Editing Curiosity

{{Short description|Quality related to inquisitive thinking}}
{{redirect|Curious|other uses|Curious (disambiguation)|and|Curiosity (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Kométa C-2020 F3 (NEOWISE).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Space and telescopes have been a quintessential symbol for curiosity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inspiring with Astronomy |url=https://www.esa.int/Education/Teach_with_astronomy/Inspiring_with_Astronomy |access-date=2024-01-06 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}}</ref>]]
{{emotion}}

'''Curiosity''' (from Latin {{lang|la|[[wikt:curiositas#Latin|cūriōsitās]]}}, from {{lang|la|cūriōsus}} "careful, diligent, curious", akin to {{lang|la|cura}} "care") is a quality related to inquisitive [[thinking]], such as exploration, investigation, and [[learning]], evident in humans and other animals.<ref name="pmid13190171">{{cite journal | vauthors = Berlyne DE | title = A theory of human curiosity | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 3 | pages = 180–191 | date = August 1954 | pmid = 13190171 | doi = 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1954.tb01243.x }}</ref><ref name="pmid13252149">{{cite journal | vauthors = Berlyne DE | title = The arousal and satiation of perceptual curiosity in the rat | journal = Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 238–246 | date = August 1955 | pmid = 13252149 | doi = 10.1037/h0042968 }}</ref> Curiosity helps [[Developmental psychology|human development]], from which derives the process of [[learning]] and [[desire]] to acquire [[knowledge]] and [[skill]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Zuss M |title=The Practice of Theoretical Curiosity |year=2012 |publisher=Springer Publishing |location= New York |isbn=978-9-40072-117-3}}</ref>

The term ''curiosity'' can also denote the behavior, characteristic, or [[emotion]] of being curious, in regard to the desire to gain knowledge or [[information]]. Curiosity as a behavior and emotion is the driving force behind human development, such as progress in [[science]], [[language]], and industry.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Keller | editor-first=Heidi | editor-last2=Schneider | editor-first2=Klaus |title=Curiosity and Exploration |year=1994 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=Berlin |isbn=978-0-387-54867-8|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

Curiosity can be considered to be an [[evolution]]ary [[adaptation]] based on an organism's ability to learn.<ref name="pmid30889493">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang, Maya Z | title = Monkeys are curious about counterfactual outcomes | journal = Cognition | volume = 189 | year = 2019 | pages = 1–10 | pmid = 30889493 | doi = 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.03.009| pmc = 8029581 }}</ref> Certain curious animals (namely, [[Corvidae|corvids]], [[octopus]]es, [[dolphin]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[rat]]s, ''etc.'') will pursue information in order to adapt to their surrounding and learn how things work.<ref name="Heinrich1995">{{cite journal |author-link=Bernd Heinrich |vauthors=Heinrich, Bernd |year=1995 |title=Neophilia and exploration in juvenile common ravens, Corvus corax |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=695–704 |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(95)80130-8}}</ref> This behavior is termed [[Neophile|neophilia]], the love of new things. For animals, a fear of the unknown or the new, [[neophobia]], is much more common, especially later in life.<ref name="pmid34793696">{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller, Rachael | title = Socio-ecological correlates of neophobia in corvids | journal = Current Biology | volume = 32 | year = 2022 | issue = 1–6 | pages = 74–85.e4 | pmid = 3479369 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2021.10.045| bibcode = 2022CBio...32E..74M }}</ref>

== Causes ==
[[File:Curiosity..... what are they reading.jpg|thumb|Children peer over shoulders to see what their friends are reading.]]

Many species display curiosity including [[ape]]s, [[cat]]s, and [[rodent]]s.<ref name="pmid13252149"/> It is common in human beings at all ages from [[infancy]]<ref name="pmid10207585">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ofer G, Durban J | title = Curiosity: reflections on its nature and functions | journal = American Journal of Psychotherapy | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–51 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10207585 | doi = 10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1999.53.1.35 | doi-access = free }}</ref> through [[adulthood]].<ref name="pmid13190171"/> Research has shown that curiosity is not a fixed attribute amongst humans but rather can be nurtured and developed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jirout |first=Jamie |date=7 April 2022 |title=Development and Testing of the Curiosity in Classrooms Framework and Coding Protocol |journal=Front. Psychol. |volume=13|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875161 |doi-access=free |pmid=35465531 |pmc=9022842 }}</ref>

Early definitions of curiosity call it a motivated desire for information.<ref name=":Loewenstein">{{cite journal | vauthors = Loewenstein G | year = 1994 | title = The psychology of curiosity: a review and reinterpretation | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 116 | issue = 1| pages = 75–98 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.75| citeseerx = 10.1.1.320.1976 | s2cid = 11407582 }}</ref> This [[motivation]]al desire has been said to stem from a passion or an appetite for knowledge, information, and understanding.

Traditional ideas of curiosity have expanded to consider the difference between ''perceptual curiosity'', as the innate exploratory behavior that is present in all animals, and ''epistemic curiosity'', as the desire for knowledge that is specifically attributed to humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kidd C, Hayden BY | title = The Psychology and Neuroscience of Curiosity | journal = Neuron | volume = 88 | issue = 3 | pages = 449–460 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26539887 | pmc = 4635443 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.010 }}</ref>

[[Daniel Berlyne]]<ref name=":Berlyne">{{cite book| vauthors = Berlyne DE |title=Conflict, arousal, and curiosity|year=1960|location =New York, N.Y.|publisher=McGraw-Hill}}</ref> recognized three classes of variables playing a role in evoking curiosity: psychophysical variables, ecological variables, and collative variables. Psychophysical variables correspond to [[Intensity (physics)|physical intensity]], ecological variables to motivational significance and task relevance. Collative variables involve a comparison between different stimuli or features, which may be actually perceived or which may be recalled from memory. Berlyne mentioned four collative variables: [[novelty]], [[complexity]], [[uncertainty]], and conflict (though he suggested that all collative variables probably involve conflict). Additionally, he considered three variables supplementary to novelty: change, [[Surprise (emotion)|surprisingness]], and [[wikt:incongruity|incongruity]]. Finally, curiosity may not only be aroused by the perception of some stimulus associated with the aforementioned variables ("specific exploration"), but also by a lack of stimulation, out of "[[boredom]]" ("diversive exploration").<ref name=":Berlyne"/>

== Curiosity-driven behavior ==
Curiosity-driven behavior is often defined as behavior through which knowledge is gained – a form of exploratory behavior. It therefore encompasses all behaviors that provide access to or increase sensory information. Berlyne<ref name=":Berlyne"/> divided curiosity-driven behavior into three categories: [[orienting response]]s, locomotor exploration, and investigatory responses or investigatory manipulation. Previously, Berlyne<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Berlyne DE | title = Uncertainty and conflict: a point of contact between information-theory and behavior-theory concepts | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 64, Part 1 | issue = 6 | pages = 329–339 | date = November 1957 | pmid = 13505970 | doi = 10.1037/h0041135 }}</ref> suggested that curiosity also includes verbal activities, such as asking questions, and symbolic activities, consisting of internally fueled mental processes such as thinking ("[[Epistemology|epistemic]] exploration").

== Theories ==
Like other desires and need-states that take on an appetitive quality (e.g. food/hunger), curiosity is linked with exploratory behavior and experiences of reward. Curiosity can be described in terms of positive emotions and acquiring knowledge; when one's curiosity has been aroused it is considered inherently rewarding and pleasurable. Discovering new information may also be rewarding because it can help reduce undesirable states of uncertainty rather than stimulating interest. Theories have arisen in attempts to further understand this need to rectify states of uncertainty and the desire to participate in pleasurable experiences of exploratory behaviors.

=== Curiosity-drive theory ===
Curiosity-drive theory posits undesirable experiences of "[[uncertainty]]" and "[[ambiguity]]". The reduction of these unpleasant feelings is rewarding. This theory suggests that people desire coherence and understanding in their thought processes. When this coherence is disrupted by something that is unfamiliar, uncertain, or ambiguous, an individual's curiosity-drive causes them to collect information and knowledge of the unfamiliar to restore coherent thought processes. This theory suggests that curiosity is developed out of the desire to make sense of unfamiliar aspects of one's environment through exploratory behaviors. Once understanding of the unfamiliar has been achieved and coherence has been restored, these behaviors and desires subside.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|vauthors=Mahama I, Bakari YD, Asamoah-Gyimah K|year=2023|title=Predictive abilities of curiosity, creativity, and motivation on academic performance of high school students in Ghana|journal=Education Research International|volume=2023 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1155/2023/4626945 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Derivations of curiosity-drive theory differ on whether curiosity is a primary or secondary drive and if this curiosity-drive originates due to one's need to make sense of and regulate one's environment or if it is caused by an external stimulus.<ref name="csun.edu">{{cite web|vauthors=Edleman S|year=1997|url=http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/explore.htm |title=Curiosity and Exploration|website=California State University, Northridge |access-date=2011-12-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230213048/http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/explore.htm |archive-date=2011-12-30 }}</ref> Causes can range from basic needs that need to be satisfied (e.g. hunger, thirst) to needs in fear-induced situations.<ref name="csun.edu"/> Each of these derived theories state that whether the need is primary or secondary, curiosity develops from experiences that create a sensation of uncertainty or perceived unpleasantness. Curiosity then acts to dispel this uncertainty. By exhibiting curious and exploratory behavior, one is able to gain knowledge of the unfamiliar and thus reduce the state of uncertainty or unpleasantness. This theory, however, does not address the idea that curiosity can often be displayed even in the absence of new or unfamiliar situations.<ref name="litman">{{cite journal | vauthors = Litman J | title = Curiosity and the pleasures of learning: Wanting and liking new information | journal = Cognition & Emotion | volume = 19 | issue = 6 | year = 2005 | pages = 793–814 | issn = 0269-9931 | doi = 10.1080/02699930541000101 | s2cid = 144976076 }}</ref> This type of exploratory behavior, too, is common in many species. A human toddler, if bored in his current situation devoid of arousing stimuli, will walk about until he finds something interesting. The observation of curiosity even in the absence of novel stimuli pinpoints one of the major shortcomings in the curiosity-drive model.

=== Optimal-arousal theory ===
Optimal-arousal theory developed out of the need to explain this desire to seek out opportunities to engage in exploratory behaviors without the presence of uncertain or ambiguous situations. Optimal-arousal suggests that one can be motivated to maintain a pleasurable sense of arousal through such exploratory behaviors.<ref name=":Berlyne"/>

When a stimulus is encountered that is associated with complexity, uncertainty, conflict, or novelty, this increases arousal above the optimal point, and exploratory behavior is employed to learn about that stimulus and thereby reduce arousal again. In contrast, if the environment is boring and lacks excitement, arousal is reduced below the optimal point and exploratory behavior is employed to increase information input and stimulation, and thereby increasing arousal again. This theory addresses both curiosity elicited by uncertain or unfamiliar situations and curiosity elicited in the absence of such situations.

===Cognitive-consistency theory===
[[cognitive dissonance|Cognitive-consistency]] theories assume that "when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal."<ref name=":Kampen">{{cite journal | vauthors = van Kampen HS | title = The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 159 | pages = 42–54 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30562561 | doi = 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013 | s2cid = 56478466 }}</ref> Similar to optimal-arousal theory, cognitive-consistency theory suggests that there is a tendency to maintain arousal at a preferred, or expected, level, but it also explicitly links the amount of arousal to the amount of experienced inconsistency between an expected situation and the actually perceived situation. When this inconsistency is small, exploratory behavior triggered by curiosity is employed to gather information with which expectancy can be updated through learning to match perception, thereby reducing inconsistency.<ref name=":Loewenstein"/><ref name=":Kampen"/><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Inglis IR |chapter=Towards a cognitive theory of exploratory behaviour |year=1983 | veditors = Archer J, Birke LI |title= Exploration in Animals and Humans |pages=72–112 |location= Wokingham, England |publisher= Van Nostrand Reinhold }}</ref>

This approach associates curiosity with [[aggression]] and [[fear]]. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Aggressive behavior alters perception by forcefully manipulating it into matching the expected situation, while fear prompts flight, which removes the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field and thus resolves the inconsistency.<ref name=":Kampen"/>

=== Integration of the reward pathway into theory ===
Taking into account the shortcomings of both curiosity-drive and optimal-arousal theories, attempts have been made to integrate neurobiological aspects of [[Reward system|reward]], wanting, and pleasure into a more comprehensive theory for curiosity. Research suggests that desiring new information involves [[mesolimbic pathway]]s of the brain that {{clarify|text=account for|reason=do these pathways "account for" dopamine activation, or do they more straightforwardly "activate dopamine"?|date=July 2023}} [[dopamine]] activation. The use of these pathways, and dopamine activation, may be how the brain assigns value to new information and interprets this as reward.<ref name="csun.edu"/><ref name="Costa_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Costa VD, Tran VL, Turchi J, Averbeck BB | title = Dopamine modulates novelty seeking behavior during decision making | journal = Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 128 | issue = 5 | pages = 556–566 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 24911320 | pmc = 5861725 | doi = 10.1037/a0037128 }}</ref><ref name="Kakade_2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kakade S, Dayan P | title = Dopamine: generalization and bonuses | journal = Neural Networks | volume = 15 | issue = 4–6 | pages = 549–559 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12371511 | doi = 10.1016/s0893-6080(02)00048-5 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/890565 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170913183503/https://zenodo.org/record/890565 | archive-date = 2017-09-13 }}</ref> This theory from neurobiology can supplement curiosity-drive theory by explaining the motivation of exploratory behavior.

== Role of neurological aspects and structures ==
Although curiosity is widely regarded, its root causes are largely empirically unknown. However, some studies have provided insight into the neurological mechanisms that make up what is known as the [[reward pathway]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://health.usnews.com/health-care/for-better/articles/2017-08-04/how-curiosity-changes-your-brain |title=How Curiosity Changes Your Brain |website=U.S. News |access-date=2017-08-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804215305/http://health.usnews.com/health-care/for-better/articles/2017-08-04/how-curiosity-changes-your-brain |archive-date=2017-08-04 }}</ref> which may influence characteristics associated with curiosity, such as [[learning]], [[memory]], and [[motivation]]. Due to the complex nature of curiosity, research that focuses on specific neural processes with these characteristics can help us understand of the phenomenon of curiosity as a whole. The following are descriptions of characteristics of curiosity and their links to neurological aspects that are essential in creating exploratory behaviors:

===Motivation and reward===

[[File:Dopamine Pathways.png|thumb|Dopamine pathway in the brain]]
The drive to learn new information or perform some action may be prompted by the anticipation of [[Reward system|reward]]. So what we learn about [[motivation]] and reward may help us to understand curiosity.<ref name="Costa_2014"/>

Reward is defined as the positive reinforcement of an action, reinforcement that encourages a particular behavior by means of the emotional [[Sensation (psychology)|sensation]]s of relief, pleasure, and satisfaction that correlate with happiness. Many areas in the brain process reward and come together to form what is called the reward pathway. In this pathway many [[neurotransmitters]] play a role in the activation of the reward sensation, including [[dopamine]], [[serotonin]], and [[Opioid#Endogenous opioids|opioids]].<ref name="Costa_2014"/>

Dopamine is linked to curiosity, as it assigns and retains reward values of information gained. Research suggests {{clarify|text=higher amounts of dopamine are released when the reward is unknown|reason=the previous sentence suggests that the reward is *assigned by* dopamine, so how can dopamine release be a function of how known the reward is -- isn't this circular?|date=July 2023}} and the stimulus is unfamiliar, compared to activation of dopamine when stimulus is familiar.<ref name="Costa_2014"/>

==== Nucleus accumbens ====
The [[nucleus accumbens]] is a formation of neurons that is important in reward pathway activation—such as the release of dopamine in investigating response to novel or exciting stimuli. The fast dopamine release observed during childhood and adolescence is important in development, as curiosity and exploratory behavior are the largest facilitators of learning during early years.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

The sensation pleasure of "liking" can occur when opioids are released by the nucleus accumbens. This helps someone evaluate the unfamiliar situation or environment and attach value to the novel object. These processes of both wanting and liking play a role in activating the [[reward system]] of the brain, and perhaps in the stimulation of curious or information-seeking tendencies as well.<ref name = litman /><ref name="Kakade_2002"/><ref name=Thewick />

====Caudate nucleus====
The [[caudate nucleus]] is a region of the brain that is highly responsive to dopamine, and is another component of the reward pathway. Research suggests that the caudate nucleus anticipates the possibility of and reward of exploratory behavior and gathered information, thus contributing to factors of curiosity.<ref name=Thewick /><ref name="The Itch of Curiosity">{{cite magazine| vauthors = Lehrer J |title=The Itch of Curiosity|url=https://www.wired.com/2010/08/the-itch-of-curiosity/|magazine=Wired|access-date=21 July 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724023705/http://www.wired.com/2010/08/the-itch-of-curiosity/|archive-date=24 July 2015}}</ref>

==== Anterior cortices ====
Regions of the [[anterior insula]] and [[anterior cingulate cortex]] {{clarify|text=correspond to|reason=in what way?|date=July 2023}} both conflict and arousal and, as such, seem to reinforce certain exploratory models of curiosity.<ref name="Jepma, M. 2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jepma M, Verdonschot RG, van Steenbergen H, Rombouts SA, Nieuwenhuis S | title = Neural mechanisms underlying the induction and relief of perceptual curiosity | journal = Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 6 | pages = 5 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22347853 | pmc = 3277937 | doi = 10.3389/fnbeh.2012.00005 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==== Cortisol ====
[[Cortisol]] is a chemical known for its role in stress regulation. However, cortisol may also be associated with curious or exploratory behavior. Studies suggesting a role of cortisol in curiosity support optimal arousal theory. They suggest the release of some cortisol, causing some stress, encourages curious behavior, while too much stress can initiate a "back away" response.<ref name="The Itch of Curiosity"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Parker KJ, Rainwater KL, Buckmaster CL, Schatzberg AF, Lindley SE, Lyons DM | title = Early life stress and novelty seeking behavior in adolescent monkeys | journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology | volume = 32 | issue = 7 | pages = 785–792 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17604913 | pmc = 2716798 | doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.05.008 }}</ref>

===Attention===
Attention is important to curiosity because it allows one to selectively focus and concentrate on particular stimuli in the surrounding environment. As there are limited cognitive and sensory resources to understand and evaluate stimuli, attention allows the brain to better focus on what it perceives to be the most important or relevant of these stimuli. Individuals tend to focus on stimuli that are particularly stimulating or engaging. The more attention a stimulus garners, the more frequent one's energy and focus will be directed towards that stimulus. This suggests an individual will focus on new or unfamiliar stimuli in an effort to better understand or make sense of the unknown, rather than on more familiar or repetitive stimuli.<ref name = Zola/>

====Striatum====
The [[striatum]] is a part of the brain that coordinates motivation with body movement. The striatum likely plays a role in attention and reward anticipation, both of which are important in provoking curiosity.<ref name="Jepma, M. 2012"/>

==== Precuneus ====
The [[precuneus]] is a region of the brain that is involved in attention, episodic memory, and visuospatial processing. There is a correlation between the amount of grey matter in the precuneus and levels of curious and exploratory behaviors. This suggests that precuneus density has an influence on levels of curiosity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Phillips KA, Subiaul F, Sherwood CC | title = Curious monkeys have increased gray matter density in the precuneus | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 518 | issue = 2 | pages = 172–175 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22579821 | doi = 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.004 | s2cid = 10265034 }}</ref>

===Memory and learning===
Memory plays an important role in curiosity. Memory is how the brain stores and accesses stored information. If curiosity is the desire to seek out and understand unfamiliar or novel stimuli, memory helps determine if the stimulus is indeed unfamiliar. In order to determine if a stimulus is novel, an individual must remember if the stimulus has been encountered before.

Curiosity may also affect memory. Stimuli that are novel tend to capture more of our attention. Additionally, novel stimuli usually have a reward value associated with them, the anticipated reward of what learning that new information may bring. With stronger associations and more attention devoted to a stimulus, it is probable that the memory formed from that stimulus will be longer lasting and easier to recall, both of which facilitate better [[learning]].

====Hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus====
The [[hippocampus]] is important in memory formation and recall and therefore in determining the novelty of various stimuli.<ref name="pmid19755107">{{cite journal | vauthors = Saab BJ, Georgiou J, Nath A, Lee FJ, Wang M, Michalon A, Liu F, Mansuy IM, Roder JC | display-authors = 6 | title = NCS-1 in the dentate gyrus promotes exploration, synaptic plasticity, and rapid acquisition of spatial memory | journal = Neuron | volume = 63 | issue = 5 | pages = 643–656 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19755107 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.08.014 | s2cid = 5321020 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Research suggests the hippocampus is involved in generating the motivation to explore for the purpose of learning.<ref name="pmid13252149"/><ref name="pmid21460835">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sahay A, Scobie KN, Hill AS, O'Carroll CM, Kheirbek MA, Burghardt NS, Fenton AA, Dranovsky A, Hen R | display-authors = 6 | title = Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation | journal = Nature | volume = 472 | issue = 7344 | pages = 466–470 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21460835 | pmc = 3084370 | doi = 10.1038/nature09817 | bibcode = 2011Natur.472..466S }}</ref><ref name="pmid23237312">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leussis MP, Berry-Scott EM, Saito M, Jhuang H, de Haan G, Alkan O, Luce CJ, Madison JM, Sklar P, Serre T, Root DE, Petryshen TL | display-authors = 6 | title = The ANK3 bipolar disorder gene regulates psychiatric-related behaviors that are modulated by lithium and stress | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 73 | issue = 7 | pages = 683–690 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23237312 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.10.016 | s2cid = 12981146 }}</ref>

The [[parahippocampal gyrus]] (PHG), an area of grey matter surrounding the hippocampus, has been implicated in the amplification of curiosity.<ref name = Thewick>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kang MJ, Hsu M, Krajbich IM, Loewenstein G, McClure SM, Wang JT, Camerer CF | title = The wick in the candle of learning: epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 20 | issue = 8 | pages = 963–973 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19619181 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02402.x | s2cid = 11719012 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/22280/ }}</ref>

==== Amygdala ====
The [[amygdala]] is associated with emotional processing, particularly for the emotion of fear, as well as memory. It is important in processing emotional reactions towards novel or unexpected stimuli and the induction of exploratory behavior. This suggests a connection between curiosity levels and the amygdala. However, more research is needed on direct correlation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Montgomery KC | title = The relation between fear induced by novel stimulation and exploratory behavior | journal = Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 254–260 | date = August 1955 | pmid = 13252152 | doi = 10.1037/h0043788 }}</ref>

== Early development ==

[[Jean Piaget]] argued that babies and children constantly try to make sense of their reality and that this contributes to their intellectual development. According to Piaget, children develop hypotheses, conduct experiments, and then reassess their hypotheses depending on what they observe. Piaget was the first to closely document children's actions and interpret them as consistent, calculated efforts to test and learn about their environment.<ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal|title=Children's need to know: Curiosity in schools|journal=Harvard Educational Review|url=https://www.academia.edu/1268822 |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=625–645 |access-date=2017-12-04 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150710014622/http://www.academia.edu/1268822/Children_s_Need_to_Know_Curiosity_in_Schools |archive-date=2015-07-10 | vauthors = Engel S |year=2011 |doi=10.17763/haer.81.4.h054131316473115 }}</ref>

There is no universally accepted definition for curiosity in children. Most research on curiosity focused on adults and used self-report measures that are inappropriate and inapplicable for studying children.<ref name="psy.cmu.edu">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jirout J, Klahr D | title = Children's scientific curiosity: In search of an operational definition of an elusive concept. | journal = Developmental Review | date = June 2012 | volume = 32 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–160 | doi = 10.1016/j.dr.2012.04.002 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/6613916 | url-access = subscription }}</ref>

Exploratory behaviour is commonly observed in children and is associated with their curiosity development. Several studies of children's curiosity simply observe their interaction with novel and familiar toys.<ref name="psy.cmu.edu"/>

Evidence suggests a relationship between the anxiety children might feel and their curiosity. One study found that {{clarify|text=object curiosity|reason=define: is this "curiosity about an object" or something else?|date=July 2023}} in 11-year-olds was {{clarify|text=negatively related to psychological maladjusted|reason=needs copy edit|date=July 2023}} so children who exhibit more anxiety in classroom settings engage in less curious behaviour. Certain aspects of classroom learning may depend on curiosity, which can be affected by students' anxiety.<ref name="psy.cmu.edu"/>

An aptitude for curiosity in adolescents may produce higher academic performance. One study revealed that, of 568 high school students, those who exhibited{{how|date=July 2023}} an aptitude for curiosity, in conjunction with motivation and creativity, showed a 33.1% {{clarify|text=variation|date=July 2023}} in math scores and 15.5% {{clarify|text=variation|date=July 2023}} in science scores when tested on a standardized academic exam.<ref name=":0" />

Other measures of childhood curiosity used exploratory behaviour as a basis but differed on which parts of this behaviour to focus on. Some studies examined children's preference for complexity/the unknown as a basis for their curiosity measure; others relied on novelty preference as their basis.<ref name="psy.cmu.edu"/>

Researchers also examined the relationship between a child's reaction to surprise and their curiosity. Children may be further motivated to learn when dealing{{vague|date=July 2023}} with uncertainty. Their reactions to not having their expectations met may fuel their curiosity more than the introduction of a novel or complex object would.<ref name="psy.cmu.edu"/>

==Curiosity as a virtue==
Curiosity has been of interest to philosophers. Curiosity has been recognised as an important [[intellectual virtues|intellectual]] (or [[epistemic virtues|"epistemic"]]) [[virtue]], due to the role that it plays in motivating people to acquire knowledge and understanding.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ross|first=Lewis|name-list-style=vanc|year=2020|title=The Virtue of Curiosity|journal=Episteme|volume=17|number=1|pages=105–120|doi=10.1017/epi.2018.31|s2cid=171473863 }}</ref> It has also been considered an important moral virtue, as curiosity can help humans find meaning in their lives and to cultivate a sense of care about others and things in the world.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baumgartner|first=Elias|name-list-style=vanc|year=2001|title=Curiosity as a Moral Virtue|journal=International Journal of Applied Philosophy|volume=15|number=2|pages=169–184 |doi=10.5840/ijap200115215}}</ref>  When curiosity in young people leads to knowledge-gathering it is widely seen as a positive.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Cohen R |title=The Development of Spatial Cognition|year=2013|page=99|publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9781134926664 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYx_AAAAQBAJ}}</ref>

Due to the importance of curiosity, people debate about whether contemporary societies effectively cultivate the right type of curiosity.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Some believe that children's curiosity is discouraged throughout the process of formal education: "Children are born scientists. From the first ball they send flying to the ant they watch carry a crumb, children use science's tools—enthusiasm, hypotheses, tests, conclusions—to uncover the world's mysteries. But somehow students seem to lose what once came naturally."<ref name="psy.cmu.edu"/>

== Impact from disease ==

[[File:Alzheimer's disease brain comparison.jpg|thumb|Left: normal brain. Right: Alzheimer's disease afflicted brain. Severe degeneration of areas implicated in curiosity]]

[[Neurodegenerative disease]]s and psychological disorders can affect various characteristics of curiosity. For example [[Alzheimer's disease]]'s effects on memory or depression affect motivation and reward. Alzheimer's is a neurodegenerative disease that degrades memory. Depression is a mood disorder that is characterized by a lack of interest in one's environment and feelings of sadness or hopelessness. A lack of curiosity for novel stimuli might be a predictor for these and other illnesses.<ref name = Zola>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stuart Z, Cecelia M, Allan L, James L | year = 2011 | title = Predicting the onset of Alzheimer's disease with a behavioral task | journal = Alzheimer's & Dementia | volume = 7 | issue = 4| page = S549 | doi = 10.1016/j.jalz.2011.05.1549 | s2cid = 54259243 }}</ref>

== Social curiosity ==
Social curiosity is defined as a drive to understand one's environment as it relates to sociality with others. Such curiosity plays a role in one's ability to successfully navigate social interactions by perceiving and processing one's own behavior and the behavior of others. It also plays a role in helping one adapt to varying social situations.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Fitri RA, Asih SR, Takwin B|year=2020|title=Social curiosity as a way to overcome death anxiety: perspective of terror management theory|journal=Heliyon|volume=6|number=3|pages=e03556 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03556|doi-access=free |pmid=32195392 |pmc=7078517 |bibcode=2020Heliy...603556F }}</ref>

==Morbid curiosity==
{{Redirect|Morbid curiosity|the magazine|Morbid Curiosity (magazine)}}
[[File:Accident Nehoda Uherský Brod.jpg|thumb|A crowd mills around the site of a car accident in [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1980.]]

Morbid curiosity is focused on death, violence, or any other event that may cause harm physically or emotionally.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Scrivner C |title=The Psychology of Morbid Curiosity: Development and Initial Validation of the Morbid Curiosity Scale|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2021|volume=183|pages=111139|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2021.111139|url=https://psyarxiv.com/xug34/ }}</ref> It typically is described as having an addictive quality, associated with a need to understand or make sense of topics that surround harm, violence, or death. This can be attributed to one's need to relate unusual and often difficult circumstances to a primary emotion or experience of one's own, described as [[meta-emotions]].<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Zuckerman M, Litle P |title=Personality and Curiosity About Morbid and Sexual Events|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=1986|volume=7|issue=1|pages=49–56|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(86)90107-8}}</ref>

One explanation [[Evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologists]] offer for curiosity about death is that by learning about life-threatening situations, death can be avoided. Another suggestion some [[psychologist]]s posit is that as spectators of gruesome events, humans are seeking to [[Empathy|empathize]] with the victim. Alternatively, people may be trying to understand how another person can become the perpetrator of harm. According to science journalist Erika Engelhaupt, morbid curiosity is not "a desire to be sad", instead it "has the ability to set our minds ... at ease by reassuring us that even death follows the rules of the natural world."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engelhaupt |first=Erika |title=Gory details: adventures from the dark side of science |title-link=Gory Details |date=2020 |publisher=National Geographic Partners, LLC |isbn=978-1-4262-2098-2 |location=Washington, DC}}</ref>

Interest in human curiosity about difficult circumstances dates back to [[Aristotle]] in his [[Poetics (Aristotle)|''Poetics'']], in which he noted, "We enjoy and admire paintings of objects that in themselves would annoy or disgust us."<ref name="Aristotle Poetics">{{cite book | vauthors = Aristotle | title = Poetics |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pFYlIO671Z0C&pg=PA15 |year= 2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0191635809 |access-date=15 August 2020}}</ref> A 2017 paper in the journal ''[[PLOS One]]'' concluded that people choose to see graphic images even when presented the option to avoid them and look at them for a longer period of time than neutral or positive images.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oosterwijk |first=Suzanne |date=2017 |title=Choosing the negative: A behavioral demonstration of morbid curiosity |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=e0178399 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0178399 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5500011 |pmid=28683147|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1278399O }}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=March 2025}}

==State and trait curiosity==
Curiosity can be a temporary ''state'' of being, or a stable ''trait'' in an individual. State curiosity is external—wondering why things happen just for the sake of curiousness, for example wondering why most stores open at 8&nbsp;a.m. Trait curiosity describes people who are interested in learning, for example by trying out a new sport or food, or traveling to an unfamiliar place. One can look at curiosity as the urge that draws people out of their comfort zones and fears as the agents that keep them within those zones.<ref>{{cite web|first=Josh|last=Clark|name-list-style=vanc|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution/curiosity.htm#pt2|title=How Curiosity Works|date=28 January 2010|website=howstuffworks.com|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918221137/http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution/curiosity2.htm|archive-date=18 September 2017}}</ref>

==Curiosity in artificial intelligence==
AI agents can exhibit curiosity through [[Intrinsic motivation (artificial intelligence)|intrinsic motivation]]. This can improve the success of an AI agent at various tasks. In artificial intelligence, curiosity is typically defined quantitatively, as the uncertainty the agent has in predicting its own actions given its current state.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web | vauthors = Pathak D |title=Curiosity-driven Exploration by Self-supervised Prediction |url=https://pathak22.github.io/noreward-rl/ |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |access-date=5 August 2020 |ref=UCB_2019_Pathak}}
|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Pathak D |title=Curiosity-driven Exploration by Self-supervised Prediction |journal=Cornell University |date=15 May 2017 |arxiv=1705.05363 |ref=2017_Pathack_Cornell}}
}}</ref>

In 2019, a study trained AI agents to play video games, but they were rewarded only for {{clarify|text=curiosity|reason=how was this measured?|date=July 2023}}. The agents reliably learned advantageous game behaviors based solely on the curiosity reward.<ref>{{cite journal| title=Large-Scale Study of Curiosity-Driven Learning |journal= ICLR|year=2019|url=https://openreview.net/pdf?id=rJNwDjAqYX| vauthors = Burda Y, Edwards H, Pathak D, Storkey A, Darrell T, Efros AA |arxiv= 1808.04355}}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{annotated link|[[Blue skies research]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Broaden-and-build]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Interest (emotion)]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Inquiry]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Play (activity)]]}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |title=Why?: What Makes Us Curious |year=2017 |first=Mario |last=Livio |name-list-style=vanc|publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1476792095}}
* {{Cite book | last = Manguel | first = Alberto | name-list-style=vanc | author-link = Alberto Manguel | year = 2015 | title = Curiosity | location = New Haven, Conn. | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 978-0300184785 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/curiosity0000mang }}
* [[David Oshinsky|Oshinsky, David]], "Vaccines at Warp Speed" (review of [[Thomas R. Cech]], ''The Catalyst: RNA and the Quest to Unlock Life's Deepest Secrets'', Norton, 2024, 292 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXXII, no. 5 (27 March 2025), pp. 48–50. In order to create [[Covid-19]] [[vaccine]]s "[t]here was no need, as with earlier vaccines, to grow, attenuate, and purify large amounts of [[virus]] – in this case [[SARS-CoV-2]] – ... because the vaccine no longer contains it. Instead, synthetic [[mRNA]] instructs the cells to create a harmless fragment of [[SARS-CoV-2]] that will trigger the [[immune system]] to recognize and destroy the virus... [T]he body becomes the factory." (p. 49.) The success of the Covid-19 vaccines "recast the importance of RNA.... [I]t is almost a given, as [the book's author] [[Thomas R. Cech|Cech]] makes clear, that [[RNA]] will power the next generation of [[pharmaceutical]]s, which will move beyond [[infectious disease]]s to those caused by a 'missing or mutated [[protein]],' such as [[muscular dystrophy]], and numerous [[cancer]]s caused by 'normal cellular processes gone awry.'... [The question arises, however:] Will this growing focus on 'disease-driven research' overshadow the more traditional '[[curiosity]]-driven' research so vital to scientific advancement?" (p. 50.) 
* [[Gary Stix|Stix, Gary]], "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", ''[[Scientific American]]'', vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'"

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