that every child should read by 16"]. The Telegraph. (March 2015). Retrieved 16 July 2015. "Roald Dahl is still king of children's literature according to a survey for World Book Day."</ref>|alt=]]

==== World War and Modern Literature ====

[[World War I]] gave rise to British [[war poets]] and writers such as [[Wilfred Owen]], [[Siegfried Sassoon]], and [[Rupert Brooke]], who wrote (often [[paradox]]ically) of their expectations of war, and their experiences in the [[trench warfare|trenches]]. Initially idealistic and patriotic in tone, as the war progressed the tone of the movement became increasingly sombre and pacifistic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/first-world-war/ww1-poets-wilfred-owen-hedd-wyn-siegfried-sassoon-rupert-brooke-rudyard-kipling/|title=5 First World War poets|website=History Extra|language=en|access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> The beginning of the twentieth century also saw the [[Celtic Revival]] stimulate a new appreciation of traditional [[Irish literature]], while the [[Scottish Renaissance]] brought modernism to [[Scottish literature]] as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots. The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and it remains today the dominant English literary form.

The contemporary British literary scene is marked by awards such as the [[Booker Prize]], created in 1969, and festivals including the Welsh [[Hay Festival]], held since 1988. The prominent status of children's literature in the UK was demonstrated in the [[2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony|opening ceremony]] of the [[2012 Summer Olympics|London 2012 Olympic Games]], which contained sequence dedicated to prominent children's literary characters.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/27/london-olympics-voldemort-mary-poppins_n_1710785.html|title=London Olympics: Voldemort, Mary Poppins Have An Epic Duel|last=Bell|first=Crystal|date=27 July 2012|newspaper=The Huffington post|access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref> In 2003 the BBC carried out a British survey entitled ''[[The Big Read]]'' in order to find the "nation's best-loved novel", with works by English novelists [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Philip Pullman]], [[Douglas Adams]] and [[J. K. Rowling]] making up the top five on the list.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/bigread/top100.shtml "The Big Read – Top 100 Books"]. BBC. Retrieved 16 July 2015.</ref> More than 75% of the British public read at least one book annually.<ref>{{cite news|title=Reading is alive and well in Britain|url=https://yougov.co.uk/news/2014/04/09/reading-alive-and-well-britain/|agency=YouGov|date=28 March 2018}}</ref> The UK is also among the largest publishers of books. {{as of|2017}}, six firms in the United Kingdom rank among the world's biggest publishers of books in terms of revenue: [[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]], [[Cambridge University Press]], [[Informa]], [[Oxford University Press]], [[Pearson plc|Pearson]], and [[RELX Group]].<ref>{{citation |work=[[Publishers Weekly]] |location=US |url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/74505-the-world-s-50-largest-publishers-2017.html |title=World's 54 Largest Publishers, 2017 |date= 25 August 2017}}</ref>

===Theatre===
{{Main|Theatre of the United Kingdom}}
[[File:Hw-shakespeare.png|thumb|upright|[[William Shakespeare]] has had a significant impact on British theatre and drama.]]
From its formation in 1707 the United Kingdom has had a vibrant tradition of theatre, much of it inherited from England, Scotland and Wales. The [[Union of the Crowns]] coincided with the decline of highbrow and provocative [[Restoration comedy]] in favour of [[sentimentalism (literature)|sentimental]] comedy, domestic [[tragedy]] such as George Lillo's [[The London Merchant]] (1731), and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera. Popular entertainment became more important in this period than ever before, with fair-booth burlesque and mixed forms that are the ancestors of the English [[music hall]]. These forms flourished at the expense of other forms of English drama, which went into a long period of decline. In Scotland the opposite occurred, with the emergence of specifically Scottish plays including [[John Home|John Home's]] ''[[Douglas (play)|Douglas]]'' and the works of [[Walter Scott]], which included original plays as well as adaptations of his ''[[Waverley (novel)|Waverley]]'' novels.
The late 19th century saw revival of English theatre with arrival of Irishmen [[George Bernard Shaw]] and [[Oscar Wilde]], who influenced domestic English drama and revitalised it. Their contemporaries [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] had a similar impact on musical theatre with their [[comic opera]]s. The [[Shakespeare Memorial Theatre]] was opened in Shakespeare's birthplace [[Stratford upon Avon]] in 1879 and [[Herbert Beerbohm Tree]] founded an [[Royal Academy of Dramatic Art|Academy of Dramatic Art]] at [[His Majesty's Theatre, London|Her Majesty's Theatre]] in 1904.<ref>[http://www.rada.ac.uk/about-rada The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807153255/http://www.rada.ac.uk/about-rada |date=7 August 2011 }}. Retrieved 16 March 2011.</ref>

The early twentieth century was dominated by [[Drawing room play|drawing-room plays]] produced by the likes of [[Noël Coward]], which were then challenged by the [[kitchen sink realism]] and absurdist drama influenced by Irishman [[Samuel Beckett]] in the 1950s and 60s. Conversely 1952 saw the first performance of [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[The Mousetrap]]'', a drawing-room murder mystery that has seen over 25,000 performances and is the [[List of the longest-running West End shows|longest-running West End show]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.the-mousetrap.co.uk/online/default.asp|title=Agatha Christie's: The Mousetrap|publisher=St. Martin's Theatre|access-date=8 March 2015|quote=Here you will find all the information you need about the longest running show, of any kind, in the world.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626071333/https://www.the-mousetrap.co.uk/Online/default.asp|archive-date=26 June 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> At the same time the performing arts theatre [[Sadler's Wells]], under [[Lilian Baylis]], nurtured talent that led to the development of an opera company, which became the [[English National Opera]] (ENO); a theatre company, which evolved into the National Theatre; and a ballet company, which eventually became the English [[Royal Ballet]]. Elsewhere the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] was founded in 1959 at [[Stratford-upon-Avon]], and continues to mainly stage Shakespeare's plays.

Contemporary British theatre is focused on the [[West End theatre|West End]], London's major theatre district. The [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] in the [[City of Westminster]] dates back to 1663, making it the oldest London theatre, however the Theatre Royal at the [[Bristol Old Vic]] is the oldest continually-operating theatre in the English speaking world, opening in 1768.<ref name="Anniversary">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-bristol-36370411|title=Bristol Old Vic Theatre marks 250th anniversary|date=30 May 2016|work=BBC}}</ref> The musicals of [[Andrew Lloyd Webber]] have dominated the West End since the late 20th century, leading him to be dubbed "the most commercially successful composer in history".<ref name="BTR">[https://books.google.com/books?id=AWaZ1LAFAZEC&q=lloyd+webber+%22the+most+commercially+successful+composer+in+history.%22 Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: the new musical] ''[[The New York Times]]''.. referred to Andrew Lloyd Webber as "the most commercially successful composer in history"</ref> A [[National Theatre of Scotland]] was set up in 2006.

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|British pop music|British rock|British blues|New wave of British heavy metal|Britpop|British soul|British Invasion|Second British Invasion}}

==== Classical music ====
[[File:Band Trooping the Colour, 16th June 2007.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Grenadier Guards]] band playing "[[The British Grenadiers]]" at [[Trooping the Colour]]. Formed in 1685 the band performs at British ceremonial events.]]
British Baroque music was heavily influenced by continental fashions. This is exemplified by [[George Frideric Handel]], a German-born naturalised British citizen whose choral music set British taste for the next two centuries. His operas also helped Britain challenge Italy as a centre of operatic production. Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of the [[Birmingham Triennial Music Festival]], which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. Beyond this, the establishment of the [[Royal Philharmonic Society|London Philharmonic Society]] in 1813, [[Royal Academy of Music]] in 1822, and [[Royal Irish Academy of Music|Irish Academy of Music]] in 1848 aided the professionalisation of British classical music and patronage of composers.

The Philharmonic Society was a strong supporter of the German [[Felix Mendelssohn]], an early Romantic composer who also strongly influenced British music. In Ireland, [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] invented the nocturne and may have been an influence on Chopin and Liszt. A notable development of the mid- to late-nineteenth century was the resurgence of [[Opera in English|English-language opera]] and the establishment of several prominent orchestras, including the [[Royal Liverpool Philharmonic]] in 1840, Manchester-based [[The Hallé|Hallé]] in 1858, the [[Royal Scottish National Orchestra|Scottish Orchestra]] in 1891 and the [[City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra]] in 1920. The most notable trend in classical music at the turn of the century was the nationalistic trend that developed. This was initially seen in works like ''[[The Masque at Kenilworth]]'', which reconstructed an Elizabethan masque, but later took a pastoral turn under the influence of the [[British folk revival]]. Examplars of this period are [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]]' ''[[English Folk Song Suite]]'', and [[Alexander Mackenzie (composer)|Sir Alexander Mackenzie]]'s ''Scottish Rhapsodies''.

Modern and contemporary classical music takes a variety of forms. Composers such as [[Benjamin Britten]] developed idiosyncratic and avant-garde styles, while the likes of [[William Walton]] produced more conventional ceremonial and patriotic music. The UK now has several major orchestras, including the [[BBC Symphony Orchestra]], and the [[Philharmonia]], while the establishment of the [[Opera North]] in 1977 sought to redress the balance of operatic institutions away from London. There are several classical festivals, such as [[Aldeburgh]] and [[Glyndebourne Festival Opera|Glydebourne]], while the [[The Proms|BBC Proms]] are an important annual fixture in the classical calendar.

==== Popular music ====
[[File:The Fabs.JPG|thumb|[[The Beatles]] are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed [[Musical ensemble|band]] in popular music, with estimated sales of over one billion.<ref>[https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-artists-of-all-time-19691231/the-beatles-19691231 100 Greatest Artists Of All Time: The Beatles (No.1)] ''[[Rolling Stone]]''. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</ref>|alt=]]
Popular commercial music in Britain can be traced back at least as far as the seventeenth-century [[broadside ballad]], and also encompasses [[British brass band|brass band music]] and [[music hall]]. Popular music in the modern sense began to emerge in the 1950s, as the American styles of [[British jazz|jazz]] and [[rock and roll]] became popular. The [[skiffle]] revival was an early attempt to create a British form of American music, but it was the emergence of [[British rock and roll]] by the early 1960s that established a viable British popular music industry. Genres such as [[Beat music|beat]] and [[British blues]] were re-exported to America by bands such as the [[The Beatles|Beatles]] and [[The Rolling Stones|Rolling Stones]], in a move that came to be called the [[British Invasion]]. The 1960s saw the development of [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] in [[Birmingham]] and the wider area. The development of [[blues rock]] helped differentiate rock and pop music, leading to the emergence of several sub-genres of rock in the 1970s. [[Glam rock]] was a particularly British genre that emphasised outrageous costumes, while the end of the decade saw the rise of [[Punk rock|punk]], [[New wave music|new wave]], and [[post-punk]] bands. The influence of immigration could also be seen in the increased prominence of [[World music]], particularly [[Caribbean music in the United Kingdom|Jamaican music]].

The 1980s were a successful decade in British pop, as a second [[Second British Invasion|British Invasion]] was witnessed and new technology enabled genres such as [[Synth-pop|synthpop]] to form. Jazz saw a resurgence as black British musicians created new fusions such as [[Acid jazz|Acid Jazz]]. [[Indie rock]] was a reaction to the perceived saturation of the music industry by pop, exemplified by [[Stock Aitken Waterman]]'s domination of the charts. This continued in the 1990s, as [[boy band]]s, [[All-female band|all-female]] and [[Co-ed groups|mixed groups]] dominated the singles chart, while the [[Madchester]] scene helped drive [[alternative rock]] and [[Britpop]] to the mainstream. British soul saw a rise that continued into the 2000s, including the global success of [[Adele]]. Dance music also saw innovation, with genres such as [[dubstep]] and [[new rave]] emerging.

==== Folk and sub-national music ====
{{Listen|filename=Handel - Arrival of the Queen of Sheba.ogg|title=Handel's "Arrival of the Queen of Sheba", from ''Solomon''|filename2=Henwladfynhadauchoir.ogg|title2="Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau (Land of My Fathers)"|filename3=|title3=Elgar's "Pomp & Circumstance March No. 1"|filename4=Auld Lang Syne - U.S. Navy Band.ogg|title4="Auld Lang Syne"|format=[[Ogg]]}}{{Main|2 = Welsh folk music|3 = Scottish folk music}}
In contrast to the comparatively homogeneous classical and pop genres, each nation of the UK has retained a distinct tradition of folk music. The traditional [[folk music of England]] has contributed to several genres, such as [[sea shanties]], [[jigs]], [[hornpipe]]s and [[dance music]]. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities, while musical [[Morris dancing]] is an English folk dance known to have existed at least as early as the mid-15th century.<ref>M. Heaney, "The Earliest Reference to the Morris Dance?",''Folk Music Journal'', vol. 8, no. 4 (2004), 513–515</ref>

The [[bagpipe]]s have long been a national symbol of Scotland, and the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]] is widely recognised. The [[List of the Child Ballads|''English and Scottish Popular Ballads'']], are [[ballad]]s of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century, demonstrating great regional variety, particularly local traditions such as the [[Border ballads]], which include the particularly influential [[The Ballad of Chevy Chase|''Ballad of Chevy Chase'']]. British folk groups, such as [[Fairport Convention]], have drawn heavily from these ballads.

Similarly, while the [[national anthem]] "[[God Save the King]]" and other patriotic songs such as "[[Rule, Britannia!]]" represent the United Kingdom, each of the four individual countries of the UK has its own patriotic hymns. For example, [[And did those feet in ancient time#Popularisation of the hymn|''Jerusalem'']], ''[[Flower of Scotland]]'', [[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau|''Land of My Fathers'']], and ''[[Danny Boy]]'' pertain exclusively to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland respectively. These songs are often used at sporting events where each nation competes individually. <br />
{{Clear}}

===Cinema===
{{Main|Cinema of the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|Lists of British films}}
[[File:Peter O'Toole in Lawrence of Arabia.png|thumb|[[Peter O'Toole]] as T. E. Lawrence in [[David Lean]]'s 1962 epic ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]'']]Britain has had a significant film industry for over a century. While many films focus on British culture, British cinema is also marked by its interaction and competition with [[Cinema of the United States|American]] and continental [[Cinema of Europe|European cinema]].

The UK was the location of the oldest surviving moving picture, ''[[Roundhay Garden Scene]]'' (1888), which was shot in [[Roundhay]], [[Leeds]] by French inventor [[Louis Le Prince]], while the first British film, ''[[Incident at Clovelly Cottage]]'' was shot in 1895.<ref>{{cite news|title=Louis Le Prince, who shot the world's first film in Leeds|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-33198686|agency=BBC|date=24 August 2016}}</ref> The world's first [[Color motion picture film|colour motion picture]] was shot by [[Edward Raymond Turner]] in 1902.<ref name="Colour picture">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-19598445 "Martin Scorsese on world's first colour film discovery"]. BBC. Retrieved 21 August 2016</ref> British film production suffered in the 1920s in face of competition from American imports and a legal requirement for cinemas to show a set quota of British films, which encouraged poor-quality, low-cost productions to meet this demand. This had changed by the 1940s, when the government encouraged fewer, higher-quality films to be made''.'' This era also saw the rise of [[Alfred Hitchcock]], who soon moved to the US and become one of the twentieth century's most influential directors. During [[World War II]] the [[Crown Film Unit]] established a reputation for documentaries, while [[Powell and Pressburger]] began their influential and innovative collaboration.

The post-war period was a particular high point for British filmmaking, producing ''[[The Third Man]]'' and ''[[Brief Encounter]]'', which the [[British Film Institute]] consider the best and second-best British films respectively. [[Laurence Olivier]]'s 1948 ''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]'' was the first British film to win the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. The 1950s saw a focus on popular domestic topics such as comedies, including the enduring ''[[Carry On (franchise)|Carry On]]'' series, and World War II epics such as [[The Dam Busters (film)|''The'' ''Dam Busters'']]. At the end of the decade [[Hammer Film Productions|Hammer Films]] took advantage of relaxed censorship laws to begin their series of successful horror films. The beginning of the 1960s saw the [[British New Wave]] style develop, influenced by its French counterpart, that sought to depict a wider strata of society in a realistic manner. The 1960s also saw renewed American financial interest in British film, which particularly manifested itself in the development of [[Epic film|historical epics]], such as Best Picture winners ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]'' and ''[[A Man for All Seasons (1966 film)|A Man for All Seasons]]''; [[Spy film|spy thrillers]], including the first films in the ''[[James Bond]]'' franchise; and films based on '[[Swinging Sixties|swinging London]]' scene.

The 1970s saw a withdrawal of American support and a retrenchment in British cinema, though the decade did see culturally important productions such as the horror ''[[The Wicker Man]]'' and [[Monty Python]]'s comedic films. The decade also saw the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] influence British film, as ''[[Pressure (1976 film)|Pressure]]'' and ''[[A Private Enterprise]]'' are considered the first [[Black British]] and [[British Asian]] films respectively. 1981's ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' and 1982's ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' both won the Best Picture Oscar, the latter winning eight awards, prompting a resurgence in period films. 1982 also saw the creation of [[Channel 4]], which had a remit to promote films for minority audiences. Films with racial and LGBT themes were produced, while Channel 4's involvement saw television stars move into feature films.

American investment again increased in the 1990s, and the success of ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' saw [[Romantic comedy|romantic comedies]] rise in popularity. [[Merchant Ivory Productions]], boosted by the Oscars success of the previous decade's period pieces, continued to produce films in the same vein. American studios also began to base the production of Hollywood films in the UK, encouraged by tax incentives. 1996's ''[[Trainspotting (film)|Trainspotting]]'' led to increased interest in regional, particularly Scottish, cinema. While American-funded films continued their influence in the 2010s, domestic European co-productions also received acclaim. ''[[The Queen (2006 film)|The Queen]]'' was British-French production for which [[Helen Mirren]] won Best Actress, while the [[UK Film Council]] funded ''[[The King's Speech]]'', which won Best Picture in 2011. Asian British cinema has risen in prominence since 1999, when ''[[East Is East (1999 film)|East is East]]'' was a mainstream success on a low budget.

===Broadcasting===
{{Main|Television in the United Kingdom|Radio in the United Kingdom}}The UK has been at the forefront of developments in film, radio and television. Broadcasting in the UK has historically been dominated by the taxpayer-funded but independently run [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] (commonly known as the ''BBC''), although other independent radio and television ([[ITV (TV network)|ITV]], [[Channel 4]], [[Five (channel)|Five]]) and satellite broadcasters (especially [[British Sky Broadcasting|BSkyB]] which has over 10 million subscribers) have become more important in recent years. BBC television, and the other three main television channels are [[public service broadcasting|public service broadcasters]] who, as part of their licence allowing them to operate, broadcast a variety of minority interest programming. The BBC and Channel 4 are state-owned, though they operate independently.

[[File:Weston Library Opening by John Cairns 20.3.15-139 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright|Broadcaster and naturalist [[David Attenborough]] is the only person to have won [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA]]s for programmes in each of black and white, colour, HD, and 3D.]]

Launched in 1955, ITV is the oldest commercial television network in the UK.<ref>''Commercial Television: A Guide to the constitution and working of the new service'' The Times (19 August 1955)</ref> Director [[Ridley Scott]]'s evocative 1973 [[Hovis]] bread television commercial captured the public imagination. Filmed on [[Gold Hill, Shaftesbury]] in Dorset, Scott's advert was voted the UK's favourite television advertisement of all time in 2006.<ref>{{cite news| first=Ciar | last=Byrne | url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/ridley-scotts-hovis-advert-is-voted-alltime-favourite-476424.html | title=Ridley Scott's Hovis advert is voted all-time favourite | newspaper= [[The Independent]] | date=2 May 2006| access-date=3 February 2011}}</ref> Other notable British commercials include the 1989 [[British Airways face advertisement]], the 2005 ''[[noitulovE]]'' advert for [[Guinness]], the 2007 ''[[Gorilla (advertisement)|Gorilla]]'' advertisement by [[Cadbury]] chocolate featuring a gorilla playing drums with Phil Collins' track "[[In the Air Tonight]]" playing in the background, and a 2013 advert for [[Galaxy (chocolate)|Galaxy]] chocolate bar featuring a computer-generated image of [[Audrey Hepburn]]. Christmas commercials are screened from early November in the UK, with campaigns including the [[John Lewis Christmas advert]] for the department store chain.

International football tournaments, such as the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]], are historically the most viewed sports events among the public, while ''[[Match of the Day]]'' is the most popular weekly football show. The [[1966 FIFA World Cup Final]] and the [[Funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales|Funeral of Princess Diana]] are the two [[List of most-watched television broadcasts#Most watched special events|most watched television events ever]] in the UK.<ref name="BARB"/> [[Satire]] has been a prominent feature in [[British comedy]] for centuries. The British [[satire boom]] of the 1960s, which consisted of writers and performers such as [[Peter Cook]], [[Dudley Moore]], [[Alan Bennett]], [[David Frost]] and [[Jonathan Miller]], has heavily influenced British television, including the sketch comedy series ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' created in 1969 by [[Monty Python]]. Regarded as the leading figure of the satire boom, Peter Cook was ranked number one in the ''Comedians' Comedian'' poll.<ref>{{cite news|title=Peter Cook the funniest|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/People/Peter-Cook-the-funniest/2005/01/03/1104601276619.html |work=The Age |location=Australia|date=3 January 2005}}</ref> The puppet show ''[[Spitting Image]]'' was a satire of the [[British Royal Family|royal family]], politics, entertainment, sport and British culture of the 1980s up to the mid-1990s.

[[File:Wallace, Gromit, and creator Nick Park.jpg|thumb|upright|Animator [[Nick Park]] with his [[Wallace and Gromit]] characters]]

''[[Have I Got News for You]]'' and ''[[Mock the Week]]'' are the two longest running satirical panel shows. Satire also features heavily in the ''[[Grand Theft Auto]]'' video game series which has been ranked among Britain's most successful exports.<ref>{{cite news|title=GTA 5: a Great British export|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/video-games/10316267/GTA-5-a-Great-British-export.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/video-games/10316267/GTA-5-a-Great-British-export.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=17 September 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The [[slapstick]] and double entendre of [[Benny Hill]] also achieved very high ratings on British television, as did the physical humour of ''[[Mr. Bean]]''. Popular comedy duos in television include ''[[The Two Ronnies]]'' and ''[[Morecambe and Wise]]'', with both shows featuring memorable sketches. ''[[Jeeves and Wooster]]'' starred [[Hugh Laurie]] as [[Bertie Wooster]], an airy, nonchalant, gormless, idle young gentleman and [[Stephen Fry]] as [[Jeeves]], his calm, well-informed, and talented [[valet]]. Created by and starring [[Rik Mayall]] as Richie and [[Adrian Edmondson]] as Eddie, ''[[Bottom (TV series)|Bottom]]'' features two crude, perverted flatmates with no jobs and little money, which is noted for its chaotic, nihilistic humour and violent comedy slapstick.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.sitcom.co.uk/bottom/| title=British Sitcom Guide – Bottom| access-date=15 March 2017| archive-date=3 February 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203032704/http://www.sitcom.co.uk/bottom/| url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Steve Coogan]] created the character [[Alan Partridge]], a tactless and inept television presenter who often insults his guests and whose inflated sense of celebrity drives him to shameless self-promotion. ''[[Da Ali G Show]]'' starred [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] as a faux-streetwise poseur [[Ali G]] from west London, who would conduct real interviews with unsuspecting people, many of whom are celebrities, during which they are asked absurd and ridiculous questions.

Animator [[Nick Park]] created the [[Wallace and Gromit]] characters at [[Aardman Animations]] studio in Bristol. They feature in ''[[A Grand Day Out]]'' (1989), ''[[The Wrong Trousers]]'' (1993) and ''[[A Close Shave]]'' (1995), which all have [[List of films with a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes|100% positive ratings]] on the aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes, while ''[[A Matter of Loaf and Death]]'' was the most watched television programme in the UK in 2008. Aardman also produce the kid's show ''[[Shaun the Sheep]]''. One of the most popular children's shows originating in the UK is ''[[Thomas & Friends]]'' (based on ''[[The Railway Series]]'' books by [[Wilbert Awdry]]), which has become the number one licensed preschool property in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/mattel-acquire-thomas-friends-maker-252418/ |title=Mattel to Acquire 'Thomas & Friends' Maker HIT Entertainment for $680 Million|first=Georg|last=Szalai|date=24 October 2011 |work=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref> Other popular children's shows include ''[[Postman Pat]]'', ''[[Fireman Sam]]'', ''[[Teletubbies]]'', ''[[Bob the Builder]]'' and ''[[Peppa Pig]]''.

First airing in 1958, ''[[Blue Peter]]'' is famous for its [[handicraft|arts and crafts]] "makes". The show has been a staple for generations of British children. Popular live action TV shows include ''[[The Borrowers (miniseries)|The Borrowers]]'' (based on [[Mary Norton (author)|Mary Norton]] books on little people), ''[[The Adventures of Black Beauty]]'', ''[[The Famous Five (1970s TV series)|The Famous Five]]'' (based on [[Enid Blyton]] books), ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1988 TV serial)|The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' (based on the [[C. S. Lewis]] novel), and ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1995 TV series)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' (starring [[Colin Firth]] as [[Mr. Darcy]]). The actor [[David Jason]] has voiced a number of popular characters in children's animation, including ''[[The Wind in the Willows (1983 film)|The Wind in the Willows]]'' (based on the children's book by [[Kenneth Grahame]]), ''[[Danger Mouse (1981 TV series)|Danger Mouse]]'' and ''[[Count Duckula]]''. Other children's shows include ''[[Where's Wally?]]'' (a series based on books by author [[Martin Handford]] where readers are challenged to find Wally who is hidden in the group), ''[[Dennis the Menace and Gnasher]]'', while ''[[Thunderbirds (TV series)|Thunderbirds]]'' and ''[[Terrahawks]]'' by [[Gerry Anderson|Gerry]] and [[Sylvia Anderson]] have been praised for creating [[Supermarionation]].<ref>Peel, John (1993). Thunderbirds, Stingray, Captain Scarlet: The Authorised Programme Guide. p. 240. London, UK:</ref>

Debuting in 1982, ''[[The Snowman]]'' (featuring the festive song "[[Walking in the Air]]") is annually screened at Christmas. Shown on the BBC, the UK holds two high-profile charity telethon events, [[Children in Need]], held annually in November, and [[Comic Relief]], which alternates with [[Sports Relief]], every March. The 2011 edition of Comic Relief saw the first appearance of [[James Corden]]'s Carpool Karaoke sketch when he drove around London singing songs with [[George Michael]]. British programmes dominate the list of TV's most watched shows in the UK, with the [[Kitchen sink realism|kitchen sink dramas]], ITV's ''[[Coronation Street]]'' and BBC's ''[[EastEnders]]'', both often ranking high on the ratings list compiled by [[Broadcasters' Audience Research Board|BARB]].<ref name="BARB">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-16671101 "Tracking 30 years of TV's most watched programmes"]. BBC. Retrieved 20 January 2015</ref> 
The major [[soap opera]]s each feature a [[pub]], and these pubs have become household names throughout the UK. The [[Rovers Return]] is the pub in ''Coronation Street'', the [[The Queen Victoria|Queen Vic]] (short for the [[Queen Victoria]]) is the pub in ''EastEnders'', and the [[Woolpack]] in ITV's ''[[Emmerdale]]''. The pub being a prominent setting in the three major television soap operas reflects the role pubs have as the focal point of the community in many towns and villages across the UK. Espionage and detective shows have long been a staple of British television, such as the 1960s series ''[[The Avengers (TV series)|The Avengers]]'' featuring lady spy adventurer and cultural (and feminist) icon [[Emma Peel]].

The United Kingdom has a large number of national and local radio stations which cover a great variety of programming. The most listened to stations are the five main national [[BBC Radio]] stations. [[BBC Radio 1]], a new music station aimed at the 16–24 age group. [[BBC Radio 2]], a varied [[popular music]] and chat station aimed at adults is consistently highest in the ratings. [[BBC Radio 4]], a varied talk station, is noted for its news, [[current affairs (news format)|current affairs]], [[radio drama|drama]] and [[radio comedy|comedy]] output as well as ''[[The Archers]]'', its long running soap opera, and other unique programmes, including ''[[Desert Island Discs]]'' (1942–present), an interview programme in which a famous guest (called a "[[castaway]]") chooses eight pieces of music, a book and a luxury item that they would take with them to a desert island. Currently presented by [[Lauren Laverne]], it is the longest running music radio programme in British history.

The idea for a [[Royal Christmas Message|Christmas message]] was conceived by one of the founders of the BBC. Delivered annually by the monarch, it was first broadcast on BBC Radio in 1932. An [[alternative Christmas message]] was first broadcast on Channel 4 in 1993. Broadcast from 1951 to 1960, radio comedy ''[[The Goon Show]]'', starring [[Peter Sellers]], [[Spike Milligan]] and [[Harry Secombe]], mixed ludicrous plots with surreal humour, puns, catchphrases and an array of bizarre sound effects. The show has exerted considerable influence on British comedy and culture. As a film star Sellers in particular became influential to film actors by using different accents and guises and assuming multiple roles in the same film. Comedian [[Marty Feldman]] co-created the acclaimed BBC Radio comedy programme ''[[Round the Horne]]'' in 1965. The long running radio comedy ''[[Just a Minute]]'' first aired on BBC Radio 4 in 1967. Panellists must talk for sixty seconds on a given subject, "without hesitation, repetition or deviation". Guests over the years have included [[Stephen Fry]], [[Eddie Izzard]] and [[Sue Perkins]]. First broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 1978, the science fiction comedy radio series ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (radio series)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' was innovative in its use of music and sound effects. The BBC, as a [[public service broadcasting|public service broadcaster]], also runs minority stations such as [[BBC Asian Network]], [[BBC Radio 1Xtra]] and [[BBC Radio 6 Music]], and local stations throughout the country. Rock music station [[Absolute Radio]], and sports station [[Talksport]], are among the biggest commercial radio stations in the UK.<ref>"Public service content: first report of session 2007–08, Vol. 2: Oral and written evidence"</ref>

* [[List of radio stations in the United Kingdom]]
* [[List of television stations in the United Kingdom]]

===Print===
[[File:Benjamin Disraeli, Vanity Fair, 1869-01-13.jpg|thumb|upright|Caricature of British Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] in ''[[Vanity Fair (UK magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', 30 January 1869]]
[[Freedom of the press]] was established in Great Britain in 1695.<ref>{{cite news|title=Leveson Inquiry: British press freedom is a model for the world, editor tells inquiry|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/journalists/gordon-rayner/8812486/Leveson-Inquiry-British-press-freedom-is-a-model-for-the-world-editor-tells-inquiry.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007183949/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/journalists/gordon-rayner/8812486/Leveson-Inquiry-British-press-freedom-is-a-model-for-the-world-editor-tells-inquiry.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 October 2011|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=20 October 2017}}</ref> Popular national newspapers include ''[[The Times]]'', ''[[Financial Times]], [[The Guardian]], [[The Daily Telegraph]] and [[The Independent]].''

Founded by publisher [[John Walter (publisher)|John Walter]] in 1785, ''The Times'' is the first newspaper to have borne that name, lending it to numerous other papers around the world, and is the originator of the widely used [[Times New Roman|Times Roman]] typeface, created by [[Victor Lardent]] and commissioned by [[Stanley Morison]] in 1931.<ref>{{cite book|last=Loxley|first=Simon|title=Type: the secret history of letters|publisher=I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd|year=2006|pages=130–131|isbn=1-84511-028-5}}</ref> Newspaper and publishing magnate [[Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe|Alfred Harmsworth]] played a major role in "shaping the modern press" – Harmsworth introduced or harnessed "broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control" – and was called "the greatest figure who ever strode down [[Fleet Street]]."<ref>Lord Beaverbrook, ''Politicians and the War, 1914–1916'' (1928) 1:93.</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' was founded by [[James Wilson (businessman)|James Wilson]] in 1843, and the daily ''[[Financial Times]]'' was founded in 1888. Founding ''[[The Gentleman's Magazine]]'' in 1731, [[Edward Cave]] coined the term "[[magazine]]" for a periodical, and was the first publisher to successfully fashion a wide-ranging publication.<ref>{{cite news|title=The History of Magazines|url=https://www.magazines.com/history-of-magazines|publisher=Magazines.com|date=16 September 2016}}</ref> Founded by [[Thomas Gibson Bowles]], ''[[Vanity Fair (UK magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' featured [[List of Vanity Fair (British magazine) caricatures|caricature]]s of famous people for which it is best known today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/set/361/Vanity+Fair+cartoons|title=National Portrait Gallery – Set – Vanity Fair cartoons|work=npg.org.uk}}</ref>

A pioneer of children's publishing, [[John Newbery]] made children's literature a sustainable and profitable part of the literary market.<ref name="Grenby">Matthew O Grenby (2013). "Little Goody Two-Shoes and Other Stories: Originally Published by John Newbery". p. vii. Palgrave Macmillan</ref> ''[[The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes]]'' was published by Newbery in 1765.<ref name="Grenby"/> Founded by Sir [[Allen Lane]] in 1935, [[Penguin Books]] revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its inexpensive [[paperback]]s, bringing high-quality paperback fiction and non-fiction to the mass market.<ref>{{cite news|title=Penguin's pioneering publisher – who never read books|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/7966424/Penguins-pioneering-publisher-who-never-read-books.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/7966424/Penguins-pioneering-publisher-who-never-read-books.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=17 February 2014|first=Florence|last=Waters|date=26 August 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Formed in 1940, [[Puffin Books]] is the children's imprint of Penguin Books. [[Barbara Euphan Todd]]'s scarecrow story, ''[[Worzel Gummidge]]'', was the first Puffin story book in 1941.<ref>Daniel Hahn (2015). "The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature". p. 479. Oxford University Press</ref>

The ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' was the brainchild of Sir [[Hugh Beaver]]. On 10 November 1951 he became involved in an argument over which was the fastest [[Game (food)|game bird]] in Europe, and realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated throughout the world, but there was no book with which to settle arguments about records. He realised that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. His idea became reality when an acquaintance of his recommended University friends [[Norris McWhirter|Norris]] and [[Ross McWhirter]] who were then commissioned to compile what became ''The Guinness Book of Records'' in August 1954.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spyhunter007.com/spy_guinness_book_history.htm|title=Guinness Book History 1950 – Present|work=spyhunter007.com}}</ref> [[E. L. James]]' erotic romance [[Fifty Shades trilogy|trilogy]] ''[[Fifty Shades of Grey]]'', ''[[Fifty Shades Darker]]'', and ''[[Fifty Shades Freed]]'', have sold over 125&nbsp;million copies globally, and set the record in the United Kingdom as the fastest selling paperback.<ref>{{cite news|title=Fifty Shades of Grey author EL James now worth £37m|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jun/27/fifty-shades-of-grey-el-james-fortune|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2 April 2017}}</ref>

[[Copyright]] laws originated in Britain with the [[Statute of Anne]] (also known as the Copyright Act 1709), which outlined the individual rights of the artist. A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognised a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html |title=Statute of Anne |publisher=Copyrighthistory.com |access-date=1 January 2015}}</ref> The Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rethinking copyright: history, theory, language |page=13 |author=Ronan, Deazley |isbn=978-1-84542-282-0 |year=2006 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing}}</ref>

===Visual arts===
{{Main|Art of the United Kingdom}}
[[File:Turner, The Battle of Trafalgar (1822).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|[[Battle of Trafalgar|''The Battle of Trafalgar'']] is an [[oil painting]] executed in 1822 by [[J. M. W. Turner]] (c.1775–1851). The experience of military, political and economic power from the rise of the [[British Empire]] led to a very specific drive in artistic technique, taste and sensibility in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/art/artandempire.htm|title=Art and Empire|publisher=britishempire.co.uk|access-date=24 October 2008|last=McKenzie|first=John}}</ref>]]
From the creation of the United Kingdom, the [[English school of painting]] is mainly notable for portraits and landscapes, and indeed portraits in landscapes. Among the artists of this period are [[Joshua Reynolds]] (1723–1792), [[George Stubbs]] (1724–1806), and [[Thomas Gainsborough]] (1727–1788).

Pictorial satirist [[William Hogarth]] pioneered Western sequential art, and political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian". Following the work of Hogarth, [[political cartoons]] developed in England in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of [[James Gillray]]. Regarded as being one of the two most influential [[cartoonist]]s (the other being Hogarth), Gillray has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon, with his satirical work calling the king (George III), prime ministers and generals to account.<ref>{{cite news|title=Satire, sewers and statesmen: why James Gillray was king of the cartoon|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/mar/21/satire-sewers-and-statesmen-james-gillray-king-of-cartoon|agency=The Guardian|date=16 June 2015}}</ref>

The late 18th century and the early 19th century was perhaps the most radical period in British art, producing [[William Blake]] (1757–1827), [[John Constable]] (1776–1837) and [[J. M. W. Turner]] (1775–1851), three of the most influential British artists, each of whom have dedicated spaces allocated for their work at the [[Tate Britain]].<ref>[http://www.museumselection.co.uk/article-Tate-Britain-tatebritain/ Museum Selection – Blake, Turner, Constable] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120910201659/http://www.museumselection.co.uk/article-Tate-Britain-tatebritain/ |date=10 September 2012 }} Tate Britain. Retrieved 3 July 2011</ref> Named after Turner, the [[Turner Prize]] (created in 1984) is an annual award presented to a British visual artist under the age of 50.

The [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] (PRB) achieved considerable influence after its foundation in 1848 with paintings that concentrated on religious, literary, and [[genre]] subjects executed in a colourful and minutely detailed style. PRB artists included [[John Everett Millais]], [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and subsequently [[Edward Burne-Jones]]. Also associated with it was the designer [[William Morris]], whose efforts to make beautiful objects affordable (or even free) for everyone led to his wallpaper and tile designs to some extent defining the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] aesthetic and instigating the [[Arts and Crafts movement]].

Visual artists from the UK in the 20th century include [[Lucian Freud]], [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]], [[David Hockney]], [[Bridget Riley]], and the [[pop art]]ists [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]] and [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]]. Also prominent amongst 20th-century artists was [[Henry Moore]], regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general. [[Sir Jacob Epstein]] was a pioneer of modern sculpture. In 1958 artist [[Gerald Holtom]] designed the protest logo for the British [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] (CND), the peace movement in the UK, which became a universal [[peace symbol]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7292252.stm |title=World's best-known protest symbol turns 50 |date=20 March 2008 |access-date=25 May 2008 | location=London | work=BBC News}}</ref> As a reaction to [[abstract expressionism]], [[pop art]] emerged in England at the end of the 1950s. The 1990s saw the [[Young British Artists]], [[Damien Hirst]] and [[Tracey Emin]].

[[File:Tartan Ribbon.jpg|thumb|The first colour [[Photography#Color|photograph]] in 1861. Produced by the three-colour method suggested by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in 1855, it is the foundation of all colour photographic processes.<ref>{{cite news|title=1861: James Clerk Maxwell's greatest year|url=https://www.kcl.ac.uk/newsevents/news/newsrecords/2011/04Apr/JamesClerkMaxwell.aspx|publisher=King's College London|date=3 January 2017}}</ref>]]
The auction was revived in 17th- and 18th-century England when [[Candle auction|auctions by candle]] began to be used for the sale of goods and leaseholds, some of which were recorded in [[Samuel Pepys]]'s [[diary]] in 1660.<ref>R.W. Patten. "Tatworth Candle Auction." ''Folklore'' 81, No. 2 (Summer 1970), 132–135</ref> Headquartered in King Street, London, [[Christie's]], the world's largest auction house, was founded in 1766 by auctioneer [[James Christie (auctioneer)|James Christie]] in London. Known for his thickly impasted portrait and figure paintings, Lucian Freud was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time. Freud was depicted in Francis Bacon's 1969 oil painting, ''[[Three Studies of Lucian Freud]]'', which was sold for $142.4 million in November 2013, the [[List of most expensive paintings|highest price attained at auction]] to that point.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/when-lucian-met-francis-relationship-that-spawned-most-expensive-painting-ever-sold-8937613.html|title=When Lucian met Francis: Relationship that spawned most expensive painting ever sold|last=Sherwin|first=Adam|author-link=Adam Sherwin|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|date=13 November 2013|access-date=13 November 2014|location=London}}</ref>

[[File:Banksy - Grin Reaper With Tag.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Banksy]]'s ''Grin Reaper'']]
[[Randolph Caldecott]], [[Walter Crane]], [[Kate Greenaway]], [[John Tenniel]], [[Aubrey Beardsley]], [[Roger Hargreaves]], [[Arthur Rackham]], [[John Leech (caricaturist)|John Leech]], [[George Cruikshank]] and [[Beatrix Potter]] were notable book illustrators. Posters have played a significant role in British culture. Designed by [[Alfred Leete]] in 1914 as a recruitment poster for the British Army, "[[Lord Kitchener Wants You]]" is the most famous British recruitment poster ever produced and an iconic and enduring image of World War I.<ref name=Horatio>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/kitchener_lord_horatio.shtml|title=Historic Figures – Lord Horatio Kitchener (1850–1916)|website=[[BBC]]}} Retrieved 31 March 2011</ref> Produced by the British government in 1939 for World War II, the ''[[Keep Calm and Carry On]]'' motivational poster is now seen as "not only as a distillation of a crucial moment in Britishness, but also as an inspiring message from the past to the present in a time of crisis".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7869458.stm|title=The Greatest Motivational Poster Ever?|work=BBC News|date= 4 February 2009|first=Stuart|last=Hughes}}</ref>

In the late 1960s, British [[graphic designer]] [[Storm Thorgerson]] co-founded the graphic art group [[Hipgnosis]], who have designed many iconic single and album covers for rock bands. His works were notable for their [[Surrealism|surreal]] elements, with perhaps the most famous being the cover for Pink Floyd's ''[[The Dark Side of the Moon]]''.<ref>{{cite news | first = Adam | last = Sweeting | title = Storm Thorgerson dies aged 69: 'the best album designer in the world' | date = 18 April 2013 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/apr/18/storm-thorgerson-dies-69-designer-of-album-covers-for-pink-floyd | work = [[The Guardian]] | access-date = 20 April 2013 | location=London}}</ref> Designed and photographed by [[Brian Duffy (photographer)|Brian Duffy]], the ''[[Aladdin Sane]]'' album cover features a lightning bolt across his face which is regarded as one of the most iconic images of David Bowie. The subversive political artwork of [[Banksy]] (pseudonym of English [[graffiti artist]] whose identity is concealed) can be found on streets, walls and buildings in the UK and the rest of the world.<ref>Fiona Pryor (8 February 2007) [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-11510513 On the trail of artist Banksy] ''[[BBC News]]''</ref> Arts institutions include the [[Royal College of Art]], [[Royal Society of Arts]], [[New English Art Club]], [[Slade School of Art]], [[Royal Academy]], and the [[Tate Gallery]] (founded as the National Gallery of British Art).

;Design
[[File:ConcordeBG.jpg|thumb|left|[[Concorde]] (and the [[Red Arrows]] with their trail of red, white and blue smoke) mark the Queen's [[Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Golden Jubilee]]. With its slender delta wings Concorde won the public vote for best British design.]]
In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, [[Concorde]] was named the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the [[Design Museum]]. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as the [[Mini]], [[mini skirt]], [[Jaguar E-Type]], [[Tube map]] and the [[Supermarine Spitfire]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/concorde-beats-tube-map-to-become-britains-favourite-design-6106516.html |title= Concorde beats Tube map to become Britain's favourite design |first= Louise |last= Jury |newspaper=The Independent | location=London |date= 6 November 2016}}</ref>

Sir [[Morien Morgan]] led research into [[supersonic transport]] in 1948 that culminated in the Concorde passenger aircraft.<ref name="Morhan"/> In November 1956 he became chairman of the newly formed Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee which funded research into supersonic transport at several British aviation firms though the 1950s. By the late 1950s, the committee had started the process of selecting specific designs for development, and after the forced merger of most aviation firms in 1960, selected the [[Bristol Type 223]], designed by [[Archibald Russell]], as the basis for a transatlantic design.<ref name="Morhan">{{cite journal|first= Morien |last= Morgan |title=A new shape in the sky|journal=Aeronautical Journal|date=January 1972|volume= 76 |issue= 733 |pages= 1–18 |doi= 10.1017/S0001924000042226 |s2cid= 115588927 }}</ref>

The [[Brit Awards]] statuette for the [[British Phonographic Industry|BPI]]'s annual music awards, which depicts [[Britannia]], the female personification of Britain, is regularly redesigned by some of the best known British designers, stylists and artists, including Dame [[Vivienne Westwood]], [[Damien Hirst]], [[Tracey Emin]], Sir [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]], [[Zaha Hadid]] and Sir [[Anish Kapoor]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Dame Zaha Hadid's Brit Awards statuette design unveiled|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-38160633|work=BBC|date=1 December 2016}}</ref>

===Performing arts, carnivals, parades===
[[File:Royal Albert Hall, London.jpg|thumb|right|[[The Proms]] are held annually at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] during the summer. Regular performers at the Albert Hall include [[Eric Clapton]] who has played at the venue over 200 times.]]
Large outdoor [[List of music festivals in the United Kingdom|music festivals]] in the summer and autumn are popular, such as [[Glastonbury Festival|Glastonbury]] (the largest greenfield festival in the world), [[V Festival]], [[Reading and Leeds Festivals]]. The UK was at the forefront of the illegal, free [[rave]] movement from the late 1980s, which led to pan-European culture of [[teknival]]s mirrored on the British free festival movement and associated travelling lifestyle.<ref>Matthew Collin, John Godfrey (2010). "Altered State: The Story of Ecstasy Culture and Acid House" p.258. Retrieved 18 February 2012</ref> The most prominent [[opera house]] in England is the [[Royal Opera House]] at [[Covent Gardens]].<ref name="foreman">Foreman, Susan (2005). London: a musical gazetteer. Yale University Press</ref> [[The Proms]], a season of [[orchestral]] classical music concerts held at the [[Royal Albert Hall]], is a major cultural event held annually.<ref name="foreman" /> [[The Royal Ballet]] is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th-century dance, ''[[prima ballerina]]'' [[Margot Fonteyn]] and choreographer [[Frederick Ashton]]. [[Irish dancing]] is popular in Northern Ireland and among the Irish diaspora throughout the UK; its costumes feature patterns taken from the medieval [[Book of Kells]].<ref>Margaret Scanlan (2006). "Culture and Customs of Ireland". p. 163. Greenwood Publishing Group</ref>

A staple of British seaside culture, the quarrelsome couple [[Punch and Judy]] made their first recorded appearance in Covent Garden, London in 1662.<ref name="British seaside"/> The various episodes of Punch and Judy are performed in the spirit of outrageous comedy – often provoking shocked laughter – and are dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mr Punch celebrates 350 years of puppet anarchy|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-17895716|agency=BBC|date=11 June 2015|work=BBC News}}</ref> Regarded as British cultural icons, they appeared at a significant period in British history, with Glyn Edwards stating: "[Pulcinella] went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years of [[Puritanism]]. We soon changed Punch's name, transformed him from a marionette to a hand puppet, and he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority, a kind of puppet equivalent to our political cartoons."<ref name="British seaside">{{cite news|title=Punch and Judy around the world|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatlife/7949781/Punch-and-Judy-around-the-world.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatlife/7949781/Punch-and-Judy-around-the-world.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|agency=The Telegraph|date=11 June 2015|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Leah|last=Hyslop}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[File:Notting Hill Carnival 2002 large.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Notting Hill Carnival]] is Britain's biggest street festival. Led by members of the British African-Caribbean community, the annual carnival takes place in August and lasts three days.]]The [[circus]] is a traditional form of entertainment in the UK. [[Chipperfield's Circus]] dates back more than 300 years in Britain, making it one of the oldest family circus dynasties. [[Philip Astley]] is regarded as the father of the [[circus#Development|modern circus]].<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/2929565.stm "The circus comes to the Circus"]. BBC News. Retrieved 13 December 2014</ref> Following his invention of the circus ring in 1768, [[Astley's Amphitheatre]] opened in London in 1773.<ref name="BBC"/> As an equestrian master Astley had a skill for trick horse-riding, and when he added tumblers, [[tightrope]]-walkers, [[jugglers]], performing dogs, and a [[clown]] to fill time between his own demonstrations – the modern circus was born.<ref name="BBC"/> The Hughes Royal Circus was popular in London in the 1780s. [[Pablo Fanque]]'s Circus Royal, among the most popular circuses of Victorian England, showcased [[William Kite]], which inspired [[John Lennon]] to write "[[Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!]]" on [[The Beatles]]' album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. [[Joseph Grimaldi]], originator of [[Clown#Whiteface|whiteface]] [[clown]] make-up, is considered the father of modern clowning.<ref>''20 Years of Laughter'', p.14. Turner Publishing Company, 2006</ref>

The [[Edinburgh Festival Fringe]] is the world's largest [[arts festival]]. Established in 1947, it takes place in Scotland's capital during three weeks every August alongside several other arts and cultural festivals. The Fringe mostly attracts events from the [[performing arts]], particularly theatre and comedy, although dance and music also feature. The [[Notting Hill Carnival]] is an annual event that has taken place on the streets of [[Notting Hill]], London since 1966.<ref name="Enterprises Trust">[http://www.thelondonnottinghillcarnival.com/about.html#aboutHistory "About us"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520205326/http://www.thelondonnottinghillcarnival.com/about.html#aboutHistory |date=20 May 2015 }}, Notting Hill Carnival '13, London Notting Hill Enterprises Trust.</ref> Led by the [[British African-Caribbean people|British African-Caribbean]] community, the carnival has attracted around one million people, making it Britain's biggest street festival and one of the largest in the world.<ref name="Enterprises Trust"/> 
Also of note is the extensive impact of Irish culture for St. Patrick's Day. The largest St Patrick's Day Parade takes place in [[Digbeth]], [[Birmingham]], where there is a strong Irish community.

[[File:WarnePantomine1890.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Christmas Pantomime'' 1890. [[Pantomime]] plays a prominent role in British culture during the Christmas and New Year season.<ref name="Panto">David Christopher (2002). "British Culture: An Introduction". p. 74. Routledge,</ref>]][[File:London 2745.JPG|thumb|left|Music hall evolved into variety shows. First performed in 1912, the ''[[Royal Variety Performance]]'' was first held at the [[London Palladium]] (''pictured'') in 1941. Performed in front of members of the Royal Family, it is held annually in December and broadcast on television.]]
[[Pantomime]] (often referred to as "panto") is a British [[musical theatre|musical comedy]] stage production, designed for family entertainment. It is performed in theatres throughout the UK during the Christmas and New Year season. The art originated in the 18th century with [[John Weaver (dancer)|John Weaver]], a dance master and choreographer at the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] in London.<ref name="Panto" /> In 19th-century England it acquired its present form, which includes songs, slapstick comedy and dancing, employing gender-crossing actors, combining [[topical humour]] with a story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale.<ref name="Panto" /> It is a participatory form of theatre, in which the audience sing along with parts of the music and shout out phrases to the performers, such as "It's behind you".<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/britain/21636788-understand-britishand-have-fungo-and-see-christmas-pantomime-its-behind-you "It's behind you: To understand the British—and have fun—go and see a Christmas pantomime"]. The Economist. Retrieved 2 January 2015</ref>

Pantomime story lines and scripts are almost always based on traditional children's stories: some of the popular British stories featured include ''[[Jack and the Beanstalk]]'', ''[[Peter Pan]]'', ''[[Babes in the Wood]]'', ''[[Goldilocks and the Three Bears]]'' and ''[[Dick Whittington and His Cat]]''. Plot lines are almost always adapted for comic or satirical effect, and characters and situations from other stories are often interpolated into the plot. For example, ''Jack and the Beanstalk'' might include references to English nursery rhymes involving characters called "Jack", such as ''[[Jack and Jill (nursery rhyme)|Jack and Jill]]''. Famous people regularly appear in Pantos, such as [[Ian McKellen]].<ref>Billington, Michael. [https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2004/dec/20/theatre.shopping1 "''Aladdin'': Old Vic, London"], ''The Guardian'', 20 December 2004.</ref> McKellen has also appeared at gay pride marches, with [[Manchester Pride]] one of 15 annual gay pride parades in the UK; the largest in [[Brighton Pride|Brighton]] attracts over 300,000.<ref>{{cite news|title=Brighton Pride 'more important than ever'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-36996333|work=BBC|date=10 November 2016}}</ref>
[[File:May_Day_Hastings_East_Sussex_-_geograph.org.uk_-_162688.jpg|left|thumb|[[Jack in the Green|Jack In the Green]], a traditional English folk custom being celebrated in [[Hastings Old Town]], known for its many historic buildings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Hastings Old Town |url=https://www.visit1066country.com/destinations/hastings/history |website=visit1066country.com}}</ref>]]
[[Music hall]] is a British theatrical entertainment popular from the early Victorian era to the mid-20th century. The precursor to [[variety shows]] of today, music hall involved a mixture of popular songs, comedy, speciality acts and variety entertainment. Music hall songs include "[[I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am]]", "[[Hokey cokey]]", "[[I Do Like To be Beside the Seaside]]" and "[[The Laughing Policeman (song)|The Laughing Policeman]]". British performers who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Stan Laurel]], [[George Formby]], [[Gracie Fields]], [[Dan Leno]], [[Gertrude Lawrence]], [[Marie Lloyd]] and [[Harry Champion]].<ref name="McCabe">{{cite book|last1=McCabe|first1=John|title=The Comedy World of Stan Laurel|date=2004|publisher=Robson|page=143}}</ref> British music hall comedian and theatre impresario [[Fred Karno]] developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were notable music hall comedians who worked for him.<ref name="McCabe"/> Laurel stated, "Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burton|first1=Alan|title=Pimple, pranks & pratfalls: British film comedy before 1930|date=2000|publisher=Flicks Books|page=51}}</ref> Film producer [[Hal Roach]] stated; "Fred Karno is not only a genius, he is the man who originated [[slapstick]] comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him."<ref>J. P. Gallagher (1971). "Fred Karno: master of mirth and tears". p. 165. Hale.</ref> Examples of variety shows that evolved from the music hall include the ''[[Royal Variety Performance]]'' (first performed in 1912), which was broadcast on BBC radio from the 1920s, and then on television since the 1950s. Annually held in December (often at the [[London Palladium]]) and performed in front of members of the [[British Royal Family]], many [[List of Royal Variety Performances|famous acts have performed]] at the ''Royal Variety'' show over the century, and since 2007 one act of the show has been selected by the British public through the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] television talent show ''[[Britain's Got Talent]]''.

{{Clear}}

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of the United Kingdom}}
[[File:Bodiam-castle-10My8-1197.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bodiam Castle]] is a 14th-century [[moat]]ed [[castle]] in East Sussex. Today there are thousands of [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland|castles throughout the UK]].<ref>[http://www.heritagebritain.com/counties/castles.html Castles in Great Britain] Heritage Britain. Retrieved 26 June 2011</ref>]]
The [[architecture of the United Kingdom]] includes many features that precede the creation of the United Kingdom in 1707, from as early as [[Skara Brae]] and [[Stonehenge]] to the [[Giant's Ring]], [[Avebury]] and [[Roman Britain|Roman]] [[ruins]]. In most towns and villages the parish church is an indication of the age of the settlement. Many [[castle]]s remain from the [[medieval]] period, such as [[Windsor Castle]] (longest-occupied castle in Europe),<ref>''Great Castles of Britain & Ireland''. p.43. New Holland Publishers, 2009</ref> [[Stirling Castle]] (one of the largest and most important in Scotland), [[Bodiam Castle]] (a [[moat]]ed castle), and [[Warwick Castle]]. Over the two centuries following the [[Norman Conquest|Norman conquest of England]] of 1066, and the building of the [[Tower of London]], castles such as [[Caernarfon Castle]] in Wales and [[Carrickfergus Castle]] in Ireland were built.

[[File:Westminster abbey west.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Westminster Abbey]] is an example of [[English Gothic architecture]]. Since 1066, when [[William the Conqueror]] was crowned, the coronations of British monarchs have been held here.<ref name=History>{{cite web|url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history|title=History|publisher=Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey|access-date=19 April 2008}}</ref> ]]
[[English Gothic architecture]] flourished from the 12th to the early 16th century, and famous examples include [[Westminster Abbey]], the traditional place of [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] for the [[British monarch]], which also has a long tradition as a venue for [[royal wedding]]s; and was the location of the [[funeral of Princess Diana]],<ref>[http://westminster-abbey.org.uk Westminster Abbey.org]. Retrieved 18 February 2011.</ref> [[Canterbury Cathedral]], one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England; [[Salisbury Cathedral]], which has the tallest church [[spire]] in the UK; and [[Winchester Cathedral]], which has the longest [[nave]] and greatest overall length of any Gothic cathedral in Europe.<ref>Alec Clifton-Taylor, The Cathedrals of England (Thames & Hudson, 1969)</ref> [[Tudor architecture]] is the final development of Medieval architecture in England, during the [[Tudor period]] (1485–1603). In the United Kingdom, a [[listed building]] is a building or other structure officially designated as being of special architectural, historical or cultural significance. About half a million buildings in the UK have "listed" status.

In the 1680s, [[Downing Street]] was built by [[Sir George Downing, 1st Baronet|Sir George Downing]], and its most famous address [[10 Downing Street]], became the residence of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] in 1730.<ref>[http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour Number 10: History and Tour] ''Official site of the Prime Minister's Office''. Retrieved 3 March 2011.</ref> One of the best-known English architects working at the time of the foundation of the United Kingdom was Sir [[Christopher Wren]]. He was employed to design and rebuild many of the ruined ancient churches of London following the [[Great Fire of London]]. His masterpiece, [[St Paul's Cathedral]], was completed in the early years of the United Kingdom.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/gallery_st_pauls.shtml British History in depth: Christopher Wren and St Paul's Cathedral] ''BBC''. Retrieved 18 February 2011.</ref> [[Buckingham Palace]], the London residence of the British monarch, was built in 1705. Both St Paul's Cathedral and Buckingham Palace use [[Portland stone]], a limestone from the [[Jurassic]] period [[Quarry|quarried]] in the [[Jurassic Coast]] in [[Isle of Portland|Portland]], Dorset, which is famous for its use in British and world architecture.<ref>{{cite book |title= Stone Quarry Landscapes: The Industrial Archaeology of Quarrying |last=Stanier |first=Peter |location=[[Stroud]] |publisher=Tempus Press |year=2000 |pages=100–109 |isbn=978-0-7524-1751-6 |oclc=47830911}}</ref>

In the early 18th century [[Baroque]] architecture – popular in Europe – was introduced, and [[Blenheim Palace]] was built in this era. However, Baroque was quickly replaced by a return of the Palladian form. The [[Georgian architecture]] of the 18th century was an evolved form of Palladianism. Many existing buildings such as [[Woburn Abbey]] and [[Kedleston Hall]] are in this style. Among the many architects of this form of architecture and its successors, [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] and [[Romanticism|romantic]], were [[Robert Adam]], Sir [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]], and [[James Wyatt]].

[[File:Chatsworth showing hunting tower.jpg|thumb|left|One of the UK's many [[stately homes]], [[Chatsworth House]] in Derbyshire, surrounded by an [[English garden]]. The house is one of the settings of Jane Austen's novel ''[[Pride and Prejudice (novel)|Pride and Prejudice]]''.]]
The aristocratic [[stately home]] continued the tradition of the first large gracious unfortified mansions such as the [[Elizabethan]] [[Montacute House]] and [[Hatfield House]]. Many of these houses are the setting for British period dramas, such as ''[[Downton Abbey]]''. During the 18th and 19th centuries in the highest echelons of British society, the [[English country house]] was a place for relaxing, hunting in the countryside. Many stately homes have become open to the public: [[Knebworth House]], now a major venue for [[Concerts at Knebworth House|open air rock and pop concerts]] – [[Freddie Mercury]]'s final live performance with [[Queen (band)|Queen]] took place at Knebworth on 9 August 1986,<ref>[http://www.knebworthhouse.com/rock/rockconcerts.htm Knebworth: The Stately Home of Rock]. Retrieved 18 February 2011.</ref> [[Alton Towers]], the most popular [[theme park]] in the UK, and [[Longleat]], the world's first [[Longleat Safari Park|safari park]] outside Africa.

[[File:Forth bridge evening.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Forth Railway Bridge]] is a [[cantilever bridge]] over the [[Firth of Forth]] in the east of Scotland. It was opened in 1890, and is designated as a Category A [[listed building]].]]

In the early 19th century the romantic [[Gothic revival architecture|Gothic revival]] began in England as a reaction to the [[symmetry]] of Palladianism. Notable examples of Gothic revival architecture are the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] and [[Fonthill Abbey]]. By the middle of the 19th century, as a result of new technology, one could incorporate steel as a building component: one of the greatest exponents of this was [[Joseph Paxton]], architect of [[the Crystal Palace]]. Paxton also built such houses as [[Mentmore Towers]], in the still popular retrospective [[English Renaissance|Renaissance]] styles. In this era of prosperity and development British architecture embraced many new methods of construction, but such architects as [[August Pugin]] ensured that traditional styles were retained.

Following the building of the world's first [[Pier#Pleasure piers|seaside pier]] in July 1814 in [[Ryde]], [[Isle of Wight]] off the south coast of England, the pier became fashionable at [[seaside resort]]s in the UK during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built.<ref name="seaside pier"/> Providing a walkway out to sea, the seaside pier is regarded as among the finest Victorian architecture, and is an iconic symbol of the British seaside holiday.<ref name="seaside pier"/> By 1914, there were over 100 piers around the UK's coasts.<ref name="seaside pier">{{cite news|title=The expert selection: British seaside piers|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/1f76dcdc-1718-11e4-b0d7-00144feabdc0.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/1f76dcdc-1718-11e4-b0d7-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|agency=Financial Times|issue=1 August 2014|date=15 June 2015}}</ref> Today there are 55 [[List of piers in the United Kingdom|seaside piers in the UK]].<ref name="seaside pier"/> [[Tower Bridge]] (half a mile from [[London Bridge]]) opened in 1895.

At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of design, [[Arts and Crafts movement|arts and crafts]], became popular; the architectural form of this style, which had evolved from the 19th-century designs of such architects as [[George Devey]], was championed by [[Edwin Lutyens]]. Arts and crafts in architecture is characterised by an informal, non-symmetrical form, often with [[mullion]]ed or [[latticework|lattice]] windows, multiple [[gable]]s and tall chimneys. This style continued to evolve until World War II. After that war, reconstruction went through a variety of phases, but was heavily influenced by [[Modernism]], especially from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. Many bleak town centre redevelopments—criticised for featuring hostile, concrete-lined "windswept plazas"—were the fruit of this interest, as were many equally bleak public buildings, such as the [[Hayward Gallery]].

[[File:Woking tripod.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Statue of a [[Tripod (The War of the Worlds)|tripod]] from ''[[The War of the Worlds]]'' in Woking, England, the hometown of author [[H. G. Wells]]. The book is a seminal depiction of a conflict between mankind and an [[Extraterrestrials in fiction|extraterrestrial]] race.<ref>John L. Flynn (2005). "War of the Worlds: From Wells to Spielberg". p.5</ref>]]
Many Modernist-inspired town centres are today being redeveloped: [[Bracknell]] town centre is an example. However, in the immediate post-War years many thousands (perhaps hundreds of thousands) of [[council house]]s in vernacular style were built, giving working-class people their first experience of private gardens and indoor [[sanitation]]. Many towns also feature statues or sculptures dedicated to famous natives. Modernism remains a significant force in British architecture, although its influence is felt predominantly in commercial buildings. The two most prominent proponents are [[Lord Rogers of Riverside]] and [[Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank|Norman Foster]]. Rogers' best known London buildings are probably [[Lloyd's Building]] and the [[Millennium Dome]], while Foster created the '[[30 St Mary Axe|Gherkin]]' and the [[City Hall, Southwark|City Hall]]. The [[Turner Prize]] winning artist Sir [[Anish Kapoor]] is an acclaimed contemporary British sculptors. A notable design is his [[ArcelorMittal Orbit]] sculpture at the [[Olympic Park, London|Olympic Park]] in London.

Described by ''[[The Guardian]]'' as the 'Queen of the curve', [[Zaha Hadid]] liberated architectural geometry with the creation of highly expressive, sweeping fluid forms of [[Cubism#Architecture|multiple perspective]] points and [[Fractal|fragmented geometry]] that evoke the chaos and flux of modern life.<ref name="Queen of curve">{{cite news|title=Queen of the curve' Zaha Hadid dies aged 65 from heart attack|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/mar/31/star-architect-zaha-hadid-dies-aged-65|agency=The Guardian|date=29 November 2016}}</ref> A pioneer of [[parametricism]], and an icon of [[neo-futurism]], with a formidable personality, her acclaimed work and ground-breaking forms include [[London Aquatics Centre|the aquatic centre]] for the London 2012 Olympics.<ref name="Queen of curve"/> In 2010 and 2011 she received the [[Stirling Prize]], the UK's most prestigious architectural award, and in 2015 she became the first woman to be awarded the [[Royal Gold Medal]] from the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]]. Completed in 2012, the [[Shard London Bridge]] is the tallest building in the UK. Other major skyscrapers under construction in London include [[22 Bishopsgate]], and [[Heron Tower]]. Modernist architect [[Nicholas Grimshaw]] designed the [[Eden Project]] in Cornwall, which is the world's largest greenhouse.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/eden-project-gives--area-acircpound111m-boost-620578.html Eden Project gives area £111m boost] ''[[The Independent]]''. Retrieved 26 March 2011.</ref>

===Comics===
{{Main|British comics}}
[[File:Minnie the minx.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Statue of ''[[Minnie the Minx]]'', a character from ''[[The Beano]]'', in Dundee, Scotland. Launched in 1938, ''The Beano'' is known for its anarchic humour, with ''[[Dennis the Menace and Gnasher|Dennis the Menace]]'' appearing on the cover.]]

British comics in the early 20th century typically evolved from illustrated [[penny dreadful]]s of the Victorian era (featuring [[Sweeney Todd]], [[Dick Turpin]] and ''[[Varney the Vampire]]''). A growing consumer culture and an increased capacity for travel throughout the UK via the invention of [[railway]] ([[Stockton and Darlington Railway|in 1825]]) created both a market for cheap popular literature, and the ability for it to be circulated on a large scale. Created in the 1830s, ''The Guardian'' described penny dreadfuls as "Britain's first taste of mass-produced [[popular culture]] for the young".<ref>{{cite news |first=Kate |last=Summerscale|title=Penny dreadfuls: the Victorian equivalent of video games |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/apr/30/penny-dreadfuls-victorian-equivalent-video-games-kate-summerscale-wicked-boy |access-date=6 December 2018 |date=30 April 2016|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> Introducing familiar features in [[vampire fiction]], ''Varney'' is the first story to refer to sharpened teeth for a [[Vampire#In modern culture|vampire]].<ref>Lisa A. Nevárez (2013). "The Vampire Goes to College: Essays on Teaching with the Undead". p. 125. McFarland</ref> After adult comics had been published – most notably ''[[Ally Sloper's Half Holiday]]'' (1880s) featuring [[Ally Sloper]] who has been called the first regular character in comics,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Birch|first1=Dinah|title=The Oxford Companion to English Literature|date=24 September 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> – more juvenile British comics emerged, with the two most popular, ''[[The Beano]]'' and ''[[The Dandy]]'', released by [[DC Thomson]] (based in [[Dundee]], Scotland) in the 1930s. By 1950 the weekly circulation of both reached two million.<ref name="Armstrong">Armstrong, Stephen. [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/pixar/11766202/Was-Pixars-Inside-Out-inspired-by-The-Beano.html "Was Pixar's Inside Out inspired by The Beano?"] ''The Telegraph''. 27 July 2015</ref> Explaining the popularity of comics during this period, Anita O'Brien, director curator at London's Cartoon Museum, states: "When comics like the ''Beano'' and ''Dandy'' were invented back in the 1930s – and through really to the 1950s and 1960s – these comics were almost the only entertainment available to children."<ref name="Armstrong"/>

In 1954 ''[[Tiger (Fleetway)|Tiger]]'' comics introduced ''[[Roy of the Rovers]]'', the hugely popular football based strip recounting the life of [[Roy Race]] and the team he played for, [[Melchester Rovers]]. The stock media phrase "real 'Roy of the Rovers' stuff" is often used by football writers, commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill, or surprising results that go against the odds, in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip's trademark. Other comic books, [[graphic novel]]s, and sequential art of various genres also flourished. These included fantasy and science fiction like ''[[Eagle (comic)|Eagle]]'', ''[[Valiant (comics)|Valiant]]'', ''[[Warrior (comics)|Warrior]]'', and ''[[2000 AD (comics)|2000 AD]]''. Other popular titles were war comics inspired by British military history like ''[[Commando (comics)|Commando]]'', ''[[War Picture Library]]'', and ''[[The Victor (comics)|The Victor]]''.<ref name="A">Sabin, Roger, ''Comics, Comix & Graphic Novels''. London : Phaidon Press, 2014. {{ISBN|9780714839936}} (pgs. 49, 131)</ref><ref name="whereeaglesdare.eu">{{cite web|url=http://www.whereeaglesdare.eu/story7.htm|title=Official Commando pressrelease for issue 4000: This Means War!|website=Where Eagles Dare|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005155810/http://www.whereeaglesdare.eu/story7.htm|archive-date=5 October 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Created by [[Emma Orczy]] in 1903, [[the Scarlet Pimpernel]] is the alter ego of Sir Percy Blakeney, a wealthy English fop who transforms into a formidable swordsman and a quick-thinking escape artist, establishing the "hero with a [[secret identity]]" into popular culture.<ref name="Bell">{{cite book |title=Masquerade: Essays on Tradition and Innovation Worldwide |editor-first=Deborah |editor-last=Bell |chapter=The (Super) Hero's Masquerade |first=Ron |last=Naversen |pages=217''ff'' |publisher=McFarland |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7864-7646-6}}</ref> The Scarlet Pimpernel first appeared on stage (1903) and then in novel (1905), and became very popular with the British public.<ref name="Robb"/> He exhibits characteristics that became standard superhero conventions in comic books, including the penchant for disguise, use of a signature weapon (sword), ability to out-think and outwit his adversaries, and a calling card (he leaves behind a [[Anagallis arvensis|scarlet pimpernel]] at his interventions).<ref name="Robb">{{cite book|last1=Robb|first1=Brian J.|title=A Brief History of Superheroes: From Superman to the Avengers, the Evolution of Comic Book Legends|date=2014|publisher=Hatchet UK}}</ref> Drawing attention to his alter ego Blakeney he hides behind his public face as a meek, slow thinking foppish playboy, and he establishes a network of supporters, The League of the Scarlet Pimpernel, that aid his endeavours.<ref name="Robb"/>

In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "[[British Invasion (comics)|British Invasion]]" in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such as [[anarchy]], [[controversy]] and [[politics]] common in British media, but were never before seen in American comics. These elements would pave the way for mature and "darker and edgier" comic books that would jump start the [[Modern Age of Comics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sequart.org/magazine/20743/1986-british-invasion-part-3-neil-gaiman-swamp-thing/|title=1986: The British Invasion, Part 3: Neil Gaiman & Swamp Thing|first=Peter|last=Sanderson|publisher=Sequart Organization|access-date=28 September 2014|date=29 May 2013}}</ref> Writers included [[Alan Moore]], famous for his ''[[V for Vendetta]]'', ''[[From Hell]]'', ''[[Watchmen]]'', ''[[Marvelman]]'', and ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'';<ref>[http://www.slate.com/id/2092739/ Please, Sir, I Want Some Moore / How Alan Moore transformed American comics], by Douglas Wolk in [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]], December 2003</ref> ''Watchmen'' was described as "paving the way for a current cultural obsession" in comics;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20160809-watchmen-the-moment-comic-books-grew-up|title=Watchmen: The moment comic books grew up|last=Barber|first=Nicholas|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref> [[Neil Gaiman]] and his critically acclaimed and best-selling ''[[The Sandman (Vertigo)|The Sandman]]'' mythos and ''[[Books of Magic]]''; [[Warren Ellis]] creator of ''[[Transmetropolitan]]'' and ''[[Planetary (comics)|Planetary]]''; and others such as [[Alan Grant (writer)|Alan Grant]], [[Grant Morrison]], [[Dave Gibbons]], [[Alan Davis]], and [[Mark Millar]] who created ''[[Wanted (comics)|Wanted]]'' and ''[[Kick-Ass (comic book)|Kick-Ass]]''.

Prominent comic book artists include [[Steve Dillon]], [[Simon Bisley]], [[Dave McKean]], [[Glen Fabry]], [[John Ridgway (comics)|John Ridgway]] and [[Sean Phillips]]. The comic book series ''[[Hellblazer]]'', set in Britain and starring the Liverpudlian magician [[John Constantine]], paved the way for British writers such as [[Jamie Delano]], [[Mike Carey (writer)|Mike Carey]] and [[Denise Mina]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.tabula-rasa.info/AusComics/Hellblazers.html| title= The Writers of Hellblazer: Interviews with Jamie Delano and Garth Ennis | publisher= Tabula Rasa| access-date=27 July 2014 }}</ref>

==Folklore==
{{Main|British folklore|English folklore|Scottish folklore|Irish folklore|Welsh folklore}}

=== Robin Hood and the ballad tradition ===
Much of the folklore of the United Kingdom pre-dates the 18th century. Though some of the characters and stories are present throughout all of the UK, most belong to specific countries or regions. Common folkloric beings include [[pixie]]s, [[giant (mythology)|giants]], [[elves]], [[bogeymen]], [[troll]]s, [[goblin]]s and [[dwarf (mythology)|dwarves]]. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales of [[Offa of Angeln]] and [[Weyland Smith]], others date from after the Norman invasion of England, such as [[Robin Hood]] and his [[Merry Men]] of [[Sherwood Forest|Sherwood]] and their battles with the [[Sheriff of Nottingham]].<ref>Pollard, A.J. (2004). ''Imagining Robin Hood''. Routledge, 2004</ref> [[Richard the Lionheart]], Christian leader of the [[Third Crusade]], came to be seen as a contemporary and supporter of Robin Hood. A plaque features Richard marrying Robin and [[Maid Marian]] outside [[Nottingham Castle]].<ref>Holt, J. C. (1982). "Robin Hood". p. 170. Thames & Hudson</ref>

During the [[High Middle Ages]] tales originated from Brythonic traditions, notably the [[Arthurian legend]].<ref name=woodbbc>{{Citation|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/arthur_03.shtml |title=King Arthur, 'Once and Future King' |first=Michael|last=Wood|publisher=bbc.co.uk |work=[[BBC]]|access-date=16 September 2009}}</ref> Deriving from Welsh source; [[King Arthur]], [[Excalibur]] and [[Merlin]], while the [[Jersey]] poet [[Wace]] introduced the [[Knights of the Round Table]]. These stories are most centrally brought together within [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s {{lang|la|[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]}} (''History of the Kings of Britain''). Another early figure from [[Britons (historic)|British tradition]], [[King Cole]], may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales make up part of the wider [[Matter of Britain]], a collection of shared British folklore.

The [[Loch Ness Monster]] is a [[cryptid]] that is reputed to inhabit [[Loch Ness]] in the Scottish Highlands. The legendary monster has been affectionately referred to by the nickname "Nessie" since the 1950s. The [[leprechaun]] figures large in Irish folklore. A mischievous fairy-type creature in emerald green clothing who when not playing tricks spends all its time busily making shoes, the leprechaun is said to have a pot of gold hidden at the end of the [[rainbow]], and if ever captured by a human it has the magical power to grant three wishes in exchange for release. In mythology, English fairy tales such as ''[[Jack and the Beanstalk]]'' and ''[[Jack the Giant Killer]]'' helped form the modern perception of [[Giant (mythology)|giants]] as stupid and violent, while the dwarf [[Tom Thumb]] is a traditional hero in English folklore.

English fairy tale ''[[The Story of the Three Bears|Goldilocks and the Three Bears]]'' is one of the most popular fairy tales in the English language.<ref>Elms, Alan C. (1977). "The Three Bears: Four Interpretations". p. 257</ref> Some folk figures are based on semi- or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries: [[Lady Godiva]], for instance, was said to have ridden naked on horseback through [[Coventry]]; the heroic English figure [[Hereward the Wake]] resisted the Norman invasion; [[Herne the Hunter]] is an equestrian ghost associated with [[Windsor, Berkshire|Windsor]] Forest and [[Windsor Great Park|Great Park]], and [[Mother Shipton]] is the archetypal witch.<ref>Briggs, Katharine (2004). ''A Dictionary of British Folk-tales in the English Language''. Routledge</ref> The chivalrous bandit, such as [[Dick Turpin]], is a recurring character.

=== Pirates ===
[[File:Bbeard Sword.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Engraving of the English pirate [[Blackbeard]] from the 1724 book ''[[A General History of the Pyrates]]''. The book is the prime source for many famous pirates of the Golden Age.<ref name="Pirates">''A general history of the robberies & murders of the most notorious pirates''. Charles Johnson. Introduction and commentary to [[A General History of the Pyrates]] by [[David Cordingly]]. p. viii. Conway Maritime Press (2002).</ref>]]

Published in 1724, ''[[A General History of the Pyrates]]'' by [[Charles Johnson (pirate biographer)|Captain Charles Johnson]] provided the standard account of the lives of many pirates in the Golden Age.<ref name="Pirates"/> It influenced pirate literature of Scottish novelists [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] (''[[Treasure Island]]'') and [[J. M. Barrie]].<ref name="Pirates"/> Many famous English pirates from the Golden Age hailed from the [[West Country]] in south west England—the stereotypical [[West Country English#Social stigma and future of West Country dialect|West Country]] "[[Pirates in popular culture#Appearance and mannerisms|pirate accent]]" was popularised by West Country native [[Robert Newton]]'s portrayal of Stevenson's [[Long John Silver]] in film.<ref name="Konstam">Angus Konstam (2008). ''Piracy: The Complete History''. p.313. Osprey Publishing. Retrieved 11 October 2011</ref> The concept of "[[walking the plank]]" was popularised by Barrie's ''[[Peter and Wendy|Peter Pan]]'', where [[Captain Hook]]'s pirates helped define the archetype.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bonanos |first=Christopher |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2167567/?GT1=10135 |title=Did pirates really say "arrrr"? |date=5 June 2007 |work=Slate |access-date=18 December 2008}}</ref> [[Davy Jones' Locker]], where sailors or ships' remains are consigned to the bottom of the sea, is first recorded by [[Daniel Defoe]] in 1726.<ref>{{cite book|page=89|title=The four years voyages of capt. George Roberts. Written by himself|url=https://archive.org/details/fouryearsvoyage00robegoog|last=Defoe|first=Daniel|year=1726}}</ref> Johnson's 1724 book gave a mythical status to famous English pirates such as [[Blackbeard]] and [[Calico Jack]]—Jack's [[Jolly Roger]] flag design features a skull with crossed swords.<ref>Botting, p. 48, Konstam, The History of Pirates, p. 98</ref>

=== Superstitions ===
{{main|Superstition in Britain}}
[[File:Jubilee and Munin, Ravens, Tower of London 2016-04-30.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Two of the current [[Ravens of the Tower of London]]. The ravens' presence is traditionally believed to protect the [[The Crown|Crown]] and the tower; a superstition holds that "if the [[Tower of London]] ravens are lost or fly away, the Crown will fall and Britain with it".<ref>{{cite web|title=The guardians of the Tower|publisher=The Tower of London|url=http://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/visit-us/top-things-to-see-and-do/the-ravens/|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160227054951/http://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/visit-us/top-things-to-see-and-do/the-ravens|archive-date=27 February 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

The [[Gremlin]] is part of [[Royal Air Force]] folklore dating from the 1920s, with "gremlin" being RAF slang for a mischievous creature that sabotages aircraft, meddling in the plane's equipment.<ref>Graeme Donald. "Sticklers, Sideburns & Bikinis: The Military Origins of Everyday Words and Phrases". p.147. Osprey Publishing, 2008</ref> Legendary figures from 19th-century London whose tales have been romanticised include [[Sweeney Todd]], the murderous barber of [[Fleet Street]] (accompanied with [[Mrs. Lovett]] who sells pies made from Todd's victims), and serial killer [[Jack the Ripper]]. On 5 November, people in Britain celebrate [[Guy Fawkes Night]] by making bonfires and lighting fireworks in [[Guy Fawkes Night|commemoration]] of the foiling of [[Guy Fawkes]]' [[Gunpowder Plot]], which became an annual event after the [[Observance of 5th November Act 1605]] was passed.<ref>"Aftermath: Commemoration". gunpowderplot.parliament.uk.</ref> [[Guy Fawkes mask]]s are an emblem for anti-establishment protest groups.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15359735 "V for Vendetta masks: Who's behind them?"]. BBC News. Retrieved 1 April 2013</ref>

=== Traditional non-religious holidays ===
[[File:J. M. Wright - Edward Scriven - Robert Burns - Halloween.JPG|thumb|[[Robert Burns]]' "[[Halloween (poem)|Halloween]]" (1785)]]

[[Halloween]] is a traditional and much celebrated holiday in Scotland and Ireland on the night of 31 October.<ref name=AHP>{{Citation|title=Bettina Arnold&nbsp;– Halloween Lecture: Halloween Customs in the Celtic World |last=Arnold |first=Bettina |date=31 October 2001 |publisher=Center for Celtic Studies |work=Halloween [[Inaugural]] Celebration |location=[[University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee]]}}</ref> The name "Halloween" is first attested in the 16th century as a [[Scottish English|Scottish]] shortening of the fuller ''All-Hallows-Even'',<ref name = "OED">{{Citation | first = John | last = Simpson | author2 = Weiner, Edmund | title = Oxford English Dictionary | edition = second | year = 1989 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = London}}</ref> and according to some historians has its roots in the [[Gaels|Gaelic]] festival [[Samhain]], when the Gaels believed the border between this world and the [[otherworld]] became thin, and the dead would revisit the mortal world.<ref>O'Driscoll, Robert (ed.) (1981) The Celtic Consciousness New York, Braziller {{ISBN|978-0-8076-1136-4}} pp.197–216: Ross, Anne "Material Culture, Myth and Folk Memory"; pp.217–242: Danaher, Kevin "Irish Folk Tradition and the Celtic Calendar"</ref> In 1780, [[Dumfries]] poet [[John Mayne]] makes note of pranks at Halloween; ''"What fearfu' pranks ensue!"'', as well as the supernatural associated with the night, ''"Bogies"'' (ghosts).<ref name=CHM>Robert Chambers. "The life and works of Robert Burns, Volume 1". Lippincott, Grambo & co., 1854</ref> [[Robert Burns]]' 1785 poem "[[Halloween (poem)|Halloween]]" is recited by Scots at Halloween, and Burns was influenced by Mayne's composition.<ref name=CHM/>

In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include [[guising]] — children disguised in [[Halloween costume|costume]] going from door to door requesting food or coins – which had become common practice by the late 19th century;<ref name=FRA>Frank Leslie's popular monthly: Volume 40 (1895) p.540</ref><ref>Rogers, Nicholas. (2002) "Festive Rights:Halloween in the British Isles". Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. p.48. Oxford University Press</ref> (the Halloween masks, worn by children, are known as "false faces" in Ireland.<ref>{{cite news |title=A very Derry Halloween: a carnival of frights, fireworks and parade |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2018/oct/24/derry-halloween-europe-largest-carnival-of-frights-fireworks-parades |access-date=25 October 2018 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>) [[turnip]]s hollowed out and carved with faces to make lanterns,<ref>"Halloween and Commemorations of the Dead". p.12. Infobase Publishing, 2009</ref> and holding parties where games such as [[apple bobbing]] are played.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/south_of_scotland/7648188.stm Apple dookers make record attempt] ''[[BBC News]]''. Retrieved 18 February 2011.</ref> [[Agatha Christie]]'s mystery novel ''[[Hallowe'en Party]]'' is about a girl who is drowned in an apple-bobbing tub. Other practices in Ireland include lighting [[bonfires]], and having [[firework]] displays.<ref>[http://www.u.tv/News/Halloween-fire-calls-every-90-seconds/15324334-54c7-4167-b118-40fd763bf701 Halloween fire calls 'every 90 seconds'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101102150224/http://www.u.tv/News/Halloween-fire-calls-every-90-seconds/15324334-54c7-4167-b118-40fd763bf701 |date=2 November 2010 }} ''UTV News''. Retrieved 22 November 2010.</ref> Further contemporary imagery of Halloween is derived from [[Gothic fiction|Gothic]] and [[Horror fiction|horror]] literature (notably [[Mary Shelley|Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'' and [[Bram Stoker|Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]''), and classic horror films (such as [[Hammer Horror]]s). Mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish migration in the 19th century popularised Halloween in North America.<ref>Rogers, Nicholas. (2002). "Coming Over: Halloween in North America" Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. pp.49–77. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref>

[[File:Arthur-Pyle The Enchanter Merlin.JPG|thumb|upright|right|The wizard [[Merlin]] features as a character in [[Fiction featuring Merlin|many works of fiction]], including the BBC series ''[[Merlin (2008 TV series)|Merlin]]''.]]

[[Witchcraft]] has featured in the British Isles for millennia. The use of a [[crystal ball]] to foretell the future is attributed to the [[druids]]. In medieval folklore [[King Arthur]]'s magician, the wizard [[Merlin]], carried around a crystal ball for the same purpose. [[John Dee]], consultant to [[Elizabeth I]], frequently used a crystal ball to communicate with the angels.<ref>{{cite news|title=Scholars seek to rescue image of John Dee, last royal wizard|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/sep/20/scholars-rescue-image-john-dee|work=The Guardian|date=18 November 2016}}</ref> Probably the most famous depiction of witchcraft in literature is in [[Shakespeare]]'s 1606 play ''[[Macbeth]]'', featuring the [[three witches]] and their [[cauldron]]. The [[ghost]] of [[Anne Boleyn]] is a frequently reported ghost sighting in the UK. Differing accounts include seeing her ghost ride up to [[Blickling Hall]] in a coach drawn by a headless horseman, with her own head on her lap.<ref>[http://www.itv.com/news/anglia/2014-05-20/spook-spotters-turn-out-to-see-anne-boleyns-ghost/ "Spook spotters turn out to see Anne Boleyn's ghost"]. ITV. Retrieved 28 February 2018</ref>

[[Neopagan witchcraft]] began in England in the early 20th century with notable figures such as [[Aleister Crowley]] and the father of Wicca [[Gerald Gardner]], before expanding westward in the 1960s.<ref name="Gardner">{{Citation | last = Buckland | first = Raymond | author-link = Raymond Buckland | title = Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft | publisher = [[Llewellyn Publications]] | orig-year = 1986 | year = 2002 | edition = Second edition, revised & expanded | chapter = Lesson One: The History and Philosophy of Witchcraft}}</ref> Settling down near the [[New Forest]] in Hampshire, Gardner joined an occult group through which he claimed to have encountered the [[New Forest coven]] into which he was initiated in 1939.<ref name="Gardner"/> Believing the coven to be a survival of the pre-Christian [[Witch-cult hypothesis|Witch-Cult]], he decided to revive the faith, supplementing the coven's rituals with ideas borrowed from ceremonial magic and the writings of Crowley to form the Gardnerian tradition of [[Wicca]].<ref name="Gardner"/> Moving to London in 1945, following the repeal of the [[Witchcraft Act 1735]] Gardner became intent on propagating Wicca, attracting media attention and writing ''[[Witchcraft Today]]'' (1954) and ''[[The Meaning of Witchcraft]]'' (1959). Crowley (the founder of [[Thelema]]) was described as "the most notorious occultist magician of the 20th century", and he remains an influential figure over Western esotericism and the counter-culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hanegraaff |first=Wouter |year=2013 |title=Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |location=London |page=41}}</ref> His motto of "Do What Thou Wilt" is inscribed on the vinyl of [[Led Zeppelin]]'s album ''[[Led Zeppelin III]]'', and he is the subject of [[Ozzy Osbourne]]'s single "[[Mr Crowley]]".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|contribution=Introduction |last1=Bogdan |first1=Henrik |last2=Starr |first2=Martin P. |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editor=Bogdan, Henrik |editor2=Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=7}}</ref>

==National parks, museums, libraries, and galleries==

===Heritage administration===
[[File:Stonehenge cloudy sunset.jpg|thumb|[[Stonehenge]], Wiltshire at sunset]]
Each country has its own body responsible for heritage matters.

[[English Heritage]] is the government body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the [[Department for Culture, Media and Sport]]. The charity [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty]] has a contrasting role. Seventeen of the [[List of World Heritage Sites of the United Kingdom|UNESCO World Heritage Site]]s are in England. Some of the best known of these include [[Hadrian's Wall]], [[Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites]], [[Tower of London]], [[Jurassic Coast]], [[Palace of Westminster|Westminster]], [[Saltaire]], [[Ironbridge Gorge]], and [[Studley Royal Park]]. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire, [[Hadrian's Wall]], is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England.<ref>"Hadrian's Wall: A horde of ancient treasures make for a compelling new Cumbrian exhibition". The Independent. 8 November 2016</ref>

[[Historic Environment Scotland]] is the executive agency of the [[Scottish Government]], responsible for historic monuments in Scotland, such as [[Stirling Castle]]. The [[Old Town, Edinburgh|Old]] and [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town of Edinburgh]] is a notable Scottish World Heritage site. [[Balmoral Castle]] is the main Scottish residence of the British monarch. The [[Wallace Monument]] in Stirling contains artifacts believed to have belonged to Sir [[William Wallace]], including the [[Wallace Sword]]. The [[Rob Roy Way]], named after Scottish folk hero and outlaw [[Rob Roy MacGregor]], is a long-distance footpath that runs for 92 miles. A statue of [[Robert the Bruce]] and a large monument and visitor centre (operated by the National Trust for Scotland) is located in Bannockburn near the site of the [[Battle of Bannockburn]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Penny Guide to Stirling, Stirling Castle, Wallace Monument, Bannockburn, Etc|date=1895|publisher=R.S. Shearer|page=20|url=https://archive.org/stream/pennyguidetostir00unse#page/20/mode/1up|access-date=5 April 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Hadrian's Wall and Housesteads Crags - geograph.org.uk - 1061919.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hadrian's Wall]] was built in the 2nd century AD. It is a lasting monument from [[Roman Britain]]. It is the largest Roman artefact in existence.]]
Many of Wales' great castles, such as the [[Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd]] and other monuments, are under the care of [[Cadw]], the historic environment service of the [[Welsh Government]]. Welsh actor Sir [[Anthony Hopkins]] donated millions to the preservation of [[Snowdonia National Park]]. The five most frequently visited Welsh castles are [[Caernarfon Castle]], [[Conwy Castle]], [[Caerphilly Castle]], [[Harlech Castle]] and [[Beaumaris Castle]]. The [[Northern Ireland Environment Agency]] promotes and conserves the natural and built environment in Northern Ireland, and the [[Giant's Causeway]] on the north-east coast is one of the natural World Heritage sites. [[Tintagel Castle]] is a popular tourist destination in Cornwall, with the castle associated with the legend of [[King Arthur]] since the 12th century. There are 15 [[National parks of the United Kingdom|National Parks]], including the [[Lake District]] in England, [[Snowdonia]] in Wales, and [[Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park]] in Scotland

===Museums and galleries===
{{Further|Museums in England|Museums in Scotland|Museums in Wales|Museums in Northern Ireland}}
[[File:Titanic Belfast HDR.jpg|thumb|right|[[Titanic Belfast]] museum on the former shipyard in Belfast where the {{RMS|Titanic}} was built]]
The [[British Museum]] in London with its collection of more than seven million objects,<ref>{{Citation |title=Museum in London|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/museum_in_london.aspx |publisher=BritishMuseum.org |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, and sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. On display since 1802, the [[Rosetta Stone]] is the most viewed attraction. The [[Natural History Museum, London]] was established by [[Richard Owen]] (who coined the term "[[dinosaur]]") to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.<ref name=owen94>Rupke, N. (1994). ''Richard Owen: A Victorian Naturalist''. New Haven: Yale University Press.</ref> The [[National Museums of Scotland]] bring together national collections in Scotland. [[National Museum Wales|Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales]] comprises eight museums in Wales. [[National Museums Northern Ireland]] has four museums in Northern Ireland including the [[Ulster Museum]].

The [[Titanic Belfast]] museum, a visitor attraction in the [[Titanic Quarter]], east Belfast, Northern Ireland on the regenerated site of the shipyard where {{RMS|Titanic||2}} was built, was opened to the public in 2012.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-17571457 New Titanic Belfast complex opens]. BBC News. Retrieved 29 April 2012</ref> The architecture is a tribute to ''Titanic'' itself, with the external facades a nod to the enormous hull of the ocean liner.

The first [[Madame Tussauds]] wax museum opened in London in 1835, and today displays waxworks of famous people from various fields, including royalty ([[Princess Diana]]), historical figures ([[Henry VIII]]), sport ([[David Beckham]]), music ([[Freddie Mercury]]), literature ([[Charles Dickens]]), politics ([[Winston Churchill]]), television ([[Gordon Ramsay]]), and cinema ([[Michael Caine]]) among others.<ref>[http://www.madametussauds.com/london/about/history/default.aspx "The History of Madame Tussauds"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013114506/http://www.madametussauds.com/london/about/history/default.aspx |date=13 October 2013 }}. Madame Tussauds.com.</ref>

The most senior art gallery is the [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]] in [[Trafalgar Square]], which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The [[Tate]] galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial [[Turner Prize]].<ref>{{Citation|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2382373.stm|title=The art of Turner protests|last=Youngs|first=Ian|date=31 October 2002|publisher=news.bbc.co.uk|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=10 August 2009}}</ref> The [[National Galleries of Scotland]] are the five national galleries of Scotland and two partner galleries. The National Museum of Art, Wales, opened in 2011.<ref>[http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/3357/ A new stage for art in Wales] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515233807/http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/3357/ |date=15 May 2012 }} National Museum Wales.</ref>

===Libraries===
The [[British Library]] in London is the [[national library]] and is one of the world's largest [[research libraries]], holding over 150&nbsp;million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25&nbsp;million books.<ref>{{Citation |title=British Library|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/80260/British-Library |publisher=britannica.com |access-date=5 September 2009|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> The library has two of the four remaining copies of the original [[Magna Carta]] (the other two copies are held in [[Lincoln Castle]] and [[Salisbury Cathedral]]) and has a room devoted solely to them. The [[British Library Sound Archive]] has over six million recordings (many from the [[BBC Sound Archive]], including Winston Churchill's wartime speeches.)

The [[National Library of Scotland]] in Edinburgh holds 7 million books, 14 million printed items (such as the last letter written by [[Mary, Queen of Scots]]) and over 2 million maps.<ref>[http://www.rampantscotland.com/visit/bldev_visitnls.htm Rampant Scotland National Library of Scotland]</ref> The [[National Library of Wales]] is the national legal deposit library of Wales, and holds over 6.5 million books, portraits, maps and photographic images in Wales.<ref>[http://www.llgc.org.uk/index.php?id=6 National Library of Wales] NLW. Retrieved 4 October 2011</ref>

===Historical markers===
[[File:Sir Alfred Hitchcock (4313226125).jpg|thumb|English Heritage [[blue plaque]] commemorating Sir [[Alfred Hitchcock]] at 153 Cromwell Road, London]]

[[Blue plaque]]s are the oldest [[historical marker]] scheme in the world.<ref name="Blue plaque" /> The scheme was proposed by politician [[William Ewart (British politician)|William Ewart]] in 1863 and was initiated in 1866 by the [[Royal Society of Arts|Society of Arts]]. Since 1986 it has been run by English Heritage.<ref name="Blue plaque">{{cite web |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/about-blue-plaques/history-of-blue-plaques/ |publisher=English Heritage |title=Blue Plaques |access-date=28 January 2024}}</ref>

The first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate [[Lord Byron]] at his birthplace, 24 Holles Street, [[Cavendish Square]], London. Events commemorated by plaques include [[John Logie Baird]]'s first demonstration of television at 22 [[Frith Street]], Westminster, W1, London, the first [[four-minute mile|sub 4-minute mile]] run by [[Roger Bannister]] on 6 May 1954 at Oxford University's [[Iffley Road Track]], and a sweet shop in [[Llandaff]], Cardiff that commemorates the mischief by a young [[Roald Dahl]] who put a mouse in the [[gobstoppers]] jar.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/8253467.stm "Blue plaque marks Dahl sweet shop"]. BBC. Retrieved 24 December 2014</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Science and technology==
{{main|Science and technology in the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|List of British innovations and discoveries}}
From the time of the [[Scientific Revolution]], England and Scotland, and thereafter the United Kingdom, have been prominent in world [[science|scientific]] and [[technology|technological]] development. The [[Royal Society]] serves as the [[national academy]] for sciences, with members drawn from different institutions and disciplines. Formed in 1660, it is one of the oldest [[learned society|learned societies]] still in existence.<ref>"Managing Science: Methodology and Organization of Research". P.96. Springer 2010</ref>

[[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s publication of the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' ushered in what is recognisable as modern [[physics]]. The first edition of 1687 and the second edition of 1713 framed the scientific context of the foundation of the United Kingdom. He realised that the same force is responsible for movements of celestial and terrestrial bodies, namely [[gravity]]. He is the father of [[classical mechanics]], formulated as his [[Newton's laws of motion|three laws]] and as the co-inventor (with [[Gottfried Leibniz]]) of [[differential calculus]]. He also created the [[binomial theorem]], worked extensively on [[optics]], and created a [[Newton's law of cooling|law of cooling]].
[[File:Charles Darwin seated.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Charles Darwin]] established that all [[species]] of life have descended over time from [[common descent|common ancestors]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A.|title=Why Evolution is True|publisher=Viking|year=2009|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8–11]|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8}}</ref>]]

Figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science. [[John Napier]] introduced [[logarithm]]s in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations. [[Michael Faraday]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]] unified the electric and [[magnetic]] [[force]]s in what are now known as [[Maxwell's equations]]. Following his publication of ''[[A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field]]'' in 1865, Maxwell predicted the existence of [[radio waves]] in 1867.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harman|first=Peter Michael|title=The natural philosophy of James Clerk Maxwell|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-00585-X|page=6}}</ref> [[James Joule]] worked on [[thermodynamics]] and is often credited with the discovery of the [[principle of conservation of energy]].

Naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] wrote ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' and discovered the principle of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. [[James Hutton]], founder of modern geology, worked on the age of the Earth ([[deep time]]) which forms a key element of Darwin's theory. Other important geologists include [[Charles Lyell]], author of ''[[Principles of Geology]]'', who also coined the term [[Pleistocene]], and [[Adam Sedgwick]], who proposed (and coined) the name of the [[Cambrian]] Period.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Cambrian System}}</ref> [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson (Baron Kelvin)]] drew important conclusions in the field of thermodynamics and invented the [[Kelvin]] scale of [[absolute zero]]. [[Paul Dirac]] was one of the pioneers of [[quantum mechanics]]. Botanist [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]] discovered the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid ([[Brownian motion]]). [[John Stewart Bell]] created [[Bell's Theorem]]. [[Harold Kroto]] discovered [[buckminsterfullerene]].

Other 19th- and early 20th-century British pioneers in their field include [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]] ([[Antiseptic#Usage in surgery|antiseptic surgery]]), [[Edward Jenner]] ([[vaccination]]), [[Richard Owen]] ([[palaeontology]], coined the term [[Dinosaur]]), [[Florence Nightingale]] ([[nursing]]), [[Sir George Cayley]] ([[aerodynamics]]), [[William Fox Talbot]] (photography), and [[Howard Carter]] ([[Archaeology|modern archaeology]], discovered [[Tutankhamun]]).

Scholarly descriptions of dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th-century England. Between 1815 and 1824, [[William Buckland]] discovered fossils of ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' and became the first person to describe a dinosaur in a scientific journal. The second dinosaur genus to be identified, ''[[Iguanodon]]'', was discovered in 1822 by [[Mary Ann Mantell]]. In 1832, [[Gideon Mantell]] discovered fossils of a third dinosaur, ''[[Hylaeosaurus]]''. Owen recognised that the remains of the three new species that had been found so far shared a number of distinctive features. He decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group, dinosaurs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sir Richard Owen: The man who invented the dinosaur|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-31623397|work=BBC|date=18 February 2017}}</ref>

[[John Harrison]] invented the [[marine chronometer]], a key piece in solving the problem of accurately establishing [[longitude]] at sea, thus revolutionising and extending the possibility of safe long-distance sea travel.<ref>[[Dava Sobel|Sobel, Dava]] (1995). ''[[Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time]]''. New York: Penguin</ref> The most celebrated British explorers include [[James Cook]], [[Walter Raleigh]], [[Sir Francis Drake]], [[Henry Hudson]], [[George Vancouver]], [[Sir John Franklin]], [[David Livingstone]], [[John Smith (explorer)|Captain John Smith]], [[Robert Falcon Scott]], [[Lawrence Oates]] and [[Ernest Shackleton]]. The [[aquarium]] craze began in Victorian England when [[Philip Henry Gosse]] created and stocked the first public aquarium at [[London Zoo]] in 1853, and coined the term "aquarium" when he published ''The Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Sea'' in 1854.<ref>[[Katherine C. Grier]] (2008) "Pets in America: A History". p. 53. University of North Carolina Press</ref> [[Robert FitzRoy]] pioneered [[weather forecasting]]: the first daily weather forecasts were published in ''[[The Times]]'' in 1861.<ref>{{cite news | title= The birth of the weather forecast|url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32483678| access-date= 30 April 2015| work=BBC News}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = left
| footer = Biologist [[Alexander Fleming]] (left) discovered the world's first [[antibiotic]]. Physician [[Edward Jenner]] (right) discovered the world's first [[vaccine]].
| image1 = Synthetic Production of Penicillin TR1468.jpg
| width1 = 100
| alt1 = A man in his laboratory
| image2 = Edward_Jenner,_with_a_view_of_Berkeley,_Glos._Oil_painting_a_Wellcome_V0017932.jpg
| width2 = 109
| alt2 = Portrait of a man
}}

A crucial advance in the development of the [[Flush toilet#Development of the flush toilet|flush toilet]] was the [[Trap (plumbing)|S-trap]] invented by [[Alexander Cumming]] in 1775 – it uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer.<ref name="Cumming">{{cite news|title=From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/charles-mackintosh-chemist-waterproof-google-doodle-scotland-inventions-innovation-bicycles-a7499911.html|work=The independent|date=30 December 2016}}</ref> In 1824 [[Charles Macintosh]] invented the waterproof [[raincoat]]; the [[Mackintosh]] (mac) is named after him.<ref name="Cumming" /> [[William Sturgeon]] invented the [[electromagnet]] in 1824.<ref>Windelspecht, Michael. "Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 19th Century", xxii, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003</ref> The first commercial [[electrical telegraph]] was co-invented by Sir [[William Fothergill Cooke]] and [[Charles Wheatstone]]. They patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system, and it was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 between [[Euston railway station|Euston]] and [[Camden Town]] in London.<ref>Hubbard, Geoffrey (1965) ''Cooke and Wheatstone and the Invention of the Electric Telegraph,'' Routledge & Kegan Paul, London p. 78</ref>

Postal reformer [[Rowland Hill (postal reformer)|Sir Rowland Hill]] is regarded as the creator of the modern [[postal service]] and the inventor of the postage stamp ([[Penny Black]]) — with his solution of pre-payment facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap transfer of letters.<ref name="Rowland">[https://postalheritage.wordpress.com/2009/08/21/rowland-hill’s-postal-reforms/ "Rowland Hill's Postal Reforms"]. British Postal Museum. Retrieved 2 October 2017</ref> Hill's colleague [[Sir Henry Cole]] introduced the world's first commercial [[Christmas card#History|Christmas card]] in 1843.<ref>György Buday, George Buday (1992). ''The history of the Christmas card.'' p.8. Omnigraphics, 1992</ref> In 1851 [[George Biddell Airy|Sir George Airy]] established the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]], London, as the location of the [[prime meridian]] where longitude is defined to be 0° (one of the two lines that divide the Earth into the Eastern and [[Western Hemisphere]]s). [[George Boole]] authored ''[[The Laws of Thought]]'' which contains [[Boolean algebra]]. Forming the mathematical foundations of [[computing]], Boolean logic laid the foundations for the [[information age]].

[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|A [[Watt steam engine]], the [[steam engine]] that propelled the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Britain and the world<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burke|first1=Michael T.|title=Nanotechnology: The Business|url=https://archive.org/details/nanotechnologybu00burk|url-access=limited|date=29 September 2008|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/nanotechnologybu00burk/page/n43 17]|isbn=9781420053999}}</ref>]]
Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either [[Oxford University|Oxford]] or [[Cambridge University]], with laboratories such as the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] in Cambridge and the [[Clarendon Laboratory]] in Oxford becoming famous in their own right. In modern times, other institutions such as the [[Red Brick university|Red Brick]] and [[New Universities]] are catching up with [[Oxbridge]]. For instance, [[Lancaster University]] has a global reputation for work in [[low temperature physics]].

Technologically, the UK is also amongst the world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of the [[Industrial Revolution]], with innovations especially in textiles, the [[steam engine]], railroads, machine tools and [[civil engineering]]. Famous British engineers and inventors from this period include [[James Watt]], [[Robert Stephenson]], [[Richard Arkwright]], [[Henry Maudslay]] and the 'father of Railways' [[George Stephenson]]. Maudslay's most influential invention was the [[screw-cutting lathe]], a machine which created uniformity in [[screw]]s and allowed for the application of [[interchangeable parts]] (a prerequisite for [[mass production]]): it was a revolutionary development necessary for the Industrial Revolution. The UK has the oldest [[railway]] networks in the world, with the [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], opened in 1825, the first public railway to use steam locomotives. Opened in 1863, [[London Underground]] is the world's first underground railway.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-20641351 |title= Oyster card celebrates 150th Tube anniversary |work=BBC News |date=10 December 2012 |access-date=5 April 2016}}</ref> Running along the [[East Coast Main Line]] between Edinburgh and London, the ''[[LNER Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman|Flying Scotsman]]'' has been ranked the world's most famous steam locomotive.<ref>{{cite news|title=Flying Scotsman steams to head of world's most famous trains list|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/road-and-rail-transport/12023344/Flying-Scotsman-steams-to-head-of-National-Railway-Museums-worlds-most-famous-trains-list.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/road-and-rail-transport/12023344/Flying-Scotsman-steams-to-head-of-National-Railway-Museums-worlds-most-famous-trains-list.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=7 April 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Engineer [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], another major figure of the Industrial Revolution, was placed second in a 2002 [[BBC]] nationwide poll to determine the "[[100 Greatest Britons]]".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/2208671.stm 100 great British heroes] ''[[BBC News]]''</ref> He created the [[Great Western Railway]], as well as famous steamships including the ''[[SS Great Britain]],'' the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship, and {{SS|Great Eastern}} which laid the first lasting [[transatlantic telegraph cable]]. [[Josiah Wedgwood]] pioneered the industrialisation of [[pottery]] manufacture.<ref>Katherine Eufemia Farrer (2011). "Correspondence of Josiah Wedgwood". Cambridge University Press, 2011</ref> In 1820, Scottish road builder [[John Loudon McAdam|John McAdam]] invented "[[macadam]]isation" for building roads with a smooth hard surface. In 1901, [[Edgar Purnell Hooley]] added tar to the mix and named it [[Tarmacadam|Tarmac]] (short for tarmacadam).<ref>{{cite news|title=The man who invented Tarmac|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nottingham/content/articles/2009/07/03/edgar_hooley_tarmac_feature.shtml|work=BBC|date=24 December 2016}}</ref>

[[File:John Lynn - Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse.jpg|thumb|left|Smeaton's [[Eddystone Lighthouse]], 9 miles out to sea. [[John Smeaton]] pioneered [[hydraulic lime]] in concrete which led to the development of [[Portland cement]] in England and thus modern [[concrete]].]]
Probably the greatest driver behind the modern use of [[concrete]] was [[Smeaton's Tower]] built by [[John Smeaton]] in the 1750s. The third [[Eddystone Lighthouse]] (the world's first open ocean lighthouse), Smeaton pioneered the use of [[hydraulic lime]] in concrete. Scotsman [[Robert Stevenson (civil engineer)|Robert Stevenson]] constructed the [[Bell Rock Lighthouse]] in the early 1800s. Situated 11 miles off east Scotland, it is the world's oldest surviving sea-washed lighthouse. [[Portland cement]], the most common type of [[cement]] in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, was developed in England in the 19th century. It was coined by [[Joseph Aspdin]] in 1824 (he named it after [[Portland stone]]), and further developed by his son [[William Aspdin]] in the 1840s.

The UK has produced some of the most famous ships in the world: [[Harland and Wolff]] in Belfast built the {{RMS|Titanic}} as well as her sister ships {{RMS|Olympic}} and [[HMHS Britannic|RMS ''Britannic'']]; in Clydebank [[John Brown and Company]] built the {{RMS|Queen Mary}}, {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth}} and {{SS|Queen Elizabeth 2}}; ships built in England include the ''[[Mary Rose]]'' (King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s warship), the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' (Sir [[Francis Drake]]'s ship for the [[Francis Drake's circumnavigation|circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580]]), {{HMS|Victory}} ([[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Lord Nelson]]'s flagship at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]] in 1805), and {{HMS|Beagle}} (ship used in [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|five-year voyage]]). Other important British ships include {{HMS|Endeavour}} ([[James Cook]]'s ship in his [[First voyage of James Cook|first voyage of discovery]]), {{HMS|Challenger|1858|6}} (first global marine research expedition: the [[Challenger expedition|''Challenger'' expedition]]), and [[RRS Discovery|''Discovery'']] (carried [[Robert Falcon Scott]] and [[Ernest Shackleton]] in the [[Discovery Expedition]], their first successful journey to the Antarctic). The Royal Navy troopship {{HMS|Birkenhead|1845|6}} is known for the first appearance of the "[[women and children first]]" protocol.<ref>{{cite book|title=Collected Verse of Rudyard Kipling|first=Rudyard|last=Kipling|year=2005|isbn=1-4179-0750-9|publisher=Kessinger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76QI2lskupEC|page=305}}</ref>

Since then, the UK has continued this tradition of technical creativity. [[Alan Turing]] (leading role in the creation of the modern computer), Scottish inventor [[Alexander Graham Bell]] (the first practical telephone), [[John Logie Baird]] (world's first working television system, first electronic [[colour television]]), [[Frank Whittle]] (co-invented the [[jet engine]]) — powered by Whittle's [[turbojet]] engines, the [[Gloster Meteor]] was the first British [[jet aircraft|jet]] [[Fighter aircraft|fighter]] and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies']] only [[jet aircraft]] to achieve combat operations during World War II, [[Charles Babbage]] (devised the idea of the computer), [[Alexander Fleming]] (discovered [[penicillin]]). The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations, providing inventions as diverse as the [[World Wide Web]] by [[Sir Tim Berners-Lee]], and [[Viagra]] by British scientists at Pfizer's [[Sandwich, Kent|Sandwich]], Kent. [[Sir Alec Jeffreys]] pioneered [[DNA fingerprinting]]. Pioneers of [[fertility]] treatment [[Patrick Steptoe]] and [[Robert Edwards (physiologist)|Robert Edwards]], achieved conception through [[IVF]] (world's first "test tube baby") in 1978.<ref>{{cite web| title=1978: First 'test tube baby' born | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/25/newsid_2499000/2499411.stm |publisher=BBC | access-date=13 June 2009 | date=25 July 1978}}</ref>

[[File:Stephen Hawking.StarChild.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Physicist [[Stephen Hawking]] set forth a theory of [[cosmology]] explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and [[quantum mechanics]]. His 1988 book ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'' appeared on ''The Sunday Times'' best-seller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1599719.stm|title=Hawking's briefer history of time |date=15 October 2001 |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=10 May 2016}}</ref>]]
The prototype [[tank]] was constructed at [[William Foster & Co.]] in [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] in 1915, with leading roles played by Major [[Walter Gordon Wilson]] who designed the gearbox and developed practical tracks and by [[William Tritton]] whose company built it.<ref name="Tank origins">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-25109879|title=World War One: The tank's secret Lincoln origins|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=1 April 2015|date=24 February 2014|last1=Watson|first1=Greig}}</ref> This was a prototype of the [[Mark I tank]], the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during WWI.<ref name="Tank origins" /> The [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], [[Winston Churchill]], was credited by Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]] as being the driving force behind their production. [[Allan Beckett]] designed the 'Whale' floating roadway, crucial to the success of the [[Mulberry harbour]] used in the [[invasion of Normandy]] in WWII. In 1918, {{HMS|Argus|I49|6}} became the world's first [[aircraft carrier]] capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft, and in WWII, {{HMS|Ark Royal|91|6}} was involved in the first aerial and U-boat kills of the war, as well as the crippling of the German battleship the [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] in May 1941. In 1932, Cambridge engineer [[Francis Thomas Bacon]] invented the [[alkaline fuel cell]] which is used to generate power for [[space capsule]]s and [[satellite]]s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Apollo 11 mission 50 years on: The Cambridge scientist who helped put man on the moon |url=https://www.cambridgeindependent.co.uk/news/apollo-11-mission-50-years-on-the-cambridge-scientist-who-helped-put-man-on-the-moon-9077166/ |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=Cambridge Independent}}</ref>

Introduced in 1952, the [[de Havilland]] [[de Havilland Comet|Comet]] was the world's first commercial [[jet airliner]].<ref name="Commercial flight">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/2/newsid_2480000/2480339.stm "On This Day: Comet inaugurates the jet age."] ''BBC News,'' 2 May 1952. Retrieved 2 September 2021.</ref> Operated by [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (which merged with other British operators to form today's [[British Airways]]), on 2 May 1952 the flight registered G-ALYS took off with fare-paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg.<ref name="Commercial flight"/>

In 1952, ''[[OXO (video game)|OXO]]'' (or ''Noughts and Crosses''), created by computer scientist [[Sandy Douglas|Alexander S. Douglas]], is regarded as a contender for the first [[video game]].<ref name="EDSAC">{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Video Games: The Culture, Technology, and Art of Gaming |last=Wolf |first=Mark J. P. |date=16 August 2012 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-37936-9 |pages=3–7}}</ref> In ''OXO'', the computer player could play perfect games of [[noughts and crosses]] against a human opponent.<ref name="EDSAC" /> In the 1960s, [[John Shepherd-Barron]] invented the [[Automated teller machine|cash machine]] (ATM) and [[James Goodfellow]] invented [[Personal identification number]] (PIN) technology, and on 27 June 1967, the first cash machine was established outside a branch of [[Barclays Bank]] in [[Enfield Town|Enfield]], north London. [[Dolly (sheep)|Dolly the sheep]], the first mammal successfully [[Cloning#Dolly the sheep|cloned]] from an adult somatic cell (by scientists at Roslin Institute in Edinburgh), became a celebrity in the 1990s.

===Industrial Revolution===

[[File:Thornhillvanda.jpg|thumb|right|''[[William III of England|William III]] and [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe'', 1716, Sir [[James Thornhill]]. Enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them are the royals William and Mary who had taken the throne after the [[Glorious Revolution]] and signed the [[English Bill of Rights]] of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, [[absolute monarchy]] stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king [[Louis XIV]].<ref>[http://www.oldroyalnavalcollege.org/data/files/english-ph-june-06-offical-new-30.pdf Old Naval College] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070626185300/http://www.oldroyalnavalcollege.org/data/files/english-ph-june-06-offical-new-30.pdf |date=26 June 2007 }}</ref>]]

The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in Britain due to the social, economic and political changes in the country during the previous centuries. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the [[Glorious Revolution]], in contrast to other European countries where [[absolute monarchy]] remained the typical form of government, can be said to be a factor in favouring Britain as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution.<ref name="Black" /> Aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an [[entrepreneurial]] spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain.<ref>Kiely, Ray (November 2011). "Industrialization and Development: A Comparative Analysis". UGL Press Limited: 25–26.</ref> Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain also contributed, with the country's extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation. Britain also had high quality coal.

Historian [[Jeremy Black (historian)|Jeremy Black]] states, "an unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself."<ref name="Black" />
[[File:Josiah Wedgwood by George Stubbs, 1780, enamel on a Wedgwood ceramic tablet - Wedgwood Museum - Barlaston, Stoke-on-Trent, England - DSC09537.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Josiah Wedgwood]] was a leading entrepreneur in the [[Industrial Revolution]].]]
Pottery manufacturer [[Josiah Wedgwood]] was one of the most successful entrepreneurs of the Industrial Revolution. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes that helped drive the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Wedgwood created goods such as [[soft-paste porcelain]] [[tableware]] ([[bone china]]), which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.<ref name="Black">{{cite news|title=Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01pz9d6|work=BBC|date=11 January 2017}}</ref> Credited as a pioneer of modern [[marketing]], Wedgwood pioneered [[direct marketing|direct mail]], [[money back guarantee]]s, [[Door-to-door|travelling salesmen]], carrying pattern boxes for display, [[self-service]], free delivery, [[Buy one, get one free|buy one get one free]], and illustrated catalogues.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/10/opinion/10flanders.html|title=They Broke It|newspaper= New York Times|date= 9 January 2009}}</ref> Other important figures in marketing and advertising in the 18th and 19th centuries were [[Thomas Chippendale]], the London [[cabinet-maker]] who in 1754 produced the "first comprehensive [[Trade literature|trade catalogue]] of its kind",<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rySr84jox_AC|title=The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Biography|author=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2003|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|page=317|isbn=9780618252107 }}</ref> and [[Thomas J. Barratt]], who became the first brand manager of a company ([[Pears (soap)|Pears soap]]) in 1865. In 1882, English actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] was recruited by Barratt to become the poster-girl for Pears (which included putting her "signature" on the advertisements), as she became the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.<ref>{{cite news |title=When Celebrity Endorsers Go Bad |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2002/02/03/when-celebrity-endorsers-go-bad/260776e6-d38c-4319-b683-eb466c499dce/|access-date=2 March 2022 |newspaper=The Washington Post|quote=British actress Lillie Langtry became the world's first celebrity endorser when her likeness appeared on packages of Pears Soap.}}</ref>

Described as "natural capitalists" by the [[BBC]], dynasties of [[Quakers]] were successful in business matters, and they contributed the Industrial Revolution in Britain. This included ironmaking by [[Abraham Darby I]] and his family; banking, including [[Lloyds Banking Group|Lloyds Bank]] (founded by [[Sampson Lloyd]]), [[Barclays PLC|Barclays Bank]], [[Backhouse's Bank]] and [[Gurney's Bank]]; life assurance ([[Friends Provident]]); pharmaceuticals ([[Allen & Hanburys]]); the big three British chocolate companies ([[Cadbury]], [[J. S. Fry & Sons|Fry's]] and [[Rowntree's|Rowntree]]); biscuit manufacturing ([[Huntley & Palmers]]); match manufacture ([[Bryant and May]]) and shoe manufacturing ([[C. & J. Clark|Clarks]]). With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of [[James Watt]]'s steam engine, and invention of modern [[coin]]age, [[Matthew Boulton]] is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.<ref name="Ronald Shillingford 2010 p.64-69">Ronald Shillingford (2010). "The History of the World's Greatest- Entrepreneurs: Biographies of Success". p.64-69</ref> In 1861, Welsh entrepreneur [[Pryce Pryce-Jones]] formed the first [[mail order]] business, an idea which would change the nature of [[retail]]. Selling Welsh [[flannel]], he created mail order catalogues, with customers able order by [[mail]] for the first time, and the goods were delivered by [[railway]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Pryce-Jones: Pioneer of the Mail Order Industry |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/wales/w_mid/article_3.shtml |access-date=2 March 2019 |agency=BBC}}</ref>

=== Cars ===
{{main|List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom}}
The UK has had a long history of car making. Some of the best known British brands are [[Rolls-Royce Limited|Rolls-Royce]], [[Bentley]], [[Aston Martin]], [[McLaren Automotive|McLaren]], [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]], [[Land Rover]], [[MG Cars|MG]], and the [[Mini]]. Rolls-Royce was founded by [[Charles Stewart Rolls]] and Sir [[Frederick Henry Royce]] in 1906. In addition to the company's reputation for superior engineering quality in its cars, Rolls-Royce Limited was known for manufacturing the high-powered "R" engines, including the iconic [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] aero engine which was used for many World War II aircraft.<ref>[http://www.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/history/ "Rolls-Royce history"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905053900/http://www.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/history/ |date=5 September 2015 }}. Rolls-Royce. Retrieved 6 October 0216</ref> Bentley Motors Limited was founded by [[W. O. Bentley]] in 1919 in [[Cricklewood]], North London, and, like Rolls-Royce, is regarded as a British luxury automobile icon. Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and [[Robert Bamford]], and became associated with luxury grand touring cars in the 1950s and 1960s, and with the fictional British spy [[James Bond]]. Jaguar was founded in 1922. The [[Jaguar E-Type]] sports car was released in 1961; [[Enzo Ferrari]] called it "the most beautiful car ever made".<ref>Classic Car Review 1964, articolo di Sean Curtis</ref> Jaguar has, in recent years, manufactured cars for the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]]. The company also holds [[Royal warrant of appointment (United Kingdom)|royal warrants]] from Queen [[Elizabeth II]] and [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]]. The Land Rover launched in 1948 and specialises in [[four-wheel-drive]]. Many models have been developed for the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD). The Mini was released by the [[British Motor Corporation]] in 1959 and became a 1960s cultural icon. The performance versions, the Mini Cooper, was a successful rally car. The distinctive two-door Mini was designed for BMC by [[Sir Alec Issigonis]]. It has been named Britain's favourite car in a poll.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/mini-named-britains-best-ever-3504379|title=The humble Mini leaves supercars trailing to be named Britain's best-ever motor|date=6 November 2016|agency=Mirror}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

==Religion==
{{Main|Religion in the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|Religion in England|Religion in Northern Ireland|Religion in Scotland|Religion in Wales}}
Forms of [[History of Christianity in Britain|Christianity]] have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for more than 1,400 years.<ref>Cannon, John, ed. (2nd edn., 2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TYnfhTq2M7EC&pg=PA144 ''A Dictionary of British History'']. Oxford University Press. p. 144. {{ISBN|978-0-19-955037-1}}.</ref> [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] churches remain the largest faith group in each country of the UK except Scotland, where Anglicanism is a small minority. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland is the national church in Scotland.<ref>[http://www.vexen.co.uk/UK/religion.html "Religion in the United Kingdom"]. Retrieved 12 April 2011.</ref> Following this is [[Roman Catholicism]] and religions including [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Buddhism]]. Today [[British Jews]] number around 300,000; the UK has the [[Jewish population#By country|fifth largest Jewish community worldwide]].<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2010-03-17-london-jewish-museum_N.htm "London's Jewish Museum reopens after major facelift"], ''[[USA Today]]''</ref>

[[File:1612 First Quarto of King James Bible.jpg|thumb|left|[[John Speed]]'s ''Genealogies Recorded in the Sacred Scriptures'' (1611), bound into first [[King James Version|King James Bible]] in [[quarto]] size (1612)]]
[[William Tyndale]]'s 1520s translation of the Bible was the first to be printed in English, and was a model for subsequent English translations, notably the [[King James Version]] in 1611. The [[Book of Common Prayer]] of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language.

In 17th-century England, the [[Puritan]]s condemned the celebration of [[Christmas]].<ref name="Durston">Durston, Chris, "Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642–60", ''History Today'', December 1985, '''35''' (12) pp. 7 – 14.</ref> In contrast, the Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglicans and Puritans."<ref>{{cite book|last=Old|first=Hughes Oliphant|title=Worship: Reformed According to Scripture|year=2002|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=9780664225797|page=29}}</ref> The [[Catholic Church]] also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously orientated form. King [[Charles I of England]] directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] victory over Charles I in the [[English Civil War]], Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.<ref>{{cite journal |title=From Sukkot to Saturnalia: The Attack on Christmas in Sixteenth-Century Chronological Scholarship |author=Carl Philipp Emanuel Nothaft |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=72 |issue=4 |date=October 2011 |pages=504–505 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press }}</ref>

[[File:FatherChristmastrial.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''The Examination and Trial of [[Father Christmas]]'' (1686), published after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England]]
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities; and for weeks [[Canterbury]] was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with [[holly]] and shouted [[Royalism|royalist]] slogans.<ref name="Durston" /> The book, ''The Vindication of Christmas'' (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and notes old English Christmas traditions: dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sandys|first1=William|title=Christmastide: its history, festivities and carols|date=1852|publisher=John Russell Smith|location=London|pages=119–120}}</ref> The [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] in 1660 ended the ban.
{{clear left}}
Following the Restoration, ''Poor Robins Almanack'' contained the lines:
:Now thanks to God for Charles return
:Whose absence made old Christmas mourn
:For then we scarcely did it know
:Whether it Christmas were or no.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miall|first=Anthony & Peter|title=The Victorian Christmas Book|year=1978|publisher=Dent|isbn=0-460-12039-5|page=7}}</ref>

The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details Christmas observance and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Woodforde|first=James|title=The Diary of a Country Parson 1758–1802|url=https://archive.org/details/diaryofcountrypa00wood|url-access=registration|year=1978|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-281241-4}}</ref>

In the early 19th century, writers imagined [[Tudor period|Tudor]] Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843, [[Charles Dickens]] wrote the novel ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.<ref>Les Standiford. The Man Who Invented Christmas: How Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol Rescued His Career and Revived Our Holiday Spirits, Crown, 2008.</ref><ref name="Wheeler" /> Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation."<ref>[[Ronald Hutton]] ''Stations of the Sun: The Ritual Year in England''. 1996. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-285448-8}}.</ref> Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, termed "Carol Philosophy",<ref name="Forbes2008">{{cite book|last=Forbes|first=Bruce David|title=Christmas: A Candid History|date=1 October 2008|publisher=University of California Press |page=62|quote=What Dickens ''did'' advocate in his story was "the spirit of Christmas." Sociologist James Barnett has described it as Dickens's "Carol Philosophy," which "combined religious and secular attitudes toward to celebration into a humanitarian pattern. It excoriated individual selfishness and extolled the virtues of brotherhood, kindness, and generosity at Christmas... Dickens preached that at Christmas men should forget self and think of others, especially the poor and the unfortunate." The message was one that both religious and secular people could endorse.}}</ref> Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.<ref>Richard Michael Kelly (ed.) (2003), A Christmas Carol. pp.9,12 Broadview Literary Texts, New York: Broadview Press {{ISBN|1-55111-476-3}}</ref> A prominent phrase from the tale, [[Christmas and holiday season#History of the phrase|"Merry Christmas"]], was popularised following its publication.<ref>Robertson Cochrane. Wordplay: origins, meanings, and usage of the English language. p.126. University of Toronto Press, 1996</ref> The term [[Ebenezer Scrooge|Scrooge]] became a synonym for [[miser]], with [[Humbug|"Bah! Humbug!"]] dismissive of the festive spirit.<ref name="Wheeler">Joe L. Wheeler. ''Christmas in my heart'', Volume 10. p.97. Review and Herald Pub Assoc, 2001. {{ISBN|0-8280-1622-4}}</ref> [[Tiny Tim (A Christmas Carol)|Tiny Tim]] says "God bless us, every one!" which he offers as a [[blessing]] at [[Christmas dinner]]. Dickens repeats the phrase at the end of the story; symbolic of Scrooge's change of heart.

[[File:Godey'streeDec1850.GIF|thumb|right|upright|[[Queen Victoria]]'s Christmas tree at [[Windsor Castle]], published in the ''Illustrated London News'', 1848]]
The revival of the [[Christmas Carol]] began with [[William Sandys (antiquarian)|William Sandys]]'s ''Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern'' (1833), with the first appearance in print of "[[The First Noel]]", "[[I Saw Three Ships]]", "[[Hark the Herald Angels Sing]]" and "[[God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen]]". In 1843 the first commercial [[Christmas card#History|Christmas card]] was produced by [[Henry Cole (inventor)|Henry Cole]], leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public. The movement coincided with the appearance of the [[Oxford Movement]] and the growth of [[Anglo-Catholicism]], which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.<ref>[[Ronald Hutton]] ''Stations of the Sun: The Ritual Year in England''. 1996. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 113.</ref>

In the UK, the [[Christmas tree#18th to early 20th centuries|Christmas tree]] was introduced in the early 19th century, following the [[personal union]] with the [[Kingdom of Hanover]], by [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]], wife of [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]]. In 1832, the future [[Queen Victoria]] wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with [[Christmas lights (holiday decoration)|lights]], [[Christmas ornaments|ornaments]], and [[presents]] placed round it.<ref>The girlhood of Queen Victoria: a selection from Her Majesty's diaries. p.61. Longmans, Green & co., 1912. University of Wisconsin</ref> After her marriage to her German cousin [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]], a hugely influential image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle was published in the ''Illustrated London News'' in 1848, after which the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.<ref>Lejeune, Marie Claire. Compendium of symbolic and ritual plants in Europe, p.550. University of Michigan</ref>

While [[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 census]] information suggests that over 75% of British citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion, [[Gallup poll|Gallup]] reports that only 10% of British citizens regularly attend [[places of worship|religious services]].<ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/uk.asp 2001 British Census]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717035415/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/uk.asp|date=17 July 2007}}.</ref> A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44% of British citizens believe in God, while 35% do not.<ref>[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldbbc/128/5110211.htm YouGov poll for Daily Telegraph]. Retrieved 12 April 2011.</ref> Christmas and Easter are national [[public holidays in the UK]].<ref>[http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_073741 Bank holidays and British Summer Time]. Retrieved 12 April 2011.</ref> First broadcast over the Easter period in 1977, the two-part ''[[Jesus of Nazareth (miniseries)|Jesus of Nazareth]]'' television miniseries, starring [[Robert Powell]] as Jesus, was watched by over 21 million viewers in the UK. In 1844 Sir [[George Williams (YMCA)|George Williams]] founded [[YMCA]] (Young Men's Christian Association) in London. The oldest and largest youth charity in the world, its aim is to support young people to belong, contribute and thrive in their communities.<ref>{{cite news|title=YMCA and YMCA England|url=http://www.ymca.org.uk/about/ymca-ymca-england|publisher=YMCA|date=17 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317233418/http://www.ymca.org.uk/about/ymca-ymca-england|archive-date=17 March 2017}}</ref> [[The Salvation Army]] is a Christian charity founded by [[William Booth]] and his wife [[Catherine Booth|Catherine]] in London's East End in 1865. It seeks to bring salvation to the poor, destitute and hungry.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/salvationarmy_1.shtml "Christianity: Salvation Army"] ''BBC''. Retrieved 12 April 2011.</ref>

==Politics and government==
{{Main|Politics of the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|Politics of England|Politics of Scotland|Politics of Wales|Politics of Northern Ireland}}

=== The Crown and parliament ===
The UK has a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary government]] based on the [[Westminster system]] that has been emulated around the world – a legacy of the [[British Empire]]. The [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] that meets in the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] has two houses: an elected [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] and an appointed [[House of Lords]], and any Bill passed requires [[Royal Assent]] to become law. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the United Kingdom: the devolved parliaments and assemblies in [[Scottish Parliament|Scotland]], [[Northern Ireland Assembly|Northern Ireland]] and [[National Assembly for Wales|Wales]] are not sovereign bodies and could be abolished by the UK Parliament, despite each being established following public approval as expressed in a [[referendum]].<ref>For historical context see R.K. Webb, ''Modern England: from the 18th century to the present'' (1968) [https://archive.org/details/modernenglandfro00webb online] a university textbook pitched to an American audience.</ref>

The UK's two [[List of political parties in the United Kingdom#Major parties in the House of Commons|major political parties]] are the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], who between them won 532 out of 650 seats in the House of Commons at the [[2024 United Kingdom general election|most recent general election]]. Currently, the third biggest party in terms of seats in the Commons is the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]], or Lib Dems, which won 72 seats. The [[Scottish National Party]] (SNP) in Scotland is the forth largest, but only won 7 out of the 59 Scottish constituencies. There are also smaller parties in the Commons, like [[Reform UK]] and [[Green Party of England and Wales|Green Party]], or regional parties like [[Plaid Cymru]] (Wales), the [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]], the [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]], [[Democratic Unionist Party]], and [[Sinn Féin]] (Northern Ireland).

[[File:10 Downing Street. MOD 45155532.jpg|thumb|[[10 Downing Street]], official residence of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]]]
A prominent part of British political culture, [[Prime Minister's Questions]] – often referred to as "PMQs" – is held every Wednesday at noon when the House of Commons is sitting. The [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] spends around half an hour responding to questions from [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Members of Parliament]] (MPs). In questioning the policies of government ministers, MP [[Amber Rudd]] states "PMQs is central to our democracy."<ref>{{cite news|title=Rowdy, silly and loud, but PMQs is central to our democracy|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/jun/22/rowdy-silly-loud-pmqs-central-democracy|work=The Guardian|date=23 March 2018}}</ref> Due to the drama of the sessions, PMQs is among the best-known parliamentary business in the country. It is broadcast live on [[BBC News]], [[Sky News]] and [[BBC Parliament]] television channels, as well as streamed online by many news outlets via numerous services, such as [[Twitch (service)|Twitch]] or [[YouTube]].

The United Kingdom has an [[uncodified constitution]], the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom]], consisting mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including [[statute]]s, judge-made [[case law]], and international treaties. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and constitutional law, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] can perform constitutional reform simply by passing [[Act of Parliament|Acts of Parliament]] and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/sovereignty.cfm |title=Official UK Parliament web page on parliamentary sovereignty |publisher=UK Parliament |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090717060941/http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/sovereignty.cfm |archive-date=17 July 2009 }}</ref>

=== The law ===
British constitutional documents include [[Magna Carta]] (foundation of the "great writ" ''[[Habeas corpus]]'' — safeguarding individual freedom against arbitrary state action), the [[Bill of Rights 1689]] (one provision granting [[freedom of speech]] in Parliament), [[Petition of Right]], [[Habeas Corpus Act 1679]] and [[Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949]]. A separate but similar document, the [[Claim of Right Act 1689|Claim of Right Act]], applies in Scotland. Jurist [[Albert Venn Dicey]] wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty".<ref>Anthony Wright (1994). "Citizens and subjects: an essay on British politics". Routledge, 1994</ref> An advocate of the "unwritten constitution", Dicey stated English rights were embedded in the general English [[common law]] of personal liberty, and "the institutions and manners of the nation".<ref>A V Dicey (1897). "Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution".</ref>

According to 2016 figures from the [[Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Justice]], there is a 35% chance of people in England and Wales being summoned for [[jury duty]] over the course of their lifetime. In Scotland the percentage is higher due to Scotland having a lower population as well having juries made up of fifteen people as opposed to twelve in England and Wales.<ref>{{cite news|title=What is the chance of being called for jury service?|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-36140259|work=BBC|date=17 March 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Emmeline Pankhurst2.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Emmeline Pankhurst]]. Named one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century by ''Time'', Pankhurst was a leading figure in the suffragette movement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Emmeline Pankhurst –Time 100 People of the Century |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991250,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306060513/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991250,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 March 2008 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=14 June 1999}}</ref>]]
The 17th-century English patriot [[John Hampden]] was a leading parliamentarian involved in challenging the authority of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] when he refused to be taxed for [[ship money]] in 1637, and was one of the [[Five Members]] whose attempted unconstitutional arrest by the King in the [[House of Commons of England|House of Commons]] in 1642 sparked the [[English Civil War]]. The wars established the constitutional rights of parliament, a concept legally established as part of the [[Glorious Revolution]] in 1688 and the subsequent [[Bill of Rights 1689]]. Since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting.<ref name="State opening">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/hi/guides/newsid_81000/81909.stm "Democracy Live: Black Rod"]. BBC. Retrieved 6 August 2008</ref> Hampden is annually commemorated at the [[State Opening of Parliament]] by the British monarch when the doors of the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] are slammed in the face of the [[Black Rod|monarch's messenger]], symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.<ref name="State opening" />

Other important British political figures include Sir [[Edward Coke]], 17th-century jurist; the legal directive that nobody may enter a home, which in the 17th-century would typically have been male owned, unless by the owners invitation or consent, was established as common law in Coke's ''[[Institutes of the Lawes of England]]''. "For a man's house is his castle, et domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium [and each man's home is his safest refuge]." It is the origin of the famous dictum, "[[Property#Whether and to what extent the state may interfere with property|an Englishman's home is his castle]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=An Englishman's home is his castle |url=https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/an-englishmans-home-is-his-castle.html |website=Phrases.org.uk |access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> Sir [[William Blackstone]], 18th-century jurist, judge and politician best known for his ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', containing his formulation: "It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer", a principle that government and the courts must err on the side of innocence,<ref>{{cite web|title=Sir William Blackstone|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/68589/supplemental-information|website=Britannica|access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> [[Emmeline Pankhurst]], leading suffragette which helped win women the [[women's suffrage|right to vote]], [[William Wilberforce]], leading parliamentary [[abolitionist]]. An influential thinker in the history of [[Classical liberalism|liberalism]], 19th century philosopher, political economist and politician [[John Stuart Mill]] justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control. A member of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/electionsvoting/womenvote/parliamentary-collections/1866-suffrage-petition/john-stuart-mill/|title=John Stuart Mill and the 1866 petition|website=UK Parliament}}</ref>

[[File:SanktEdvardsstol westminster.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[King Edward's Chair]] in Westminster Abbey. A 13th-century wooden throne on which the [[British monarch]] sits when he or she is crowned at the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]], swearing to uphold the law and the church. The monarchy is apolitical and impartial, with a largely symbolic role as head of state.]]
[[Robert Walpole]] is generally regarded as the first British Prime Minister (1721–1742). Twice Prime Minister, Sir [[Robert Peel]], founded the Conservative party (which was expanded by [[Benjamin Disraeli]]), and created the modern police force.<ref>John S. Dempsey, Linda S. Forst (2011). "An Introduction to Policing". p.7. Retrieved 11 October 2011</ref> [[Margaret Thatcher]] was the first female British Prime Minister (1979–1990). She became known as the "Iron Lady", a term coined by a Soviet journalist for her uncompromising politics and leadership style. In 1938, [[Neville Chamberlain]] believed he had secured "[[Peace for our time]]" with Germany, a year before WWII broke out.

English poet [[William Cowper]] wrote in 1785, "We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free, They touch our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein."<ref>Rhodes, Nick (2003). ''William Cowper: Selected Poems'', p. 84. Routledge, 2003</ref> [[Thomas Clarkson]] described fellow British abolitionist [[Josiah Wedgwood]]'s 1787 anti-slavery medallion, "[[Am I Not A Man And A Brother]]?", as "promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom".<ref>[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/REwedgwood.htm "Wedgwood medallion] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708094050/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/REwedgwood.htm |date=8 July 2009 }}". Spartacus</ref> Following the [[Slave Trade Act 1807]], Britain pressed other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties,<ref>{{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |title=Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa |page=290 |location=New York |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 }}</ref> and in 1839 the world's oldest international human rights organisation, [[Anti-Slavery International]], was formed in London, which worked to outlaw slavery abroad; Wilberforce's abolitionist colleague Thomas Clarkson was the organisation's first key speaker.<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=9462&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html "Anti-Slavery International"]. UNESCO. Retrieved 15 October 2010</ref> The [[Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965|1965 suspension of the death penalty]] for murder had been introduced to Parliament as a [[private member's bill]] by [[Sydney Silverman]] MP.<ref>Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1965/71/pdfs/ukpga_19650071_en.pdf section 4]</ref> The world's largest human rights organisation, [[Amnesty International]], was founded by [[Peter Benenson]] in London in 1961.<ref>[http://www.prideofbritain.com/contentpages/winners/2001/peter-benenson.aspx "The Pride of Britain Awards – Lifetime Achievement, Peter Benenson, Founder of Amnesty International"] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120907100302/http://www.prideofbritain.com/contentpages/winners/2001/peter-benenson.aspx |date=7 September 2012 }}. Prideofbritain.com. Retrieved 15 October 2011</ref>

===Honours system===
The [[British honours system]] is a means of rewarding individuals' personal bravery, achievement or service to the United Kingdom. Candidates are identified by public or private bodies or by government departments or are nominated by members of the public. Nominations are reviewed by [[honours committee]]s, made up of government officials and private citizens from different fields, who meet twice a year to discuss the candidates and make recommendations for appropriate honours to be awarded by the King.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Honoursawardsandmedals/DG_176328|title=Honours committees: Directgov – Government, citizens and rights|publisher=Direct.gov.uk|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref>

Historically a [[knighthood]] was conferred upon mounted [[warrior]]s. By the [[Late Middle Ages]], the rank had become associated with the ideals of [[chivalry]], a code of conduct for the perfect [[Court (royal)|courtly]] Christian warrior. An example of warrior chivalry in medieval literature is [[Sir Gawain]] ([[King Arthur]]'s nephew and a [[Round Table|Knight of the Round Table]]) in ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'' (late 14th century). Since the [[early modern period]], the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the UK is [[damehood]]. The ceremony often takes place at [[Buckingham Palace]], and family members are invited to attend.<ref>"Mick Jagger" entry, Contemporary Musicians, Volume 53. Thomson Gale, 2005.</ref>

A few examples of knights are [[Nicholas Winton|Sir Nicholas Winton]]: for "services to humanity, in saving Jewish children from Nazi occupied Czechoslovakia",<ref>{{London Gazette
| issue = 56797
| date = 31 December 2002
| page = 2
| supp = y
}}</ref> [[Elton John|Sir Elton John]]: for "services to music and charitable services", [[Ridley Scott|Sir Ridley Scott]]: for "services to the British film industry",<ref name="knighted">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/3054254.stm|title=Queen knights Gladiator director|date=8 July 2003|access-date=6 March 2010|work=BBC News}}</ref> and [[Richard Branson|Sir Richard Branson]]: for "services to entrepreneurship".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/695511.stm|title=Virgin tycoon is knighted|date=3 January 2016|agency=BBC}}</ref> Examples of dames are: actress [[Julie Andrews|Dame Julie Andrews]] and singer [[Shirley Bassey|Dame Shirley Bassey]]: both for "services to the performing arts", actress [[Joan Collins|Dame Joan Collins]]: for "services to charity", and [[Agatha Christie|Dame Agatha Christie]]: for "contribution to literature".<ref>Kastan, David Scott (2006). The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 467.</ref>

===Counties===
The suffix "[[shire]]" is attached to most of the names of English, Scottish and Welsh counties. Shire is a term for a division of land first used in England during the Anglo-Saxon period. Examples in England are [[Cheshire]], [[Hampshire]], [[Nottinghamshire]], [[Oxfordshire]], [[Staffordshire]], [[Worcestershire]] and [[Yorkshire]]; in Scotland, [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]], [[Perthshire]], [[Inverness-shire]] and [[Stirlingshire]]; and in Wales, [[Carmarthenshire]], [[Flintshire (historic)|Flintshire]] and [[Pembrokeshire]]. This suffix tends not to be found in the names of counties that were pre-existing divisions. [[Essex]], [[Kent]], and [[Sussex]], for example, have never borne a ''-shire'', as each represents a former [[Heptarchy|Anglo-Saxon kingdom]]. Similarly [[Cornwall]] was a [[Britons (historical)|British]] kingdom before it became an English county. The term "shire" is also not used in the names of the [[Counties of Northern Ireland|six traditional counties]] of Northern Ireland.

=== Units of measurement ===
[[File:Britanski merki za dalzhina Grinuich 2005.jpg|thumb|left|[[Yard]], [[foot (unit)|foot]] and [[inch]] measurements at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]], London. The British public commonly measure distance in [[miles]] and yards, height in feet and inches, weight in [[Stone (unit)|stone]] and [[pounds (mass)|pounds]], speed in [[miles per hour]].]]

Use of the British [[Imperial units|imperial system of measure]], particularly among the public, is widespread in the United Kingdom and is in many cases permitted by the law.<ref name="measurement use"/> Human height and weight, long distances and speed are measured in imperial units by the vast majority of Brits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Metric or imperial: what measures do Britons use? {{!}} YouGov |url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/society/articles-reports/2022/04/07/metric-or-imperial-what-measures-do-britons-use |access-date=20 November 2022 |website=yougov.co.uk |language=en-gb}}</ref> A Brit would normally give their weight as "12 and a half stone" rather than 80 kilograms, though younger people increasingly use kilograms rather than stone.<ref>Christine Hopkins, Ann Pope, Sandy Pepperell (2013). ''Understanding Primary Mathematics.'' p. 195. Routledge.</ref><ref name=":0" /> Body height is usually given in [[Foot (unit)|feet]] and [[inches]].<ref name="measurement use">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16245391|title=Will British people ever think in metric?|last1=Kelly|first1=Jon|date=21 December 2011|access-date=3 October 2016|work=BBC|quote=the persistent British preference for imperial over metric is particularly noteworthy}}</ref> Younger generations tend to use more metric units of measurement, creating a generational gap, for example in short distances and item weight.<ref name=":0" /> Although the majority of Brits now use [[Celsius|degrees Celsius]] to measure temperature, the use of [[Fahrenheit]] persists in older generations.<ref name=":0" /> Distances shown on road signs must be in [[mile]]s and [[yard]]s, while [[miles per hour]] appear on speed limit signs and car speedometers.<ref>[http://www.dft.gov.uk/trafficsignsimages/imagelist.php?CATID=6 Speed limit signs] (UK) Department for Transport. Retrieved 14 September 2011</ref>

Britain has been transitioning to metric since 1965, when the UK Government announced financial support for [[metrication]] with a target of 10 years.<ref name=":1">[http://www.metricationmatters.com/docs/MetricationTimeline.pdf A chronological history of the modern metric system (to 2008)]. ''metricationmatters.com''. Retrieved 20 November 2022.</ref> When the UK joined the European Economic Community in 1973, the UK re-affirmed its commitment to metrication,<ref name=":1" /> but in 2007, the European Commission abandoned completely the deadline for full metrication in the UK.<ref>{{cite news |date=11 September 2007 |title=EU gives up on 'metric Britain' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6988521.stm |access-date=4 May 2015}}</ref>

=== Driving ===
By custom and law, traffic in Britain [[drives on the left]]. Research shows that countries driving on the left have a lower collision rate than those that drive on the right, and it has been suggested that this is partly because the predominantly better-performing right eye is used to monitor oncoming traffic and the driver's wing mirror.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chaurasia|first1=BD|last2=Mathur|first2=BB|year=1976|title=Eyedness|journal=Acta Anatomica|volume=96|issue=2|pages=301–5|doi=10.1159/000144681|pmid=970109}}</ref> The name of the [[zebra crossing]] is attributed to British [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and subsequent Prime Minister, [[James Callaghan]], who in 1948 visited the [[Transport Research Laboratory]] which was working on a new idea for safe pedestrian crossings. On being shown a design he is said to have remarked that it resembled a zebra.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.blackcountrybugle.co.uk/aboard-road-safety/story-20133321-detail/story.html|title=All aboard the road to safety|last=Country|first=Black|date=26 November 2009|newspaper=Black Country Bugle|access-date=19 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820204156/http://www.blackcountrybugle.co.uk/aboard-road-safety/story-20133321-detail/story.html|archive-date=20 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Located in [[Birmingham]], the [[Gravelly Hill Interchange]]'s colloquial name "[[Spaghetti Junction]]" was coined by journalists from the ''[[Birmingham Mail|Birmingham Evening Mail]]'' on 1 June 1965. In 1971, the [[Green Cross Code]] was introduced to teach children safer road crossing habits. From 1987, [[Mungo Jerry]]'s song "[[In the Summertime]]" featured in drink driving adverts. The building of [[roundabouts]] (circular junctions) grew rapidly in the 1960s; there are now more than 10,000 in the UK<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3972979.stm|title=Roundabout Magic|publisher=BBC News|date=2 November 2004|access-date=13 May 2007}}</ref> The [[Cat's eye (road)|Cat's eye]] retroreflective safety device used in road marking was invented by [[Percy Shaw]] in 1933.

{{Clear}}

==Cuisine==
{{Main|British cuisine}}
{{See also|English cuisine|Northern Irish cuisine|Scottish cuisine|Welsh cuisine}}
[[File:Englishbreakfast.jpg|thumb|The [[full breakfast]] is among the best known British dishes, consisting of fried egg, [[sausage]], bacon, mushrooms, baked beans, toast, fried tomatoes, and sometimes [[White pudding|white]] or [[black pudding]].]]

[[British cuisine]] is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. Historically, British cuisine meant "unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients, matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour, rather than disguise it".<ref>{{Citation|url = http://goodfood.uktv.co.uk/|publisher = uktv.co.uk|author = UKTV|title = British cuisine|access-date = 23 May 2008|author-link = UKTV|archive-date = 9 September 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190909211520/https://goodfood.uktv.co.uk/|url-status = dead}}</ref> International recognition of British cuisine was historically limited to the [[full breakfast]] and the [[Christmas dinner]].<ref name="Spencer">{{Citation|title=British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History |first=Colin|last= Spencer|year=2003|isbn=978-0-231-13110-0|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]}}</ref> However, [[Celtic fields|Celtic agriculture]] and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous [[Celts]]. [[Anglo-Saxon England]] developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The [[Norman conquest]] introduced exotic spices into [[Great Britain in the Middle Ages]].<ref name="Spencer" /> The [[British Empire]] facilitated a knowledge of [[Indian cuisine|India's food tradition]] of "strong, penetrating spices and herbs".<ref name="Spencer" />

Each country within the United Kingdom has its own specialities. Traditional examples of [[English cuisine]] include the [[Sunday roast]]; featuring a [[roasting|roasted joint]], usually [[roast beef]] (a signature English national dish dating back to the 1731 ballad "[[The Roast Beef of Old England]]"), [[lamb and mutton|lamb]] or chicken, served with assorted boiled or roasted vegetables, [[Yorkshire pudding]] and [[gravy]]. The [[Full breakfast|full English breakfast]] consists of [[bacon]], grilled tomatoes, fried bread, [[baked beans]], fried [[mushrooms]], sausages and eggs. [[Black pudding]] and [[hash brown]]s are often also included. It is usually served with tea or coffee. The [[Ulster]] version – Ulster fry – includes [[soda farl]] and [[Potato bread#North of Ireland and Republic of Ireland|potato bread]], with the BBC's Simon Majumdar calling it the UK's best full breakfast.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is the Ulster fry the best cooked breakfast in the UK? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/guides/zgk7mp3 |access-date=1 November 2018 |agency=BBC}}</ref>

[[File:Loaded Tea Tray (7610014554).jpg|thumb|left|Tea, biscuits, jam and cakes. [[Tea in the United Kingdom|Tea is the most popular beverage in the UK]].]]
[[File:McVitie's chocolate digestive biscuit.jpg|thumb|left|[[McVitie's]] chocolate digestive is routinely ranked the UK's favourite snack, and No. 1 [[Biscuit#Confectionery biscuits|biscuit]] to dunk in tea.]]
[[Fish and chips]] are also regarded as a national institution: [[Winston Churchill]] called them "the good companions", [[John Lennon]] smothered them in tomato ketchup, while [[George Orwell]] referred to them as a "chief comfort" of the working class.<ref name="Institution">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8419026.stm|title=The unlikely origin of fish and chips|date=6 October 2016|agency=BBC News}}</ref> The meal was created in 1860 in the East End of London by a Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, who came up with the idea of combining fried fish with chips.<ref name="Institution" /> A [[blue plaque]] at [[Oldham]]'s Tommyfield Market marks the 1860s origin of the [[fish and chip shop]] and [[fast food]] industries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Webb|first1=Andrew|title=Food Britannia|date=2011|publisher=Random House|page=397}}</ref> Various [[meat pie]]s are consumed such as [[steak and kidney pie]], [[shepherd's pie]], [[cottage pie]], [[Cornish pasty]] and [[pork pie]].

A quintessential British custom, [[afternoon tea]], is a small meal typically eaten between 4 pm and 6 pm. The most popular drink in Britain, tea became more widely drunk due to [[Catherine of Braganza]]. It is traditionally accompanied with [[biscuit]]s, [[sandwich]]es, [[scone]]s, [[cake]]s or pastries (such as [[Battenberg cake]], [[fruit cake]] or [[Victoria sponge]]). In his 1946 essay "[[A Nice Cup of Tea]]", author [[George Orwell]] wrote: "Tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country."<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2003/jun/25/science.highereducation "How to make a perfect cuppa: put milk in first"]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 31 December 2014</ref> [[McVitie's]] are the best selling [[biscuit]] brand in the UK, and the most popular biscuits to [[Dunking (biscuit)|"dunk"]] in tea, with McVitie's [[chocolate digestive]]s, [[rich tea]] and [[hobnob biscuit|hobnobs]] ranked the nation's top three favourite biscuits.<ref name="biscuits">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/4927255/Chocolate-digestive-is-nations-favourite-dunking-biscuit.html "Chocolate digestive is nation's favourite dunking biscuit"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. 2 May 2009</ref> Other popular British biscuits include [[Bourbon biscuit|bourbon]]s, [[custard creams]], [[Jammie Dodgers]], [[ginger nuts]] and [[shortbread]].<ref name="biscuits" /> The first documented figure-shaped biscuits ([[gingerbread man]]) was at the court of [[Elizabeth I]] in the 16th century.<ref>Donald F. Lach (2010). "Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume II: A Century of Wonder. Book 3: The Scholarly Disciplines, Volume 2". p. 442. University of Chicago Press</ref>

[[File:Refreshments stall before 1914.jpg|thumb|right|[[R. White's Lemonade|R. White's]] [[soft drink]]s sold in London. Selling carbonated [[lemonade]] in 1845, by 1887 they sold strawberry soda, raspberry soda and cherryade.]]
The first English recipe for [[Ice cream#True ice cream|ice cream]] was published in ''[[Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts]]'' in London in 1718, and arguably the earliest reference to an edible [[ice cream cone]], appears in [[Charles Elmé Francatelli]]'s 1846 ''[[The Modern Cook]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Day |first=Ivan |title=Wafer Making |url=http://www.historicfood.com/Wafer.htm |publisher=Historic Food |access-date=18 January 2016 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723190825/http://www.historicfood.com/Wafer.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The 18th-century English aristocrat [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich]] is best known for his links to the modern concept of the [[sandwich]] which was named after him. When he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread, others began to order "the same as Sandwich!".<ref>[http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/SandwichHistory.htm Sandwiches, History of Sandwiches]</ref> In the city of Leeds in 1767, [[Joseph Priestley]] made his "happiest" discovery when he invented [[carbonated water]] (also known as soda water), the major and defining component of most [[soft drink]]s.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/03/books/03gewen.html "The Man Who Discovered Oxygen and Gave the World Soda Water"]. ''New York Times''. Retrieved 10 January 2015</ref> Carbonated [[lemonade]] was available in British refreshment stalls in 1833, with [[R. White's Lemonade]] sold in 1845. By 1887 they sold a wide variety of soft drink flavours. [[Irn-Bru]] is the best-selling soft drink in Scotland. Invented by a Newcastle pharmacist in 1927, [[Lucozade]] is the No. 1 sports drink in the UK.

Sausages are commonly eaten as [[bangers and mash]], in [[sausage roll]]s or as [[toad in the hole]]. [[Lancashire hotpot]] is a well-known stew. Popular cheeses include [[Cheddar cheese|Cheddar]] and [[Wensleydale (cheese)|Wensleydale]]. Sweet British dishes include scones, [[apple pie]], [[mince pie]]s, [[spotted dick]], [[Eccles cake]]s, [[pancake]]s, [[sponge cake]], [[trifle]], [[Gelatin dessert|jelly]], [[custard]], [[sticky toffee pudding]], [[Tunnock's teacake]], and [[Jaffa cakes]]; the best-selling cake in the UK. [[Marmalade]] is a popular British spread for toast or sandwich: a spread famous for its association with [[Paddington Bear]], a beloved bear in British culture that featured in the critically acclaimed films ''[[Paddington (film)|Paddington]]'' (2014) and ''[[Paddington 2]]'' (2017).<ref>{{cite news|title=Spread over centuries|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/08/19/1061261128384.html|work=The Age|issue=19 August 2003|date=8 June 2015|location=Melbourne}}</ref>

[[File:Victoria sponge (14287044448).jpg|thumb|upright|left|An award-winning [[Victoria sponge]] from an English village [[fête]]. Competitive baking is part of the traditional village fête, inspiring ''[[The Great British Bake Off]]'' television series.]]
Home [[baking]] has always been a significant part of British home cooking. Influential cookbooks include ''[[The Experienced English Housekeeper]]'' (1769), ''[[Modern Cookery for Private Families]]'' (1845) by food author [[Eliza Acton]] that introduced the now-universal practice of listing ingredients and giving suggested cooking times for each recipe, and [[Isabella Beeton]]'s ''[[Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management|Book of Household Management]]'' (1861). Home-made cakes and jams are part of the traditional English village [[fête]]. Filmed in bunting-draped marquees in scenic gardens, the success of the 2010s television show ''[[The Great British Bake Off]]'' (which was inspired by the village fête) is credited with spurring a renewed interest in home baking, with supermarkets and department stores in the UK reporting sharp rises in sales of baking ingredients and accessories. A popular cake to bake, [[Victoria sponge]] (named after [[Queen Victoria]] who enjoyed a slice with her tea), was created following the discovery of [[baking powder]] by English food manufacturer [[Alfred Bird]] in 1843, which enabled the sponge to rise higher in cakes.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/8753182/The-great-Victoria-sandwich.html "The great Victoria sandwich"]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved 26 February 2018</ref>

The [[hot cross bun]] is a popular British sweet bun traditionally eaten on Good Friday, but are now eaten all year round.<ref>Charles Hindley (2011). ''A History of the Cries of London: Ancient and Modern''. p. 218. Cambridge University Press</ref> [[Treacle tart]] was created after the invention of [[golden syrup]] by chemists working for [[Abram Lyle]] in 1885. With its logo and green-and-gold packaging having remained almost unchanged since then, [[Golden syrup#History|Lyle's Golden Syrup]] was listed by ''Guinness World Records'' as having the world's oldest [[brand]]ing and packaging.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-branding-(packaging) "Oldest branding (packaging)"]. Guinness World Records.</ref> [[Scottish cuisine]] includes [[Arbroath smokie]] and [[haggis]]; [[Northern Irish cuisine]] features the [[Ulster fry]] and the [[pastie]] and [[Welsh cuisine]] is noted for [[Welsh rarebit]] (often using [[Worcestershire sauce]]) and [[cawl]]. [[Brown sauce]] is a traditional British condiment, with its best known variety [[HP Sauce]] (named after and featuring an image of the [[Houses of Parliament]] on the label) a popular spread on chicken and [[bacon sandwich]]es. The Scottish [[Aberdeen Angus]] is a popular native [[Beef cattle|beef]] breed, accounting for almost 20% of the UK beef industry.<ref>{{cite news |title=Aberdeen Angus set to be UK's most popular beef breed |url=https://www.farminguk.com/news/aberdeen-angus-set-to-be-uk-s-most-popular-beef-breed_53333.html |access-date=5 November 2021 |work=Farming UK}}</ref> [[Cavendish bananas]] were cultivated by Sir [[Joseph Paxton]] in the greenhouses of [[Chatsworth House]], Derbyshire in 1836.<ref name="Banana" /> Named after [[William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire|William Cavendish]], they make up the vast majority of [[banana]]s consumed in the western world.<ref name="Banana">{{cite news|title=The imminent death of the Cavendish banana and why it affects us all|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-35131751|publisher=BBC|date=24 January 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Distillerie OldBushmills.jpg|thumb|right|[[Old Bushmills Distillery]], [[County Antrim]], Northern Ireland. Founded in 1608, it is the oldest licensed [[whiskey]] distillery in the world.<ref>Ciaran Brady (2000). ''Encyclopedia of Ireland: an A–Z guide to its people, places, history, and culture''. p. 11. Oxford University Press,</ref>]]
The [[pub]] is an important aspect of British culture, and is often the focal point of local communities. Referred to as their "local" by regulars, pubs are typically chosen for their proximity to home or work, the availability of a particular [[beer]] or [[ale]] or a good selection, good food, a social atmosphere, the presence of friends and acquaintances, and the availability of [[pub games]] such as [[darts]] or [[snooker]]. Pubs will often screen sports events, such as [[English Premier League]] and [[Scottish Premier League]] games (or for international tournaments, the [[FIFA World Cup]]). The [[pub quiz]] was established in the UK in the 1970s.

Initially created to draw in pre-literate drinkers,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/brief-history-british-pub-signs-180957287/ |title=A Brief History of British Pub Signs |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> in 1393, [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] introduced a law that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing [[ale taster]]s who would assess the quality of ale sold.<ref>{{cite news|title=QI: some quite interesting facts about pubs|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/the-filter/qi/10062458/QI-some-quite-interesting-facts-about-pubs.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/the-filter/qi/10062458/QI-some-quite-interesting-facts-about-pubs.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=10 December 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Most pubs still have decorated signs hanging over their doors. The owner or tenant (licensee) is known as the pub landlord or publican, while barmaids are a common feature in pubs. Alcoholic drinks served in pubs include wines and [[English beer]]s such as [[bitter (beer)|bitter]], [[mild ale|mild]], [[stout]] and [[brown ale]]. [[Whisky]] originated in Ireland and Scotland in the [[Middle Ages]]: [[Irish whiskey]] and [[Scotch whisky]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/whiskeyhistory.htm |title=Whiskey History – The history of whiskey / whisky |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-date=7 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707075151/http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/whiskeyhistory.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:ChristmasDinnerScotland.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Christmas dinner]] plate in Scotland, featuring roast [[turkey (bird)|turkey]], [[potatoes|roast potatoes]], mashed potatoes and brussels sprouts]] 
On Christmas Day, goose was previously served at [[Christmas dinner|dinner]]; however since appearing on Christmas tables in England in the late 16th century, the [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] has become more popular, with [[Christmas pudding]] served for dessert.<ref name="BRO">Broomfield, Andrea (2007). ''Food and cooking in Victorian England: a history''. pp. 149–150. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007</ref> The 16th-century English navigator [[William Strickland (navigator)|William Strickland]] is credited with introducing the turkey into England, and 16th-century farmer [[Thomas Tusser]] noted that by 1573 turkeys were common in the [[Christmas dinner#United Kingdom|English Christmas dinner]].<ref>Emett, Charlie (2003). ''Walking the Wolds''. Cicerone Press Limited, 1993</ref> This custom gave rise to the humorous English idiom, "like [[turkeys voting for Christmas]]".<ref>''The pact: the inside story of the Lib–Lab government, 1977–8''. p. 156. [[Quartet Books]],</ref> The turkey is sometimes accompanied with [[roast beef]] or [[ham]], and is served with [[stuffing]], [[gravy]], [[potatoes|roast potatoes]], mashed potatoes and [[vegetable]]s. Invented in London in the 1840s, [[Christmas crackers]] are an integral part of Christmas celebrations, often pulled before or after dinner, or at parties.<ref>Peter Kimpton. ''Tom Smith's Christmas crackers: an illustrated history''. Tempus, 2005.</ref>

[[File:Chicken Tikka Masala KellySue.JPG|thumb|right|[[Chicken tikka masala]], served atop rice. An Anglo-Indian meal, it is among the UK's most popular dishes.]]
[[Chinese restaurants]] and takeaways (in addition to Indian) are among the most popular ethnic food in the UK.<ref>{{cite news|title=How the UK fell in love with Chinese food|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/0/27164636|agency=BBC|date=8 November 2016}}</ref> Chinese takeaways are a common sight in towns throughout the UK, and many serve a pseudo-Chinese cuisine based on western tastes (such as chicken fried rice, chips and curry sauce).<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6Oxh3JUVK3sC |title = China to Chinatown: Chinese Food in the West |author=J. A. G. Roberts |publisher= Reaktion Books |year=2004 |pages= 175–181|isbn = 9781861892270 }}</ref>

The earliest recipe for the [[potato chip|crisp]] ("potato chip") is in English food writer [[William Kitchiner]]'s 1822 cookbook ''The Cook's Oracle''.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Steve |last1=Berry |first2=Phil |last2=Norman |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/10965628/Crisps-buoyed-Britain-in-its-darkest-hour.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/10965628/Crisps-buoyed-Britain-in-its-darkest-hour.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Crisps buoyed Britain in its darkest hour |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |date=14 July 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015 |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 1920, Frank Smith of [[The Smith's Snackfood Company|The Smiths Potato Crisps Company]] Ltd packaged a twist of salt with his crisps in greaseproof paper bags, which were sold around London.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A16455053 |title=Potato Crisps – A History |work=BBC |date=7 December 2006 |access-date=22 March 2017}}</ref> Crisps remained otherwise unseasoned until an important scientific development in the 1950s. After [[Archer Martin]] and [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge|Richard Synge]] (while working in Leeds) received a Nobel Prize for the invention of [[partition chromatography]] in 1952, food scientists began to develop flavours via a [[gas chromatograph]], a device that allowed scientists to understand chemical compounds behind complex flavours such as cheese.<ref>{{cite news |title=100 years of food and flavour innovation |url=https://www.ukflavourassociation.org/about-us/history-flavourings |access-date=10 July 2021 |agency=UK Flavour Association|quote=1952. The Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to British scientists, Richard Synge and Archer Martin, for the invention of partition chromatogrphy, which laid the foundations of gas chromatography.}}</ref> In 1954, Irish crisps company [[Tayto (Republic of Ireland)|Tayto]] produced the first seasoned crisps: Cheese & Onion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/20/joe-spud-murphy-the-man-w_n_1437270.html |title=Joe 'Spud' Murphy: The Man Who Gave Potato Chips Flavor |website=[[Huffington Post]] |date=20 April 2012}}</ref> [[Golden Wonder]] (Smiths' main competitor in Britain) produced their Cheese & Onion version, and Smith's countered with Salt & Vinegar (tested first by their north-east England subsidiary [[Tudor Crisps|Tudor]]) which launched nationally in 1967, starting a two-decade-long flavour war.<ref>{{cite news |title=Channel 4 documentary tells dramatic story of how Corby's huge crisp factory changed the world of snacks - and how it exploded|url=https://www.northantslive.news/whats-on/channel-4-documentary-tells-dramatic-5771498 |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=Northampton Chronicle|quote=This is when Smith's hit back with their own revolutionary flavour — salt and vinegar, inspired by the country's love for fish & chips.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=From salt and vinegar crisps to the offside rule: 12 gifts the North East gave the world |url=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/salt-vinegar-crisps-offside-rule-12380648 |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=Evening Chronicle}}</ref> The crisp market in the UK is led by [[Walkers (snack foods)|Walkers]] (who introduced their own flavours in 1954), holding 56% of the market share.

[[File:Jubilee Confectioners window display, Town, Beamish Museum, 26 November 2006 (2).jpg|thumb|[[Cadbury]] chocolate bars ([[Cadbury Dairy Milk|Dairy Milk]] back of tray), circa 1910]]
The [[Quakers]], founded by [[George Fox]] in 1650s England and described by the BBC as "natural capitalists", had a virtual monopoly in the British chocolate industry for much of the 19th and 20th centuries, led by [[Cadbury]] of Birmingham, [[J. S. Fry & Sons|Fry's]] of Bristol and [[Rowntree's]] and [[Terry's]] of York.<ref>{{cite news|title=How did Quakers conquer the British sweet shop?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8467833.stm|work=BBC|date=30 November 2015}}</ref> Fry's produced the first [[chocolate bar]] in 1847, which was then mass-produced as [[Fry's Chocolate Cream]] in 1866.<ref name="Chocolates">{{cite book|last=Mintz|first=Sidney|title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=157}}</ref> The chocolate bars [[Cadbury Dairy Milk]], [[Galaxy (chocolate)|Galaxy]] and [[Kit Kat]], are the three best selling bars in the UK.<ref>[http://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/food-drink-news/nations-favourite-chocolate-bars-revealed-7938048 "Top 10 selling chocolate bars in the UK"]. Wales Online. Retrieved 29 December 2014</ref> [[Cadbury Creme Egg]]s are the best selling confectionery item between New Year's Day and Easter in the UK, with annual sales in excess of 200 million. Sponsored by Cadbury, the annual children's [[Easter egg hunt]] takes place in over 250 locations in the UK. Created in Doncaster, Yorkshire, [[Butterscotch]] boiled sweets is one of the town's best known exports. Created in Lancashire, [[Jelly Babies]] are among the British public's favourite sweets. [[After Eight]]s are a popular after dinner mint. A [[Rock (confectionary)|stick of rock]] (a hard cylindrical stick-shaped boiled sugar) is a traditional British seaside sweet, commonly sold at seaside resorts throughout the UK such as [[Brighton]], [[Portrush]] and [[Blackpool]]. A "[[99 Flake]]" (commonly called a "99") which consists of ice cream in a [[ice cream cone|cone]] with a [[Flake (chocolate bar)|Cadbury Flake]] inserted in it, is a hugely popular British dessert.<ref>{{cite news |title= Consider the 99 Flake |first = Oliver |last = Thring |newspaper= The Guardian |date= 24 August 2010 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2010/aug/24/99-flake-ice-cream |access-date= 15 November 2010 |location=London}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

==Sport==
{{Main|Sport in the United Kingdom}}
[[File:Wembley Stadium interior.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The interior of an empty stadium as viewed from its upper tier of seating. The seats are a vivid red and the pitch is a vivid green. The pale grey sky is visible through an opening in the ceiling above the pitch.|[[Wembley Stadium]], London, home of the [[England national football team|England football team]] and [[FA Cup final]]s. Wembley also hosts concerts: [[Adele]]'s 28 June 2017 concert was attended by 98,000 fans, a stadium record for a music event in the UK.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-40465871 "Adele cancels final two Wembley shows"]. BBC. Retrieved 2 July 2017</ref>]]

Most of the major sports have separate administrative structures and national teams for each of the [[countries of the United Kingdom]]. Though each country is also represented individually at the Commonwealth Games, there is a single '[[Team GB]]' (for Great Britain) that represents the UK at the [[Olympic Games]]. With the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-century [[Victorian Britain]], in 2012, IOC President [[Jacques Rogge]] stated; "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognized as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum".<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf "Opening ceremony of the games of the XXX Olympiad"]. Olympic.org. Retrieved 30 November 2013</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160105143311/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 "Unparalleled Sporting History"]. Reuters. Retrieved 30 November 2013</ref>

=== Football ===
Both in participation and viewing, the [[Sport in the United Kingdom#Popularity|most popular sport in the UK]] is association football.<ref>[http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/928/Rugby-Union-Britains-Second-Most-Popular-Sport.aspx Britain's Most Popular Sports – MORI Sports Tracker] ''Ipsos MORI'' Retrieved 2 May 2011</ref> The sport's origin can be traced to [[English public school football games]]. The [[Laws of the Game (association football)|rules]] were first drafted in England in 1863 by [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]], and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/article3694775.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604183514/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/article3694775.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 June 2011|title=The father of football deserves much more|last=Rudd|first=Alyson|newspaper=Times Online | location=London | date=7 April 2008 | access-date=15 January 2015}}</ref> England is recognised as the birthplace of club football by [[FIFA]], with [[Sheffield F.C.]], founded in 1857, the world's oldest football club.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pelé joins Sheffield celebrations|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/7081034.stm|agency=BBC|date=25 June 2015|work=BBC News|first=Jonathan|last=Rawcliffe}}</ref> The [[home nations]] all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most notably England's [[Premier League]] and [[FA Cup]], and the [[Scottish Premiership]] and [[Scottish Cup]]. The top three Welsh football clubs feature in the English league system. The first international football match was between [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] and [[England national football team|England]] in 1872.<ref>{{cite news| title = The first international football match| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/sportscotland/asportingnation/article/0012/index.shtml| work = BBC| access-date =23 September 2007}}</ref> Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted the [[1966 FIFA World Cup]], and won the tournament.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131220190138/http://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/worldcup/england1966/index.html "Hurst the hero for England in the home of football"]. FIFA.com. Retrieved 15 January 2015</ref> The British television audience for the 1966 World Cup [[1966 FIFA World Cup Final|final]] peaked at 32.30&nbsp;million viewers, making it the [[List of most-watched television broadcasts#Most watched special events|most watched television event ever]] in the UK.<ref name="BARB" />

The four home nations have produced some of the greatest players in the game's history, including, from England, [[Bobby Moore]] and [[Gordon Banks]]; from Northern Ireland, [[George Best]] and [[Pat Jennings]]; from Scotland, [[Kenny Dalglish]] and [[Jimmy Johnstone]]; and from Wales, [[Ian Rush]] and [[Ryan Giggs]]. The first recipient of the [[Ballon d'Or]], [[Stanley Matthews]] was knighted while still a player. The English [[Premier League]] (formed in 1992 by member clubs of the old [[Football League First Division]]) is the most-watched football league in the world,<ref>[https://www.thetimes.com/world/ireland-world/article/history-and-time-are-key-to-power-of-football-says-premier-league-chief-3d3zf5kb35m "History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief"]. The Times. Retrieved 30 November 2013</ref> and its biggest clubs include [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]], [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]], [[Tottenham Hotspur]] and [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]. Scotland's [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] and [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] also have a global fanbase. [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]]'s 2016 Premier League title win is regarded among the greatest sporting upsets ever.

[[File:SundayLeagueFootball.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sunday league football]] (a form of amateur football). Amateur matches throughout the UK often take place in public parks.]]
The best-placed teams in the domestic leagues of England and Scotland qualify for Europe's premier competition, the [[UEFA Champions League]] (European Cup). Previous winners from the UK are Liverpool, Manchester United, [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]], Celtic, Chelsea and [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]. The [[UEFA Champions League Anthem]], written by [[Tony Britten]] and based on Handel's ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'', is played before each game.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100208164329/http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/music/index.html UEFA Champions League anthem] [[UEFA.com]]. Retrieved 13 March 2011.</ref> [[Henry Francis Lyte|Henry Lyte]]'s Christian hymn "[[Abide with Me]]" is sung prior to kick-off at every [[FA Cup Final]], a tradition since [[1927 FA Cup Final|1927]].

The practice of "jumpers for goalposts" alludes to [[Street football (association football)|street/park football]] in the UK where [[Sweater|jumpers]] would be placed on the ground and used as [[goalposts]]. This practice was referenced by singer [[Ed Sheeran]] in his DVD ''[[Jumpers for Goalposts: Live at Wembley Stadium]]'' as a nod to playing concerts at Wembley Stadium, the home of English football. Early references to [[Dribbling#Association football|dribbling]] come from accounts of medieval football games in England. [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] offered an allusion to such ball skills in 14th-century England. In [[The Knight's Tale]] (from the ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'') he uses the following line: "rolleth under foot as doth a ball".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=541&pageno=69 |author=Chaucer, Geoffrey |title=The Knight's Tale |work=Canterbury Tales |publisher=Project Gutenberg}}</ref>
{{listen|filename=Cwm Rhondda.ogg|title="Cwm Rhondda"|description="You're Not Singing Any More" chants are sung to the Welsh hymn.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
Football in Britain is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of [[football chants]], which are one of the last remaining sources of an oral folk song tradition in the UK.<ref>Chris Roberts, Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press, 2006 ({{ISBN|0-7862-8517-6}})</ref> Chants include "[[You're Not Singing Any More]]" (or its variant "We Can See You Sneaking Out!"), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early).<ref>{{cite journal | last = Caudwell | first =J.C. | title = 'Does your boyfriend know you're here?' The spatiality of homophobia in men's football culture in the UK | journal = Leisure Studies | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–138 | year = 2011| doi =10.1080/02614367.2010.541481 | s2cid =144386213 }}</ref> Many teams in the UK have their own club anthem or have a song closely associated with them, for example "[[You'll Never Walk Alone]]" by Liverpool-based rock band [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]], and "[[Local Hero (album)|Local Hero]]" by [[Dire Straits]] frontman and [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] fan [[Mark Knopfler]], is played before the start of every Liverpool and Newcastle home game.<ref>Anthony Bateman (2008). "Sporting Sounds: Relationships Between Sport and Music". p. 186. Routledge</ref>

Throughout the UK, [[Steak pie|meat pies]] (as well as burgers and chips) is a traditional hot food eaten at football games either before kick-off or during half time. The purchase of a [[football programme]] (a pre-match magazine produced by the home team that gives details on that day's game, including player profiles, recent form, interviews etc.) is also part of the 'ritual' of attending a football match in the UK. The Football Association dropped its ban on [[floodlights]] in 1950, and night games attracted increasingly large crowds of fans–some of them unruly—as well as large television audiences. Architects built bigger stadia, and "their cantilevered constructions dwarfing mean streets, supplanted the cathedral as a symbol of the city's identity and aspirations".<ref>Brian Harrison, Seeking a Role: The United Kingdom 1951–1970 (2009) p 386</ref>

=== Golf ===
The modern game of [[golf]] originated in Scotland, with the [[Fife]] town of [[St Andrews]] known internationally as the "[[Golf in Scotland|home of golf]]".<ref name="Keay">Keay (1994) ''op cit'' page 839. "In 1834 the [[The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews|Royal and Ancient Golf Club]] declared St. Andrews 'the Alma Mater of golf'".</ref> and to many golfers the [[Old Course at St Andrews|Old Course]], an ancient [[links (golf)|links]] course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage.<ref>Cochrane, Alistair (ed) ''Science and Golf IV: proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf''. Page 849. Routledge</ref> In 1764, the standard 18 hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes.<ref>Forrest L. Richardson (2002). "Routing the Golf Course: The Art & Science That Forms the Golf Journey". p. 46. John Wiley & Sons</ref> Golf is documented as being played on [[Musselburgh Links]], East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/7949045.stm Links plays into the record books] BBC. Retrieved 28 September 2011</ref> The oldest known [[Rules of golf#Origin|''rules of golf'']] were compiled in March 1744 in [[Leith Links|Leith]].<ref>[http://www.ruleshistory.com/ Historical Rules of Golf] "The first rules of golf compiled by the Gentlemen Golfers of [[Leith Links|Leith]]".</ref>

The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf, [[The Open Championship]], first took place in Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860, and today it is played on the weekend of the third Friday in July.<ref>[http://www.pgatour.com/2007/travel/07/16/trans_071607/index.html The Open Championship – More Scottish than British] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002214520/http://www.pgatour.com/2007/travel/07/16/trans_071607/index.html |date=2 October 2012 }} PGA Tour. Retrieved 28 September 2011</ref> Golf's first superstar [[Harry Vardon]], a member of the fabled [[Great Triumvirate (golf)|Great Triumvirate]] who were pioneers of the modern game, won the Open a record six times. Since the 2010s, three Northern Irish golfers have had major success; [[Graeme McDowell]], [[Darren Clarke]] and four time major winner [[Rory McIlroy]].<ref>[http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/sport/golf/northern-ireland-world-golf-capital-16024505.html Northern Ireland, world golf capital] ''Belfast Telegraph''. Retrieved 3 November 2014.</ref> The biennial golf competition, the [[Ryder Cup]], is named after English businessman [[Samuel Ryder]] who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.<ref>Fry, Peter (July 2000). Samuel Ryder: The Man Behind the Ryder Cup. Wright Press.</ref> Sir [[Nick Faldo]] is the most successful British Ryder Cup player.

=== Rugby ===
[[File:Millennium Stadium 6 Nations.jpg|thumb|right|[[Millennium Stadium]], [[Cardiff]], Wales prior to a [[Wales national rugby union team|Wales]] vs England [[Six Nations Championship]] game. The annual rugby union tournament (which includes Scotland and Ireland) takes place over six weeks from late January/early February to mid March.]]
In 1845, [[rugby union]] was created when the first rules were written by pupils at [[Rugby School]], Warwickshire.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-coventry-warwickshire-25946757 "Six ways the town of Rugby helped change the world"]. BBC. Retrieved 29 January 2015</ref> A former pupil of the school [[William Webb Ellis]], is often fabled with the invention of running with the ball in hand in 1823. The [[1871 England versus Scotland rugby union match|first rugby international]] took place on 27 March 1871, played between [[England national rugby union team|England]] and [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scotland]].<ref>Godwin, Terry; Rhys, Chris (1981).''The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats''. p.10. Enfield: Guinness Superlatives Ltd</ref> By 1881 both [[Ireland national rugby union team|Ireland]] and [[Wales national rugby union team|Wales]] had teams, and in 1883 the first international competition the annual [[Six Nations Championship|Home Nations Championship]] took place. In 1888, the Home Nations combined to form what is today called the [[British and Irish Lions]], who now tour every four years to face a Southern Hemisphere team. The Wales team of the 1970s, which included a backline consisting of [[Gareth Edwards (rugby union)|Gareth Edwards]], [[J. P. R. Williams]] and [[Phil Bennett]] who were known for their feints, sidesteps and attacking running rugby, are regarded as one of the greatest teams in the game – all three players were involved in ''[[The greatest try ever scored]]'' in 1973. [[Jonny Wilkinson]] scored the winning [[drop kick|drop goal]] for England in the last minute of extra time in the [[2003 Rugby World Cup Final]]. The major domestic club competitions are the [[English Premiership (rugby union)|Premiership]] in England and the [[Pro14|Celtic League]] in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and (since [[2010–11 Celtic League|2010]]) Italy. Of Cornish origin, the chant "[[Oggy Oggy Oggy|Oggy Oggy Oggy, Oi Oi Oi!]]" is associated with rugby union (and its personalised variant with football); it inspired the "[[Maggie Out|Maggie Maggie Maggie, Out Out Out!]]" chant by opponents of Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] in the 1980s. In 1895, [[rugby league]] was created in [[Huddersfield]], [[West Riding of Yorkshire]], as the result of a split with the other Rugby code. The [[Super League]] is the sports top-level club competition in Britain, and the sport is especially popular in towns in the northern English counties of Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria. The [[Challenge Cup]] is the major rugby league cup competition.

=== Tennis ===
[[File:Wimbledon Centre Court (May 15, 2019).jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Centre Court]] at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]. The world's oldest tennis tournament, it has the longest sponsorship in sport with [[Slazenger]] supplying tennis balls to the event since 1902.<ref>{{cite web|title=At 113 Years and Counting, Slazenger Maintains the Longest Sponsorship in Sports|url=http://www.sesponsorshipgroup.com/sponsorship-figures/2015/11/3/at-113-years-and-counting-slazenger-maintains-the-longest-sponsorship-in-sports|publisher=S&E Sponsorship Group|date=4 November 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617070504/http://www.sesponsorshipgroup.com/sponsorship-figures/2015/11/3/at-113-years-and-counting-slazenger-maintains-the-longest-sponsorship-in-sports|archive-date=17 June 2016}}</ref>]]
The modern game of [[tennis]] originated in Birmingham, England in the 1860s, and after its creation, tennis spread throughout the upper-class English-speaking population, before spreading around the world.<ref>[http://www.itftennis.com/abouttheitf/worldwide/history.asp History of Tennis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100322195507/http://www.itftennis.com/abouttheitf/worldwide/history.asp |date=22 March 2010 }} [[International Tennis Federation]]. Retrieved 28 July 2008.</ref> Major [[Walter Clopton Wingfield]] is credited as being a pioneer of the game.<ref>[http://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/walter-wingfield Major Walter Clopton Wingfield] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906053003/http://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/walter-wingfield |date=6 September 2011 }} International Tennis Hall of Fame. Retrieved 28 September 2011</ref> The world's oldest tennis tournament, the [[Wimbledon Championships]], first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July.<ref name="CNNTennis">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110624021723/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/tennis/06/14/tennis.wimbledon.125th.anniversary.museum/index.html "125 years of Wimbledon: From birth of lawn tennis to modern marvels"]. CNN. Retrieved 28 September 2011</ref> Created in the Tudor period in the court of Henry VIII, the English dessert [[Strawberry#Uses|Strawberries and cream]] is synonymous with the British summer, and is famously consumed at Wimbledon. The tournament itself has a major place in the British cultural calendar. The eight-time Slam winner and Britain's most successful player [[Fred Perry]] is one of only seven men in history to have won all four Grand Slam events, which included three Wimbledons.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120529150501/http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKL76024020090607 Fred Perry (Britain) * Completed the clean sweep in 1935 at the French Open] ''[[Reuters]]''</ref> [[Virginia Wade]] won three Grand Slams, the most famous of which was Wimbledon in 1977, the year of the [[Silver Jubilee]] of Queen Elizabeth II (the Queen attended Wimbledon for the first time since 1962 to watch the final). The 2013 and 2016 Wimbledon champion, Scotland's [[Andy Murray]], is Britain's most recent male Grand Slam winner. In 2021, [[Emma Raducanu]] became the most recent British female Grand Slam winner.

=== Boxing ===
[[File:WWE - Sheffield 020499 (47) zoom.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Featherweight champion [[Naseem Hamed|"Prince" Naseem Hamed]] was a major name in boxing and 1990s British pop culture.]]
The [[Marquess of Queensberry rules|'Queensberry rules']], the code of general rules in [[boxing]], was named after [[John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry]] in 1867, that formed the basis of modern boxing.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9051067?tocId=9051067&query=queensberry&ct= Encyclopædia Britannica (2006).ŷ ''Queensbury Rules'', Britannica]</ref> Britain's first heavyweight world champion [[Bob Fitzsimmons]] made boxing history as the sport's first three-division world champion. The 1980s saw the emergence of heavyweight [[Frank Bruno]] who would become hugely popular with the British public. In the 1990s, [[Chris Eubank]], [[Nigel Benn]], [[Steve Collins]] and [[Michael Watson]] had a series of fights against each other in the super-middleweight division, drawing audiences of up to 20 million in the UK. Eubank's eccentric personality made him one of the most recognisable celebrities in the UK along with the cocky [[Naseem Hamed|"Prince" Naseem Hamed]]. The [[Nigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan]] fight in 1995 drew 13 million. Other big draw fighters in the UK included [[Lennox Lewis]], [[Joe Calzaghe]] and [[Ricky Hatton]].

=== Cricket ===
[[File:WGGrace.jpg|thumb|upright|Cricketer [[W. G. Grace]], with his long beard and MCC cap, was the most famous British sportsman in the Victorian era.]]
The modern game of [[cricket]] was created in England in the 1830s when [[round arm]] bowling was legalised, followed by the historical legalisation of [[overarm bowling]] in 1864.<ref>Rowland Bowen, 1970. Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development, Eyre & Spottiswoode.</ref> In 1876–77, [[England cricket team|England]] took part in the first-ever [[Test cricket|Test match]] against Australia. Influential to the development of the sport, [[W. G. Grace]] is regarded as one of the greatest cricket players, devising most of the techniques of modern batting.<ref>James, C L R (1963). ''Beyond A Boundary''. p.236-237. Hutchinson</ref> His fame endures; ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' uses his image as "the face of God" during the sequence in which God sends the knights out on their quest for the grail. The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to [[The Ashes]] in 1882 that has remained Test cricket's most famous contest, and takes place every two years to high television viewing figures. The [[County Championship]] is the domestic competition in England and Wales. England have hosted the [[Cricket World Cup]] five times, and are the reigning champions, having won in [[2019 Cricket World Cup|2019]].

=== Horse racing ===
Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the [[Thoroughbred]] is a horse breed best known for its use in [[horse racing]]. Horse racing was popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, earning it the title "Sport of Kings".<ref>Specogna, Marino (2005). "Become a Winner Claiming Thoroughbred Race Horses". iUniverse, 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2011</ref> Named after [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby]], [[Epsom Derby|The Derby]] was first run in 1780. The race serves as the middle leg of the [[Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing#English Triple Crowns|Triple Crown]], preceded by the [[2000 Guineas Stakes|2000 Guineas]] and followed by the [[St Leger Stakes|St&nbsp;Leger]]. The name "[[Derby (horse race)|Derby]]" has since become synonymous with great races all over the world, and as such has been borrowed many times in races abroad.<ref>Reeves, Richard Stone (1997), Crown jewels of thoroughbred racing: original paintings (Illustrated ed.), p. 134. Eclipse Press</ref>

The [[National Hunt]] horse race the [[Grand National]], is held annually at [[Aintree Racecourse]] in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winner [[Red Rum]] is the most successful racehorse in the event's history. Red Rum is the best-known racehorse in the UK, named by 45% of Britons, with [[Black Beauty]] (from [[Anna Sewell]]'s novel) in second with 33%.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6541281.stm "Red Rum is UK's best-known horse"]. BBC. Retrieved 18 March 2016</ref>

Bolton company [[J.W. Foster and Sons]]'s pioneering [[running spikes]] appear in the book, ''Golden Kicks: The Shoes that changed Sport''.<ref name="Abrahams" /> They were made famous by 1924 100&nbsp;m Olympic champion [[Harold Abrahams]] who would be immortalised in ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'', the British Oscar winning film.<ref name="Abrahams">{{cite book|last1=Colea|first1=Jason|title=Golden Kicks: The Shoes that Changed Sport|date=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|pages=14–16}}</ref> Foster's grandsons formed the sportswear company [[Reebok]] in Bolton.<ref name="Abrahams" />

=== Motor sports ===
The [[1950 British Grand Prix]] was the first [[Formula One]] World Championship race. Britain has produced some of the greatest drivers in Formula One, including [[Stirling Moss]], [[Jim Clark]] (twice F1 champion), [[Graham Hill]] (only driver to have won the [[Triple Crown of Motorsport|Triple Crown]]), [[John Surtees]] (only world champion in two and four wheels), [[Jackie Stewart]] (three-time F1 champion), [[James Hunt]], [[Nigel Mansell]] (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), [[Jenson Button]] and [[Lewis Hamilton]] (seven-time champion). The [[British Grand Prix]] is held at [[Silverstone Circuit|Silverstone]] every July. Also, the United Kingdom is home to some of the most prestigious teams in Formula One, including [[McLaren]] and [[Williams Grand Prix Engineering|Williams]]. It is also home to the headquarters of six of the ten [[List of Formula One constructors|current F1 teams]], including current champions [[Mercedes-Benz in Formula One|Mercedes]], four-time champions [[Red Bull Racing]], [[Alpine F1 Team|Alpine]] and [[Aston Martin F1 Team|Aston Martin]].

=== National sporting events ===
Other major sporting events in the UK include the [[London Marathon]], and [[The Boat Race]] on the [[River Thames]]. The most successful male [[Rowing (sport)|rower]] in Olympic history, [[Steve Redgrave]] won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games. Cycling is a popular physical activity in the UK. In 1888, inventor [[Sir Frank Bowden, 1st Baronet|Frank Bowden]] founded the [[Raleigh Bicycle Company]], and by 1913, Raleigh was the biggest bicycle manufacturing company in the world. The [[Raleigh Chopper]] was named in the list of British design icons. In 1965 [[Tom Simpson]] became the first British world road race champion, and in 2012 [[Bradley Wiggins]] became the first British [[Tour de France]] winner. [[Chris Froome]] has subsequently won the Tour de France four times (2013, 2015, 2016 and 2017). Welsh cyclist [[Geraint Thomas]] won in 2018. Sprint specialist [[Mark Cavendish]] has won thirty Tour de France stages, putting him second on the [[Tour de France records and statistics#Stage wins per rider|all-time list]].

[[File:Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean - Dancing on Ice 2011.jpg|thumb|left|Ice dancers [[Torvill and Dean]] in 2011. Their historic gold medal-winning performance at the [[1984 Winter Olympics]] was watched by a British television audience of more than 24 million people.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/14/newsid_4156000/4156053.stm|title=1984: British ice couple score Olympic gold
|work=BBC|access-date=25 May 2010}}</ref>]]
In [[Ice Dance]], many of the compulsory moves were developed by dancers from the UK in the 1930s.<ref>James R. Hines (2011). ''Historical Dictionary of Figure Skating''. p. 102. Scarecrow Press</ref> At the [[1984 Winter Olympics]], [[Jayne Torvill]] and [[Christopher Dean]] won ice dancing gold with the highest-ever score for a single programme. The pair received perfect 6.0 scores from every judge for artistic impression, and twelve 6.0s and six 5.9s overall.

At the 1988 Winter Olympics, ski jumper [[Eddie the Eagle|Eddie "The Eagle" Edwards]] gained fame as an underdog. Eddie was portrayed by [[Taron Egerton]] in the 2016 biographical sports comedy-drama film ''[[Eddie the Eagle (film)|Eddie the Eagle]]''.

[[File:Mo Farah (2) Moscow 2013.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mo Farah]] is the most successful British track athlete in modern Olympic Games history, winning the 5000&nbsp;m and 10,000&nbsp;m events at two Olympic Games.]]
A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including association football, golf, tennis, [[boxing]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[field hockey]], [[snooker]], [[darts]], [[billiards]], [[Squash (sport)|squash]], [[curling]] and badminton, all of which are popular in Britain. Another sport invented in the UK was baseball,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/baseball/2799671/Major-League-Baseball-told-Your-sport-is-British-not-American.html |title=Major League Baseball Told: Your Sport Is British, Not American |date=11 September 2008 |access-date=3 February 2009 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016132738/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/baseball/2799671/Major-League-Baseball-told-Your-sport-is-British-not-American.html |archive-date=16 October 2008 }}</ref> and its early form [[rounders]] is popular among children in Britain.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510872/rounders Rounders (English game)] ''[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]''</ref> Snooker and darts are popular indoor games: [[Stephen Hendry]] is the seven time world snooker champion, [[Phil Taylor (darts player)|Phil Taylor]] is the 16 time world darts champion. Snooker player [[Alex Higgins]] (nicknamed ''The Hurricane'') and darts player [[Eric Bristow]] (nicknamed ''The Crafty Cockney'') are credited with popularising each sport.

Bodybuilder [[Reg Park]] was Mr Britain in 1946 and became [[Universe Championships#Winners|Mr Universe]] in 1951, 1958 and 1965.<ref>{{cite news|title=An Austrian hick in London: Arnie's early years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/terminator-genisys/arnold-schwarzenegger-early-life-bodybuilding/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/terminator-genisys/arnold-schwarzenegger-early-life-bodybuilding/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=23 March 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Gaelic football]] is very popular in Northern Ireland, with many teams from the north winning the [[All-Ireland Senior Football Championship]] since the early 2000s. [[William Penny Brookes]] was prominent in organising the format for the modern [[Olympic Games]], and in 1994, then [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] President [[Juan Antonio Samaranch]] laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".<ref>{{cite news|title=Father of the modern Olympics|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/articles/2006/01/31/william_penny_brookes_feature.shtml|work=BBC|date=22 September 2017}}</ref>

Participation in women's team sport (in addition to profile in the media) has seen a rapid increase in recent years. Popular women's team sports include [[Netball Superleague]] formed in 2005, the [[FA WSL]] (women's football) formed in 2010 ([[Kelly Smith]] is seen as a leading figure in the game), [[Women's Six Nations Championship]] in rugby union, and [[Women's Cricket Super League]].

=== Sub-national sports ===
The [[Highland games]] are held throughout the year in Scotland as a way of celebrating Scottish and [[Celt]]ic culture and heritage, especially that of the [[Scottish Highlands]], with more than 60 games taking place across the country every year. Each December, the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award|BBC Sports Personality of the Year]] is announced, an award given to the best British sportsperson of the year, as voted for by the British public. The public also votes for the [[BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]], presented to a non-British sportsperson considered to have made the most substantial contribution to a sport each year which has also captured the imagination of the British public. Recipients have included [[Pelé]] (after winning his third World Cup in 1970), [[Muhammad Ali]] (after regaining the heavyweight title in 1974), [[Jonah Lomu]] (for his performances at the 1995 Rugby World Cup), [[Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)|Ronaldo]] (for his comeback in winning the 2002 World Cup), and [[Roger Federer]] (for his record eighth Wimbledon in 2017).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/spoty_overseas.shtml|title=Sports Personality of the Year: overseas winners|date=December 2007|work=BBC|access-date=30 December 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090115045536/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/spoty_overseas.shtml| archive-date= 15 January 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>

==Healthcare==
[[File:Coloured mezzotint; Florence Nightingale, Wellcome L0019661.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|The founder of modern [[nursing]] [[Florence Nightingale]] tending to a patient in 1855. An icon of Victorian Britain, she is known as ''The Lady with the Lamp''.]]
Each of the four countries of the UK has a publicly funded [[health care]] system referred to as the [[National Health Service]] (NHS). The terms "National Health Service" or "NHS" are also used to refer to the four systems collectively. All of the services were founded in 1948, based on legislation passed by the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government that had been elected in 1945 with a manifesto commitment to implement the [[Beveridge Report]] recommendation to create "comprehensive health and rehabilitation services for prevention and cure of disease".<ref name="Beveridge Report">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/19_07_05_beveridge.pdf | title=Social Insurance and Allied Services | publisher=HM Stationery Office | date=November 1942 | access-date=3 March 2013 | author=Beveridge, William}}</ref>

[[File:British Heart Foundation shop in Wolverhampton - geograph.org.uk - 3312562.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[British Heart Foundation]] is the biggest funder of [[cardiovascular]] research in the UK.]]
The NHS was born out of a long-held ideal that good healthcare should be available to all, regardless of wealth. At its launch by the then minister of health, [[Aneurin Bevan]], on 5 July 1948, it had at its heart three core principles: That it meet the needs of everyone, that it be free at the point of delivery, and that it be based on clinical need, not ability to pay.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/aboutnhs/Pages/NHSCorePrinciples.aspx |title=The NHS in England – About the NHS – NHS core principles |publisher=Nhs.uk |date=23 March 2009 |access-date=11 July 2010}}</ref> The NHS had a prominent slot during the [[2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony#Second to the right, and straight on till morning (21:35–21:47)|2012 London Summer Olympics opening ceremony]] directed by [[Danny Boyle]], being described as "the institution which more than any other unites our nation", according to the programme.<ref>{{cite news |title=Danny Boyle's intro on Olympics programme |url=http://www.awardsdaily.com/blog/2012/07/27/danny-boyles-intro-on-olympics-programme/ |publisher=Awards Daily |first=Ryan |last=Adams |date=27 July 2012 |access-date=27 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130206135250/http://www.awardsdaily.com/blog/2012/07/27/danny-boyles-intro-on-olympics-programme/ |archive-date=6 February 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Cancer Research UK]], [[Alzheimer's Research UK]] and [[Together for Short Lives]] are among hundreds of health charities in the UK.

[[Florence Nightingale]] laid the foundation of modern [[nursing]] with the establishment of her [[nursing school]] at [[St Thomas' Hospital]] in London. It was the [[Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery|first secular nursing school in the world]], now part of [[King's College London]]. Nightingale wrote ''[[Notes on Nursing]]'' in 1859. The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools.<ref>{{cite book|title=Notes on Nursing: What it is and what it is not|last=Nightingale|first=Florence|contribution=Introduction|contributor=Joan Quixley|year=1974|orig-year=First published 1859|publisher=Blackie & Son Ltd.}}</ref> The [[Nightingale Pledge]] is taken by many new nurses in the US (but not the UK), and the annual [[International Nurses Day]] (12 May) is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms improved healthcare for all sections of society in the UK and around the world.<ref>{{cite news|title=Florence Nightingale: the medical superstar|url=http://www.express.co.uk/expressyourself/170640/Florence-Nightingale-the-medical-superstar|newspaper=Daily Express|date=12 May 2016}}</ref>

==Pets==

=== Statistics ===
[[File:English Bulldog about to sleep.jpg|thumb|right|One of Britain's oldest indigenous breeds, the [[Bulldog]] is known as the national dog of Great Britain.<ref>[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/services/public/breed/display.aspx?id=4084 "Bulldog Description"]. The Kennel Club. Retrieved 14 December 2012'</ref>]]
In the UK, about 40% of the population own a pet. The top pets in the UK for 2018 and 2019 were:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/308218/leading-ten-pets-ranked-by-household-ownership-in-the-united-kingdom-uk/|title=UK: pet ownership 2018|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref>

* Dogs: 25%
* Cats: 17%
* Rabbits, indoor birds, guinea pigs, hamsters: ≈1%
* Tortoises and Turtles: 0.7%
* Lizards: 0.6%

However, the population of pets in the UK declined from 71 million in 2013 (a significant peak) to 51 million in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/308229/estimated-pet-population-in-the-united-kingdom-uk/|title=UK: number of pets 2009–2018|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref> This decline has seen some reversal as a result of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]; an article published in May 2021 stated that a total of 3.2 million households in the UK had acquired a pet since the start of the pandemic, according to the Pet Food Manufacturers' Association.<ref>{{cite news |date=12 March 2021 |title=Households 'buy 3.2 million pets in lockdown' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-56362987 |access-date=27 June 2022 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

=== History ===
Founded in 1824, the [[Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] (RSPCA) is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dogpages.org.uk/links.htm |title=Dog Rescue Pages – UK dog rescue centres and welfare organisations |access-date=18 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302003315/http://dogpages.org.uk/links.htm |archive-date=2 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Britskorthaar-64091287828362D7bA.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[British Shorthair]] was an inspiration for the [[Cheshire Cat]] in Lewis Carroll's ''[[Alice in Wonderland]]''.]]
The [[British Shorthair]] cat is the most popular pedigreed breed in its native country, as registered by the UK's [[Governing Council of the Cat Fancy]] (GCCF). The breed's broad cheeks and relatively calm temperament make it a frequent media star. The cat's profile reads: "When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a 'Cheshire cat smile'".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Geyer|first1=Georgie Anne|title=When Cats Reigned Like Kings: On the Trail of the Sacred Cats|publisher=Transaction Publishers|page=219}}</ref> There are almost one million horses and ponies in the UK, with popular native breeds including [[Clydesdale horse]] (used as drum horses by the British [[Household Cavalry]]), [[Thoroughbred]] (used in horse racing), [[Cleveland Bay]] (pull carriages in royal processions), [[Highland pony]] and [[Shetland pony]].

The UK's indigenous dog breeds include the [[Bulldog]], [[Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Golden Retriever]], [[Yorkshire Terrier]], [[Cavalier King Charles Spaniel]], [[Airedale Terrier]], [[Beagle]], [[Border Collie]], [[Staffordshire Bull Terrier]], [[English Cocker Spaniel]], [[Scottish Terrier]], [[Welsh Corgi]], [[Bullmastiff]], [[Greyhound]], [[English Springer Spaniel]] and [[Old English Sheepdog]].

[[The Kennel Club]], with its headquarters in London, is the oldest kennel club in the world, and acts as a lobby group on issues involving dogs in the UK. Its main objectives are to promote the general improvement of dogs and responsible dog ownership.<ref>[http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/1199 "Facts and Figures"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116222421/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/1199 |date=16 January 2013 }}. The Kennel Club. Retrieved 14 December 2012'</ref> Held since 1891, [[Crufts]] is an annual dog show in the UK. The event takes place over four days in early March. In 1928, the very first winner of [[List of Best in Show winners of Crufts|Best in Show]] at Crufts was Primley Sceptre, a greyhound.

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==National costume and dress==
[[File:Brazier Dancers 01.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Highland dancing]] in traditional Gaelic dress with its [[tartan]] pattern]]
As a [[multi-national state]], the UK has no single national costume. However, different countries within the United Kingdom have national costumes or at least are associated with styles of dress. Scotland has the [[kilt]] and [[Tam o'shanter (hat)|Tam o'shanter]], and [[tartan]] clothing – its pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours – is a notable aspect of [[Gaelic culture]].<ref>M.A. Newsome, 'The Scottish Tartans Museum': [http://www.scottishtartans.org/tartan.html The Scottish Tartans Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210055101/http://www.scottishtartans.org/tartan.html |date=10 February 2006 }}</ref> A [[traditional Welsh costume]] with [[Welsh hat]] is worn by some women during [[Eisteddfod]]au. In England, the topic of a national costume has been in debate, since no officially recognized clothing is anointed "national". However, the closest to an English national costume can be the smock or [[smock-frock]] in the Midlands and Southern England and the [[Maud (plaid)|maud]] in Northern England. [[English Country Clothing]] is also popular among rural folk, [[flat cap]]s and [[brogue shoe]]s also forming part of the country clothing.<ref name="Wales">Katie Wales (2006). ''Northern English: a cultural and social history''. p. 26. Cambridge University Press</ref>

[[File:Royal stewart.jpg|thumbnail|left|The [[Royal Stewart tartan]]. It is also the personal tartan of Queen [[Elizabeth II]] Tartan is used in clothing, such as skirts and scarves, and has also appeared on tins of Scottish [[shortbread]].<ref>Marketing". p. 9. Haymarket Press, 1973</ref>]]
Certain military [[uniform]]s such as the [[Yeomen Warders|Beefeater]] or the [[Queen's Guard]] are considered to be symbolic of Englishness. [[Morris dance]]rs or the costumes for the traditional English [[May dance]] are sometimes cited as examples of traditional English costume, but are only worn by participants in those events. Designed in 1849 by the London hat-makers Thomas and William Bowler, the [[Bowler hat]] is arguably the most iconic stereotyped view of an Englishman (complete with Bowler and rolled umbrella), and was commonly associated with City of London businessmen. Traced back to the north of England in the 14th century, the [[flat cap]] is associated with the working classes in the UK.<ref name="Wales"/> The flat cap has seen a 21st-century resurgence in popularity, possibly influenced by various British public figures wearing them, including [[David Beckham]], [[Harry Styles]] and [[Guy Ritchie]], with clothing sellers [[Marks & Spencer]] reporting that flat cap sales significantly increased in the 2010s.<ref>{{cite news|title=If you want to get ahead, get a flat cap|url=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news-features/TMG8108321/If-you-want-to-get-ahead-get-a-flat-cap.html|agency=Telegraph|date=18 November 2016}}</ref> In 1856 [[William Henry Perkin]] discovered the first [[synthetic dye]] ([[Mauveine]] – a purple colour), which was suitable as a dye of silk and other textiles, helping to revolutionise the world of fashion.<ref>{{cite news|title=The color purple: How an accidental discovery changed fashion forever|url=https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/perkin-mauve-purple/index.html|agency=CNN|date=15 March 2018}}</ref>

[[Burberry]] is most famous for creating the [[trench coat]]: they were worn by British soldiers in the trenches in World War I.<ref>{{Cite news|title= Trench Coats in Demand|newspaper= The New York Times|date= 29 August 1917|url= http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/pdf/Trench-Coat-Popularity%20U.pdf}}</ref> Among various British youth subcultures, [[Dr. Martens]] boots (often referred to as DMs) have been the choice of footwear: in the 1960s [[skinhead]]s started to wear them, and they later became popular among [[Scooter (motorcycle)|scooter]] riders, [[punk subculture|punks]], and some [[New wave music|new wave]] musicians. Male [[Mod (subculture)|mods]] adopted a sophisticated look that included tailor-made suits, thin ties, button-down collar shirts, [[Chelsea boot]]s and [[C. & J. Clark|Clarks]] desert boots.<ref>Casburn, Melissa M., ''A Concise History of the British Mod Movement''</ref>

[[File:Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Victoria]] in her [[white wedding]] dress with Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at St James's Palace, London, 10 February 1840]]
British sensibilities have played an influential role in world clothing since the 18th century. Particularly during the [[Victorian era]], British fashions defined acceptable dress for men of business. Key figures such as the future [[Edward VII]], [[Edward VIII]], and [[Beau Brummell]], created the modern [[Suit (clothing)|suit]] and cemented its dominance. Brummell is credited with introducing and establishing as fashion the modern man's suit, worn with a [[Necktie|tie]].<ref>{{Citation| last =Kelly| first =Ian| date =17 September 2005| title =The man who invented the suit | publisher = [[The Times Online]]| url =http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,23113-1782054_1,00.html| access-date =1 February 2008| location=London}}{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The use of a coloured and patterned tie (a common feature in [[School uniforms in the United Kingdom|British school uniforms]]) indicating the wearer's membership in a club, regiment, school, professional association etc. stems from the 1880 [[Sport rowing|oarsmen]] of [[Exeter College Boat Club|Exeter College, Oxford]], who tied the bands of their straw hats around their necks.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Finest Neckties|url=https://www.forbes.com/collecting/2004/05/26/cx_ns_0526feat.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040612071708/http://www.forbes.com/collecting/2004/05/26/cx_ns_0526feat.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 June 2004|agency=Forbes|date=26 November 2016}}</ref> The [[Wellington boot]] (first worn by [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]) became a staple for outdoor wear.

The tradition of a [[white wedding]] is commonly credited to [[Queen Victoria]]'s choice to wear a white wedding dress at her wedding to [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] in 1840, at a time when white was associated with purity and [[conspicuous consumption]] (because it was difficult to keep clean, and thus could not be worn by servants or labourers), and when it was the colour required of girls being presented to the royal court.<ref>Otnes, Cele and Pleck, Elizabeth (2003). Cinderella Dreams: The Allure of the Lavish Wedding, p.31. University of California Press</ref><ref>Milligan, Lauren (28 April 2011) [http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2011/04/28/royal-wedding-dresses-from-history---queen-victoria-princess-margaret-princess-alexandra Royal Rules] Vogue. Retrieved 27 June 2011</ref> The 1981 [[wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer]] became one of the most famous dresses in the world, and was considered one of the most closely guarded secrets in fashion history.<ref>{{cite news|last=Johnson|first=Maureen|title=Design of Lady Diana's wedding dress revealed|newspaper=The Press-Courier|agency=Associated Press|location=Oxnard CA|page=11}}</ref>

===Fashion===
[[File:NaomiCampbell.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Naomi Campbell]] appeared on the era-defining January 1990 cover of [[Vogue (British magazine)|British ''Vogue'']].]]
London, as one of the world's four fashion capitals, is host to the [[London Fashion Week]] – one of the 'Big Four' fashion weeks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishfashioncouncil.com/content.aspx?CategoryID=420|title=British Fashion Council website|access-date=10 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708094732/http://www.britishfashioncouncil.com/content.aspx?CategoryID=420|archive-date=8 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Organised by the [[British Fashion Council]], the event takes place twice each year, in February and September. The current venue for most of the "on-schedule" events is [[Somerset House]] in [[central London]], where a large marquee in the central courtyard hosts a series of catwalk shows by top designers and fashion houses, while an exhibition, housed within Somerset House itself, showcases over 150 designers. However, many "off-schedule" events, such as On|Off and Vauxhall Fashion Scout, are organised independently and take place at other venues in central London.

British designers whose collections have been showcased at the fashion week include [[Vivienne Westwood]], [[Alexander McQueen]], [[John Galliano]] and [[Stella McCartney]]. British models who have featured at the event include [[Kate Moss]], [[Naomi Campbell]], [[Jade Jagger]], [[David Gandy]], [[Cara Delevingne]] and [[Rosie Huntington-Whiteley]]. For almost two decades, [[Princess Diana]] was a fashion icon whose style was emulated by women around the world.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Woman We Loved|url=http://www.newsweek.com/woman-we-loved-172640|agency=Newsweek|date=17 June 2015}}</ref>

Fashion designer [[Mary Quant]] was at the heart of the "[[Swinging London]]" scene of the 1960s, and her work culminated in the creation of the [[miniskirt]] and [[hot pants]].<ref>Ros Horton, Sally Simmons, 2007. "Women Who Changed the World".</ref> Quant named the miniskirt after her favourite make of car, the [[Mini]].<ref>Barry Miles, 2009. ''The British Invasion: The Music, the Times, the Era''. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009</ref> The Swinging London fashion scene has featured in films, and was spoofed in the ''[[Austin Powers (film series)|Austin Powers]]'' comedy series.<ref>John Storey (2010). ''Culture and Power in Cultural Studies: The Politics of Signification''. p. 60. Edinburgh University Press</ref> The English fashion designer [[Charles Frederick Worth]] is widely considered the father of [[Haute couture]].<ref>Jacqueline C. Kent (2003). ''Business Builders in Fashion – Charles Frederick Worth – The Father of Haute Couture''. The Oliver Press, Inc., 2003</ref>
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==Symbols, flags, and emblems==
[[File:A typical london street.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Union Jack|Union Flag]] being flown on [[The Mall, London]] looking towards [[Buckingham Palace]]]]{{Main|List of national symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man}}
The United Kingdom as a whole has a number of national symbols, as do its constituent nations. The [[Union Flag]] is the [[Flag of the United Kingdom|national flag of the United Kingdom]]. The first flag combined the [[Saint George's Cross|cross of St George]] with the [[Flag of Scotland|saltire of Saint Andrew]] to represent the [[Union of the Crowns]] in 1707. [[Saint Patrick's Saltire|St Patrick's saltire]] was added when the Kingdom of Ireland was unified with Great Britain in 1801, and retained to represent Northern Ireland after partition in 1927.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flaginstitute.org/index.php?location=7 |title=British flags |first=Graham |last=Bartram |website=The Flag Institute |access-date=2 May 2007}}</ref> Wales has never been represented on the Union Flag, as in 1707 it was part of the [[Kingdom of England]]. Similarly, the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom]] only represents England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. England occupies the first and fourth quarters of the arms except in Scotland, when its arms take precedence. [[Britannia]] is the national personification of the UK, while [[John Bull]] is a personification used in satirical contexts, and the national animals are the lion and the bulldog.

The UK does not have a floral emblem, but each nation does. The [[Tudor rose]] represents England, a [[Cirsium vulgare|thistle]] Scotland, the [[Ipomopsis longiflora|flax flower]] and [[shamrock]] Northern Ireland, and the [[leek]] and [[Narcissus (plant)|daffodil]] Wales. The rose, shamrock and thistle are engrafted on the same stem on the [[coat of arms of the United Kingdom]]. Another major floral symbol is the [[remembrance poppy]], which has been worn in Britain since 1921 to commemorate soldiers who have died in war. In the weeks leading up to [[Remembrance Sunday]] they are distributed by [[The Royal British Legion]] in return for donations to their "Poppy Appeal", which supports all current and former British military personnel.

==Traditional communication and greeting cards==
[[File:K6 Telephone Box and Edward VII Pillar Box Amberley.png|thumb|upright|The [[red telephone box]] and Royal Mail red [[pillar box|post box]] appear throughout the UK.]]
A familiar sight throughout the UK, the [[red telephone box]] and Royal Mail red [[pillar box|post box]] are considered British cultural icons. Designed by [[Giles Gilbert Scott|Sir Giles Gilbert]] in 1924, the red telephone box features a prominent [[Crown (headgear)|crown]] representing the British government. The post pillar box was introduced in the 1850s during the reign of [[Queen Victoria]] following [[Rowland Hill (postal reformer)|Sir Rowland Hill]]'s postal reforms in the 1830s where the [[Penny Post#United Kingdom|reduction in postal rates]] with the invention of the postage stamp ([[Penny Black]]) made sending post an affordable means of personal communication.<ref name="Rowland"/>
The red telephone box has appeared in British pop culture, such as in [[Adele]]'s video "[[Hello (Adele song)|Hello]]", the front cover of [[One Direction]]'s album ''[[Take Me Home (One Direction album)|Take Me Home]]'', and the back cover of [[David Bowie]]'s album ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Britain's classic red telephone boxes get a makeover|url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/britain-red-telephone-box-reinvented/index.html|publisher=CNN|date=9 April 2017}}</ref>

The world's first [[postcard]] was received by [[Theodore Hook]] from [[Fulham]], London in 1840.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1862284.stm "Oldest postcard sells for £31,750"]. BBC News. Retrieved 2 February 2015</ref> The first pillar boxes had the distinctive Imperial cypher of Victoria Regina. Most pillar boxes produced after 1905 are made of cast iron and are cylindrical, and have served well throughout the reigns of [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]], [[Edward VIII]], [[George VI]] and [[Elizabeth II]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bathpostalmuseum.co.uk/history-of-the-post-box.html |publisher=Bath Postal Museum |title=History of the British Postbox |access-date=19 November 2009 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224185641/http://www.bathpostalmuseum.co.uk/history-of-the-post-box.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The sending and receiving of [[greeting card]]s is an established tradition in the UK, with card sending or card display in the home being an important part of British culture.<ref name="GCA">[http://www.greetingcardassociation.org.uk/info-resource/market-info/facts-and-figures Facts And Figures – GCA: The Greeting Card Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229151238/http://www.greetingcardassociation.org.uk/info-resource/market-info/facts-and-figures |date=29 December 2013 }}. Retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref>

[[Sir Henry Cole]] devised the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time.<ref name="Cole"/> Designed by [[John Callcott Horsley]] for Cole in 1843, the [[Christmas card]] accounts for almost half of the volume of greeting card sales in the UK, with over 600 million cards sold annually.<ref name="GCA"/> The [[European robin|robin]] is a common sight in gardens throughout the UK. It is relatively tame and drawn to human activities, and is frequently voted Britain's national bird in polls.<ref>{{cite news|title=Robin wins vote for UK's national bird|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jun/10/robin-wins-vote-uk-national-bird-britain|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=10 June 2015|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> The robin began featuring on many Christmas cards in the mid-19th century. The association with Christmas arises from postmen in Victorian Britain who wore red jackets and were nicknamed "Robins"; the robin featured on the Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering the card.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/reallywild/amazing/robin.shtml|title=BBC Science & Nature:Animals|access-date=3 January 2008|work=bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

Sending [[Valentine's Day#Modern times|Valentine's Day]] cards became hugely popular in Britain in the late 18th century, a practice which has since spread to other nations.<ref>[http://www.emotionscards.com/museum/vals.html The History of Valentine's Day Cards] Emotionscards.com. Retrieved 22 February 2010.</ref> The day first became associated with [[Romance (love)|romantic love]] within the circle of [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] in the 14th century, when the tradition of [[courtly love]] flourished.<ref name="oruch">Oruch, Jack B., "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2847741 St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February]". ''Speculum'', '''56''' (1981): 534–65.</ref> In Chaucer's ''[[Parlement of Foules]]'' (1382) he wrote; ''For this was on seynt Volantynys day. When euery bryd comets there to chese his make''.<ref name="oruch"/> The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found in the 1784 English nursery rhyme ''[[Roses Are Red]]''; "The rose is red, the violet's blue. 'The honey's sweet, and so are you. Thou art my love and I am thine. I drew thee to my Valentine."<ref>''Gammer Gurton's Garland'' (London, 1784) in I. Opie and P. Opie, ''The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes'' (Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd ed., 1997), p. 375.</ref>

In 1797, a British publisher issued ''The Young Man's Valentine Writer'' which contained scores of suggested sentimental [[Verse (poetry)|verses]] for the young lover unable to compose his own. In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the UK, despite postage being expensive.<ref>[http://www.mmu.ac.uk/news/news-items/1218/ "Valentine cards reveal Britain's relationship history"]. Manchester Metropolitan University, Retrieved 8 February 2014</ref> A reduction in postal rates (with the 1840 invention of the postage stamp, the Penny Black) increased the practice of mailing Valentines, with 400,000 sent in 1841.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vincent|first1=David|title=Literacy and Popular Culture: England 1750–1914|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=44, 45}}</ref> In the UK just under half the population spend money on gifts.<ref>[http://www.brc.org.uk/details04.asp?id=1091&kCat=&kData=1 Valentine's Day worth £1.3 Billion to UK Retailers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118043542/http://www.brc.org.uk/details04.asp?id=1091&kCat=&kData=1 |date=18 January 2012 }} [[British Retail Consortium]]. Retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref> Other popular occasions for sending greeting cards in the UK are birthdays, Mother's Day, Easter and Father's Day.<ref name="Cole">{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6043426.stm |title = Card sharps |work = BBC News |date = 12 October 2006 |access-date =12 June 2011 |first=Sean |last=Coughlan}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

==Education==
{{Main|Education in the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|Universities in the United Kingdom}}

Each country of the United Kingdom has a separate education system. Power over education matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland is [[devolution|devolved]] but education in England is dealt with by the British government since there is no [[Devolved English parliament|devolved administration]] for England.

=== England ===
{{Main|Education in England}}
[[File:Statue d'Alfred le Grand à Winchester.jpg|thumb|left|upright|King [[Alfred the Great]] statue in Winchester, Hampshire. The 9th-century English king encouraged education in his kingdom, and proposed that primary education be taught in [[Old English|English]], with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.]]
Most schools came under state control in the [[Victorian era]]; a formal state school system was instituted after the [[Second World War]]. Initially, schools were categorised as [[infant school]]s, primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic [[grammar school]]s and more vocational [[secondary modern school]]s). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to become [[comprehensive school]]s. England has many independent (fee-paying) schools, some founded hundreds of years ago; independent secondary schools are known as [[public school (England)|public schools]]. [[Eton College|Eton]], [[Harrow School|Harrow]], [[Shrewsbury School|Shrewsbury]] and [[Rugby School|Rugby]] are four of the best-known. The nature and peculiarities of these Public schools have frequently featured in British literature. Prior to 1999,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/31/enacted |title=School Standards and Framework Act 1998 |website=www.legislation.gov.uk}}</ref> [[School corporal punishment|corporal punishment]] was allowed in such schools, whilst the use of corporal punishment was outlawed in state schools in 1987.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/61/enacted |title=Education (No. 2) Act 1986 |website=www.legislation.gov.uk}}</ref> Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsory [[School uniforms in England|school uniforms]]. Allowances are almost invariably made, however, to accommodate [[religious dress]], including the Islamic [[hijab]] and [[Sikh]] bangle (kara).

[[File:UnionBuildingsDebateChamber.jpg|thumb|The [[Oxford Union]] debate chamber. Called the "world's most prestigious debating society", the Oxford Union has hosted leaders and celebrities.<ref>Burns, John F. "Oxford Union girds for far-right debate Protesters vow 'anti- fascist' rally", ''International Herald Tribune'', 27 November 2007. Retrieved 20 January 2009.</ref>]]

Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of [[local education authority|local education authorities]].

[[List of universities in England|England's universities]] include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world: the [[University of Cambridge]], [[Imperial College London]], the [[University of Oxford]] and [[University College London]] are all ranked in the global top 10 in the 2010 ''[[QS World University Rankings]]''. The [[London School of Economics]] has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.<ref name=london_156>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202225123/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/sunday_times_university_guide/article2496158.ece "The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2007 – Profile for London School of Economics"]. The Times.</ref> The [[London Business School]] is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the ''[[Financial Times]]''.<ref name="ft">[http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings "FT Global MBA Rankings"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829050814/http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings |date=29 August 2011 }}. Financial Times</ref> [[Academic degree]]s in England are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class).

=== Northern Ireland ===
{{Main|Education in Northern Ireland}}
The [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] is responsible for [[education in Northern Ireland]]. Schools are administered by five Education and Library Boards covering different geographical areas.

=== Scotland ===
{{Main|Education in Scotland}}
[[File:New College, Mound - geograph.org.uk - 1367403.jpg|thumb|right|[[New College, Edinburgh|New College]], [[University of Edinburgh]]]]
Scotland has a long history of universal provision of [[public education]] which, traditionally, has emphasised breadth across a range of subjects rather than depth of education in a smaller range of subjects. The majority of schools are [[non-denominational]], but by law separate Roman Catholic schools, with an element of control by the Roman Catholic Church, are provided by the [[state school|state system]]. Qualifications at the secondary school and [[post-secondary education|post-secondary]] ([[further education]]) levels are provided by the [[Scottish Qualifications Authority]] and delivered through various schools, colleges and other centres. Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in the [[Scottish Parliament]] and the [[Scottish Executive|Scottish Executive Education and Enterprise, Transport & Lifelong Learning Departments]]. State schools are owned and operated by the [[local government of Scotland|local authorities]] which act as ''Education Authorities'', and the compulsory phase is divided into primary school and secondary school (often called [[high school]], with the world's oldest high school being the [[Royal High School (Edinburgh)|Royal High School]], Edinburgh in 1505,<ref>James J. Trotter, ''The Royal High School, Edinburgh'' (London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, 1911), p. 186.</ref> which colonists spread to the [[New World]] owing to the high prestige enjoyed by the Scottish educational system). Schools are supported in delivering the National Guidelines and National Priorities by [[Learning and Teaching Scotland]].

First degree courses at [[List of universities in Scotland|Scottish universities]] are often a year longer than elsewhere in the UK, though sometimes students can take a more advanced entrance exam and join the courses in the second year. One unique aspect is that the [[ancient universities of Scotland]] award a [[Master of Arts (Scotland)|Master of Arts]] degree as the first [[academic degree|degree]] in [[humanities]]. The [[University of Edinburgh]] is among the top twenty universities in the world according to the [[QS World University Rankings]] 2011. It is also among the [[Ancient Universities]] of Great Britain.

=== Wales ===
{{Main|Education in Wales}}
[[File:Tiverton , Angel Hill on Remembrance Sunday - geograph.org.uk - 1573745.jpg|right|thumb|[[Scouts]], [[Brownie (Girl Guides)|Brownies]], and [[Cub Scout|Cubs]] with the local community in Tiverton, Devon on [[Remembrance Sunday]]]]
The [[National Assembly for Wales]] has responsibility for [[education in Wales]]. A significant number of students in Wales are educated either wholly or largely through the medium of the Welsh language, and lessons in the language are compulsory for all until the age of 16. There are plans to increase the provision of [[Welsh medium education]] as part of the policy of promoting a fully bilingual Wales.

=== Outdoor education ===
[[Scouting]] is the largest co-educational youth movement in the UK.<ref name=Scouts/> Scouting began in 1907 when [[Robert Baden-Powell]], Lieutenant General in the British Army, held the [[Brownsea Island Scout camp|first Scout camp]] at [[Brownsea Island]] in Dorset, England.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/6477573.stm Scout island focus of celebration] ''BBC News''. Retrieved 3 March 2011.</ref> Baden-Powell wrote the principles of Scouting in ''[[Scouting for Boys]]'' in 1908.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6918066.stm "What would Baden-Powell do?"]. BBC News. Retrieved 3 March 2011.</ref> In July 2009, adventurer [[Bear Grylls]] became the youngest [[Chief Scout (The Scout Association)|Chief Scout]] ever, aged 35. In 2010, scouting in the UK experienced its biggest growth since 1972, taking total membership to almost 500,000.<ref name=Scouts>[http://scouts.org.uk/news/288/scouting-sees-biggest-membership-surge-in-40-years Scouting sees biggest membership surge in 40 years]. Retrieved 3 March 2011.</ref>

==Sociological issues==

===Housing===
[[File:Street of terraced housing.jpg|right|thumb|Terraced houses are typical in inner cities and places of high population density.]]
The UK (England in particular) has a relatively high [[Demographics of the United Kingdom|population density]] so housing tends to be more closely packed than in other countries. Thus [[terrace (architecture)|terraced]] houses are widespread, dating back to the aftermath of the [[Great Fire of London]].<ref>Nigel R. Jones (2005). "Architecture of England, Scotland, and Wales". Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005</ref>

As the first industrialised country in the world, the UK has long been urbanised.<ref>"Human geography of the UK: an introduction". Routledge, 2001</ref> In the 20th century, suburbanisation led to a spread of [[semi-detached]] and detached housing. After the Second World War, public housing was dramatically expanded to create a large number of [[council estates]]. There are many historic [[country house]]s and [[stately home]]s in rural areas, though only a minority of these are still used as private living accommodation.

In recent times, more detached housing has started to be built. Also, city living has boomed, with city centre populations rising rapidly. Most of this population growth has been accommodated in new apartment blocks in residential schemes in many towns and cities. Demographic changes (see below) are putting great pressure on the housing market, especially in London and the [[South East England|South East]].
{{Clear}}

===Living arrangements===
[[File:Austhorpe 1.jpg|thumb|Typical 20th-century, three-bedroom [[semi-detached]] houses in England]]
Historically most people in the United Kingdom lived either in [[Marriage|conjugal]] [[extended family|extended families]] or [[nuclear family|nuclear families]]. This reflected an [[Economic system|economic]] landscape where the general populace tended to have less spending power, meaning that it was more practical to stick together rather than go their individual ways. This pattern also reflected [[gender role]]s. Men were expected to go out to work and women were expected to stay at home and look after the families.

[[File:Builder's tudorbethan.jpg|thumb|right|A 21st-century detached [[Mock Tudor]] house in Scotland. Its [[timber framing]] is typical of English [[Tudor architecture]].]]
In the 20th century the [[feminism|emancipation of women]], the greater freedoms enjoyed by both men and women in the years following the [[Second World War]], greater [[affluent|affluence]] and easier divorce have changed gender roles and living arrangements significantly. The general trend is a rise in single people living alone, the virtual extinction of the [[extended family]] (outside certain ethnic minority communities), and the [[nuclear family]] arguably reducing in prominence.

From the 1990s, the break-up of the traditional family unit, when combined with low [[interest rate]]s and other demographic changes, has created great pressure on the housing market, in particular on accommodation for "[[key workers]]" such as nurses, other [[emergency service]] workers and teachers, who are priced out of most housing, especially in the [[South East England|South East]]. Some research indicates that in the 21st century young people are tending to continue to live in the parental home for much longer than their predecessors.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3276039.stm | work=BBC News | title=The Kippers who won't leave home | date=17 November 2003}}</ref>

===Happiness===
When Brits were asked to rate their happiness yesterday on a scale of 1 to 10 in 2018, respondent's mean answer was 7.54 (ranked 'High') in 2018. Northern Irish respondents were ranked the happiest of the United Kingdom (with a mean of 7.74), followed by the English (with 7.54), then the Scots (with 7.52) and finally the Welsh (with 7.51).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/datasets/headlineestimatesofpersonalwellbeing/januarytodecember2012to2018/personalwellbeingestimatesjanuarytodecember20122018.xls|title=Estimates of life satisfaction, worthwhile, happiness and anxiety in the UK (January to December 2012 to 2018)}}</ref>

However, only 25% of women and girls between the ages of 7 and 21 claim to be very happy, which has fallen from 41% in 2009. They claimed that it was due to the pressure from exams and social media, which exerted undue amounts of stress on them. In that category, the oldest were the least happy: 27% of young women aged 17 to 21 claimed they were not happy, compared to 11% in 2009. This negatively influenced their confidence by 61%, health by 50%, relationships by 49% and studying by 39%. 69% of respondents in that age group claimed school exams were the chief stressor, 59% felt pressure from social media was making them less happy, and compared to 5 years ago, more claimed they had experienced unkind, threatening or negative reactions on social media. The proportion of the population who knew someone with [[Mental health in the United Kingdom|mental health issues]] rose from 62% in 2015 to 71% in 2018. Many young women and girls feel unsafe walking alone: over half aged from 13 to 21 have experienced harassment or know someone who has, and almost half feel unsafe using public transport.<ref name="guardian19/9/2018">[https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/sep/19/uk-survey-finds-sharp-decline-in-happiness-of-young-women-and-girls UK survey finds sharp decline in happiness of young women and girls] ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref>

===Feminism===
The proportion of young girls considering themselves feminists has risen from 35% in 2013 to 47% in 2018. 36% of young women and girls aged 11 to 21 had spoken up about an issue that mattered to them, this rose from 28% in 2011 but only 60% felt they had been listened to. Girls have also become more interested in science, maths and technology. Girls are more likely to want to become leaders in their careers, 53% compared to 42% in 2016. [[Maria Miller]] said, "#MeToo may have left its mark in Hollywood but for women and girls around the country their ambitions to succeed are still too often met with sexism. It's important more women and girls are now speaking out about how this behaviour undermines their confidence and mental health; but this harmful, negative behaviour has to be stopped".<ref name="guardian19/9/2018"/>

==Naming conventions==
The common naming convention throughout the United Kingdom is for everyone to have one or more [[given name]]s (a forename, still often referred to as a "Christian name") usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex, and a [[surname]] ("family name").<ref>[http://www.britishsurnames.co.uk/ "The British Surnames website"]. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</ref> A four-year study by the [[University of the West of England]], which concluded in 2016, analysed sources dating from the 11th to the 19th centuries to explain the origins of the surnames in the [[British Isles]].<ref name="Origin study">{{cite news|title=Most common surnames in Britain and Ireland revealed|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-38003201|agency=BBC|date=17 November 2016}}</ref> The study found that over 90% of the 45,602 surnames in the dictionary are native to the British Isles; the most common in the UK are [[Smith (surname)|Smith]], [[Jones (surname)|Jones]], [[Williams (surname)|Williams]], [[Brown (surname)|Brown]], [[Taylor (surname)|Taylor]], [[Johnson (surname)|Johnson]], and [[Lee (English name)|Lee]].<ref name="Origin study"/> Since the 19th century [[middle name]]s (additional forenames) have become very common and are sometimes taken from the name of a family member.

Most surnames of British origin fall into seven categories:<ref>[http://blogs.ancestry.co.uk/cm/there-are-7-types-of-english-surnames-which-one-is-yours/?o_xid=62656&o_lid=62656&o_sch=Content+Marketing "There Are 7 Types of English Surnames — Which One Is Yours?"]. Ancestry.co.uk. Retrieved 21 February 2015</ref>
* '''Occupations''' e.g. ''[[Smith (surname)|Smith]]'', ''Sawyer'', ''[[Fuller (surname)|Fuller]]'', ''Brewer'', ''[[Clark]]'', ''[[Cooper (surname)|Cooper]]'', ''[[Cook (surname)|Cook]]'', ''[[Carpenter (surname)|Carpenter]]'', ''[[Bailey (surname)|Bailey]]'', ''[[Parker (surname)|Parker]]'', ''Forrester'', ''Head'', ''[[Palmer (surname)|Palmer]]'', ''Archer'', ''[[Hunt (surname)|Hunt]]'', ''Baker'', ''[[Miller (name)|Miller]]'', ''Dyer'', ''[[Walker (surname)|Walker]]'', ''Woodman'', ''[[Taylor (surname)|Taylor]]'', ''[[Turner (surname)|Turner]]'', ''[[Knight (surname)|Knight]]'', ''[[Slater (disambiguation)|Slater]]'', ''[[Mason (surname)|Mason]]'', ''Weaver'', ''[[Carter (disambiguation)|Carter]]'', ''[[Wright]]''
* '''Personal characteristics''' e.g. ''Short'', ''[[Brown (surname)|Brown]]'', ''Black'', ''Whitehead'', ''[[Young (surname)|Young]]'', ''Stout'', ''Long'', ''[[White (surname)|White]]''
* '''Geographical features''' e.g. ''Pond'', ''Bridge'', ''[[Camp (surname)|Camp]]'', ''[[Hill (surname)|Hill]]'', ''[[Bush (surname)|Bush]]'', ''Lake'', ''[[Lee (English name)|Lee]]'', ''[[Wood (surname)|Wood]]'', ''[[Holmes (surname)|Holmes]]'', ''Forest'', ''[[Underwood (surname)|Underwood]]'', ''[[Hall (surname)|Hall]]'', ''[[Brooks (surname)|Brooks]]'', ''Fields'', ''[[Stone (surname)|Stone]]'', ''Morley'', ''[[Moore (surname)|Moore]]'', ''[[Perry (surname)|Perry]]''
* '''Place names''' e.g. ''[[Murray (surname)|Murray]]'', ''[[Everingham]]'', ''[[Burton (name)|Burton]]'', ''Leighton'', ''[[Hamilton (surname and title)|Hamilton]]'', ''Sutton'', ''Flint'', ''Laughton''
* '''Estate''' For those descended from landowners, the name of their holdings, manor or estate
* '''Patronymics, matronymics or ancestral''', often from a person's given name. e.g. from male name: ''[[Richardson (surname)|Richardson]]'', ''[[Jones (surname)|Jones]]'' (Welsh for John), ''[[Williams (surname)|Williams]]'', ''[[Thomas (surname)|Thomas]]'', ''[[Jackson (name)|Jackson]]'', ''[[Wilson (surname)|Wilson]]'', ''[[Thompson (surname)|Thompson]]'', ''[[Johnson (surname)|Johnson]]'', ''[[Harris (surname)|Harris]]'', ''[[Evans (surname)|Evans]]'', ''[[Simpson (surname)|Simpson]]'', ''[[Willis (surname)|Willis]]'', ''[[Davies]]'', ''[[Reynolds (surname)|Reynolds]]'', ''[[Adams (surname)|Adams]]'', ''[[Dawson (surname)|Dawson]]'', ''[[Lewis (surname)|Lewis]]'', ''[[Rogers (surname)|Rogers]]'', ''[[Murphy]]'', ''[[Nicholson (surname)|Nicholson]]'', ''[[Robinson (name)|Robinson]]'', ''[[Powell (surname)|Powell]]'', ''[[Ferguson (name)|Ferguson]]'', ''[[Davis (surname)|Davis]]'', ''[[Edwards (surname)|Edwards]]'', ''[[Hudson (surname)|Hudson]]'', ''[[Roberts (surname)|Roberts]]'', ''[[Harrison (name)|Harrison]]'', ''[[Watson (surname)|Watson]]'', or female names ''Molson'' (from Moll for Mary), ''Gilson'' (from Gill), ''Emmott'' (from Emma), ''Marriott'' (from Mary) or from a clan name (for those of Scottish origin, e.g. ''[[Macdonald (name)|MacDonald]]'', ''[[Clan Forbes|Forbes]]'', ''[[Henderson (surname)|Henderson]]'', ''[[Armstrong (surname)|Armstrong]]'', ''[[Grant (surname)|Grant]]'', ''[[Cameron (surname)|Cameron]]'', ''[[Stewart (name)|Stewart]]'', ''[[Douglas (surname)|Douglas]]'', ''[[Crawford (name)|Crawford]]'', ''[[Campbell (surname)|Campbell]]'', ''[[Houston (surname)|Houston]]'', ''[[Hunter (name)|Hunter]]'') with "Mac" [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]] for son.<ref>Katherine M. Spadaro, Katie Graham (2001) ''Colloquial Scottish Gaelic: the complete course for beginners'' p.16. Routledge, 2001</ref>
* '''Patronal''' from patronage (''Hickman'' meaning Hick's man, where Hick is a pet form of the name Richard) or strong ties of religion ''Kilpatrick'' (follower of [[Saint Patrick|Patrick]]) or ''Kilbride'' (follower of [[Brigid of Kildare|Bridget]]).

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| width             = 
| image1            = Elizabeth I Rainbow Portrait3.jpg
| width1            = 140
| caption1          = [[Virginia (given name)|Virginia]]: usage as a girl's name was inspired by [[Elizabeth I]], the "Virgin Queen".
| image2            = Guinevereford.jpg
| width2            = 118
| caption2          = [[Jennifer (given name)|Jennifer]] is a [[Cornish language|Cornish]] form of [[Guinevere]] (Gwenhwyfar) pictured.
| image3            = Jessica_-_Samuel_Luke_Fildes.jpg
| width3            = 152
| caption3          = The name [[Jessica (given name)|Jessica]] first appears in [[Shakespeare]]'s 1590s play ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]''.
}}

Traditionally, Christian names were those of [[Bible|Biblical]] figures or recognised [[saints]]; however, in the [[Gothic Revival]] of the [[Victorian era]], other [[Old English language|Anglo Saxon]] and mythical names enjoyed something of a fashion among the ''literati''. Since the 20th century, however, first names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base.

First names from the British Isles include [[Jennifer (given name)|Jennifer]], a [[Cornish language|Cornish]] form of [[Guinevere]] (Welsh: Gwenhwyfar) from [[Arthurian]] romance, which gained recognition after [[George Bernard Shaw]] used it for the main female character in his play ''[[The Doctor's Dilemma (play)|The Doctor's Dilemma]]'' (1906): Jennifer first entered the top 100 most commonly used names for baby girls in England and Wales in 1934.<ref>Room, Adrian. ''Cassell's Dictionary of First Names''. [[Sterling Publishing]] (2002), [https://books.google.com/books?id=b8B54iuf0sYC&pg=PA332 p. 332]. {{ISBN|0-304-36226-3}}.</ref> The oldest written record of the name [[Jessica (given name)|Jessica]] is in [[Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'', where it belongs to the daughter of Shylock. Jessica is the seventh most popular name for baby girls in England and Wales in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishbabynames.com/blog/top-1000-names-in-england-and-wales-2015.html|title=Baby Names in England and Wales: 2015|publisher=British Baby names.com}}</ref> First appearing in 13th century England, [[Olivia (given name)|Olivia]] was popularised by Shakespeare's character in the ''[[Twelfth Night]]'' (1602). [[Vanessa (name)|Vanessa]] was created by [[Jonathan Swift]] in his poem ''[[Cadenus and Vanessa]]'' (1713). While it first appeared in late 16th century England, [[Pamela (name)|Pamela]] was popularised after [[Samuel Richardson]] named it as the [[Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded|title for his 1740 novel]].

See also:
* [[Most popular given names#Europe|Most popular names of England and Wales]]
* [[Most popular given names#Europe#|Most popular names of Northern Ireland]]
* [[Most popular given names#Europe#|Most popular names of Scotland]]
* [[List of most common surnames in Europe#England|Most common surnames in England]]
* [[List of most common surnames in Europe#Northern Ireland|Most common surnames in Northern Ireland]]
* [[List of most common surnames in Europe#Scotland|Most common surnames in Scotland]]
* [[List of most common surnames in Europe#Wales|Most common surnames in Wales]]

==See also==
* [[British humour]]
* [[Department for Culture, Media and Sport]] (deals with Culture for England)
* [[Minister for Culture and External Affairs]] (deals with Culture for Scotland)
* [[Shrove Tuesday]] ([[Pancake Day]])
* [[April Fools' Day]]
* [[Lord Kitchener Wants You]]
* [[List of venues in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)]]
* [[Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)]]
* [[Commonwealth of Nations#Culture|Commonwealth of Nations – Culture]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Culture of the United Kingdom}}
* Culture
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20041117062409/http://www.culture.gov.uk/default.htm Department for Culture, Media and Sport]
** [http://gouk.about.com/ United Kingdom/Ireland for Visitors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423083015/http://gouk.about.com/ |date=23 April 2013 }}
* Television
** [http://www.bbc.co.uk BBC television]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20180314062811/http://itv.co.uk/ ITV]
** [http://www.sky.com Sky television]
* Radio
** [https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/ BBC radio]

{{Culture of Europe}}
{{United Kingdom topics}}

[[Category:Culture of the United Kingdom| ]]