Editing Cushitic languages

{{Short description|Branch of Afroasiatic native to East Africa}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Cushitic
| region = [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Horn of Africa]], [[East Africa]]
| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic
| iso2 = cus
| protoname = [[Proto-Cushitic language|Proto-Cushitic]]
| child1 = [[North Cushitic languages|North]]
| child2 = [[Agaw languages|Central]]
| child3 = [[East Cushitic languages|East]]
| child4 = [[South Cushitic languages|South]]
| child5 = ? [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]]
| iso5 = cus
| glotto = cush1243
| glottorefname = Cushitic
| map = Cushitic_languages_in_Africa.svg
| ancestor = 
| glottoname = 
| notes = 
| map2 = Cushitic map.svg
| mapcaption = Distribution of the Cushitic languages in Africa
| mapcaption2 = Map of the Cushitic languages
}}

The '''Cushitic languages''' are a branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic language family]]. They are spoken primarily in the [[Horn of Africa]], with minorities speaking Cushitic languages to the north in Egypt and Sudan, and to the south in Kenya and Tanzania. As of 2012, the Cushitic languages with over one million speakers were [[Oromo language|Oromo]], [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Beja language|Beja]], [[Afar language|Afar]], [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]], [[Kambaata language|Kambaata]], and [[Sidama language|Sidama]].{{sfnp|Mous|2012|pp=343–345}}

==Official status==
The Cushitic languages with the greatest number of total speakers are [[Oromo language|Oromo]] (37 million),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/orm|chapter=Oromo|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|editor-last=Eberhard|editor-first=David M.|editor-last2= Simons|editor-first2=Gary F.|editor-last3=Fennig|editor-first3=Charles D.|date=2021|publisher=SIL International|location= Dallas, Texas|edition=Twenty-fourth|access-date=2 March 2021|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Somali language|Somali]] (22 million),<ref>{{cite web|title=Somali|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/som|website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|editor-last=Eberhard|editor-first=David M.|editor-last2= Simons|editor-first2=Gary F.|editor-last3=Fennig|editor-first3=Charles D.|date=2021|publisher=SIL International|location= Dallas, Texas|access-date=20 April 2021|edition=Twenty-fourth|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Beja language|Beja]] (3.2 million),<ref>{{cite web|title=Bedawiyet|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bej|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=22 November 2017}}</ref> [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] (3 million),<ref>{{cite web|title=Sidamo|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sid|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=22 November 2017}}</ref> and [[Afar language|Afar]] (2 million).<ref>{{cite web|title=Afar|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aar|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=22 November 2017}}</ref>

Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of [[Ethiopia]]<ref name="africanews.com">{{cite news |last1=Shaban |first1=Abdurahman |title=One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |agency=Africa News |access-date=12 April 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215231030/https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// }}</ref> and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including [[Oromia]],<ref name="The world factbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Ethiopia| date=6 June 2022 }}</ref> [[Harari Region|Harari]] and [[Dire Dawa]] regional states and of the [[Oromia Zone]] in the [[Amhara Region]].<ref name="Ethioct">{{cite web|title=Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|pages=2 & 16|url=http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615203703/http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-15 |url-status=live|publisher=Government of Ethiopia|access-date=22 November 2017}}</ref>

Somali is the first of two official languages of [[Somalia]] and three official languages of [[Somaliland]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-12-14|title=Somaliland profile|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14115069|access-date=2021-10-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Somali Republic (as amended up to October 12, 1990)|page=2|url=http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/so/so002en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035727/http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/so/so002en.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-01 |url-status=live|publisher=Government of Somalia|access-date=23 November 2017}} {{cite web|title=The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic|page=5|url=http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/72421/90484/F1341539793/SOM72421.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040420/http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/72421/90484/F1341539793/SOM72421.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-01 |url-status=live|publisher=Government of Somalia|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> It also serves as a language of instruction in [[Djibouti]],<ref name="Djiloi96">{{cite web|title=Journal Officiel de la République de Djibouti – Loi n°96/AN/00/4èmeL portant Orientation du Système Educatif Djiboutien|url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/66970/63444/F2041984911/DJI-66970.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034056/https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/66970/63444/F2041984911/DJI-66970.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-01 |url-status=live|publisher=Government of Djibouti|access-date=22 November 2017}}</ref> and as the working language of the [[Somali Region]] in Ethiopia.<ref name="Ethioct"/>

Beja, Afar, [[Bilen language|Blin]] and [[Saho language|Saho]], the languages of the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic that are spoken in [[Eritrea]], are languages of instruction in the Eritrean elementary school curriculum.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Graziano Savà |author2=Mauro Tosco|title="Ex Uno Plura": the uneasy road of Ethiopian languages toward standardization|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=January 2008|volume=2008|issue=191|page=117|url=http://docdro.id/Nr4Q9ir|access-date=23 November 2017|doi=10.1515/ijsl.2008.026|s2cid=145500609|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The constitution of Eritrea also recognizes the equality of all natively spoken languages.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of Eritrea|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Eritrea1997English.pdf|page=524|publisher=Government of Eritrea|access-date=22 November 2017|archive-date=15 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215061657/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Eritrea1997English.pdf}}</ref> Additionally, Afar is a language of instruction in Djibouti,<ref name="Djiloi96"/> as well as the working language of the [[Afar Region]] in Ethiopia.<ref name="Ethioct"/>

==Origin and prehistory==
{{See also|Proto-Afroasiatic homeland#Northeast African homeland theory}}

[[Christopher Ehret]] argues for a unified Proto-Cushitic language in the Red Sea Hills as far back as the Early Holocene.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32-TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA239 |title=Archaeology of African Plant Use|last1=Stevens|first1=Chris J.|last2=Nixon|first2=Sam|last3=Murray|first3=Mary Anne|last4=Fuller|first4=Dorian Q.|date=July 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-43400-1|page=239|language=en}}</ref> The expansion of Cushitic languages of the Southern Cushitic branch into the Rift Valley is associated with the [[Savanna Pastoral Neolithic]].{{sfnp|Ambrose|1984|p=234}}

==Typological characteristics==

===Phonology===
Most Cushitic languages have a simple five-vowel system with phonemic length ({{IPA|/a a: e e: i i: o o: u u:/}}); a notable exception are the [[Agaw languages]], which do not contrast vowel length, but have one or two additional [[central vowel]]s.{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|p=202}}{{sfnp|Mous|2012|p=353}} The consonant inventory of many Cushitic languages includes [[glottalic consonant]]s, e.g. in [[Oromo language|Oromo]], which has the [[Ejective consonants|ejectives]] {{IPA|/pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ/}} and the [[Implosive consonants|implosive]] {{IPA|/ᶑ/}}.{{sfnp|Mous|2012|p=355}} Less common are [[pharyngeal consonant]]s {{IPA|/ħ ʕ/}}, which appear e.g. in [[Somali language|Somali]] or the [[Saho–Afar languages]].{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|p=202}}{{sfnp|Mous|2012|p=355}}

Most Cushitic languages have a system of [[Pitch-accent language|restrictive tone]] also known as "pitch accent" in which [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal contours]] overlaid on the stressed syllable play a prominent role in morphology and syntax.{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|p=202}}{{sfnp|Mous|2012|p=350–351}}

===Grammar===

====Nouns====
Nouns are inflected for [[Grammatical case|case]] and [[Grammatical number|number]]. All nouns are further grouped into two [[Grammatical gender|gender]] categories, masculine gender and feminine gender. In many languages, gender is overtly marked directly on the noun (e.g. in [[Awngi language|Awngi]], where all female nouns carry the suffix ''-a'').{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|pp=204–206}}

The case system of many Cushitic languages is characterized by [[Marked nominative language|marked nominative]] alignment, which is [[Linguistic typology|typologically]] quite rare and predominantly found in languages of Africa.{{sfnp|König|2008|p=138}} In marked nominative languages, the noun appears in unmarked "absolutive" case when cited in isolation, or when used as predicative noun and as object of a transitive verb; on the other hand, it is explicitly marked for nominative case when it functions as subject in a transitive or intransitive sentence.{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|pp=205}}{{sfnp|Mous|2012|p=369}}

Possession is usually expressed by [[genitive case]] marking of the possessor. [[South Cushitic]]—which has no case marking for subject and object—follows the opposite strategy: here, the possessed noun is marked for [[construct case]], e.g. Iraqw ''afé-r mar'i'' "doors" (lit. "mouths of houses"), where ''afee'' "mouth" is marked for construct case.{{sfnp|Mous|2012|pp=373–374}}

Most nouns are by default unmarked for number, but can be explicitly marked for singular ("[[singulative number|singulative]]") and plural number. E.g. in [[Bilen language|Bilin]], ''dəmmu'' "cat(s)" is number-neutral, from which singular ''dəmmura'' "a single cat" and plural ''dəmmut'' "several cats" can be formed. Plural formation is very diverse, and employs [[ablaut]] (i.e. changes of root vowels or consonants), [[suffix]]es and [[reduplication]].{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|p=204}}{{sfnp|Mous|2012|pp=361–363}}

====Verbs====
Verbs are inflected for person/number and tense/aspect. Many languages also have a special form of the verb in negative clauses.{{sfnp|Mous|2012|p=389}}

Most Cushitic languages distinguish seven person/number categories: first, second, third person, singular and plural number, with a masculine/feminine gender distinction in third person singular. The most common conjugation type employs suffixes. Some languages also have a prefix conjugation: in [[Beja language|Beja]] and the [[Saho–Afar languages]], the prefix conjugation is still a productive part of the verb paradigm, whereas in most other languages, e.g. [[Somali language|Somali]], it is restricted to only a few verbs. It is generally assumed that historically, the suffix conjugation developed from the older prefix conjugation, by combining the verb stem with a suffixed auxiliary verb.{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|pp=207–208}} The following table gives an example for the suffix and prefix conjugations in affirmative present tense in Somali.{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|pp=254–255}}

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" colspan="3" |
! suffix<br />conjugation
! prefix<br />conjugation
|-
! {{nobold|"bring"}}
! {{nobold|"come"}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
! colspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
| {{lang|so|keen-aa}}
| {{lang|so|i-maadd-aa}}
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
| {{lang|so|keen-naa}}
| {{lang|so|ni-maad-naa}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd<br />person
! colspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
| {{lang|so|keen-taa}}
| {{lang|so|ti-maadd-aa}}
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
| {{lang|so|keen-taan}}
| {{lang|so|ti-maadd-aan}}
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
! {{small|masc.}}
| {{lang|so|keen-aa}}
| {{lang|so|yi-maadd-aa}}
|-
! {{small|fem.}}
| {{lang|so|keen-taa}}
| {{lang|so|ti-maadd-aa}}
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
| {{lang|so|keen-aan}}
| {{lang|so|yi-maadd-aan}}
|}

====Syntax====
Basic [[word order]] is verb final, the most common order being [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV). The subject or object can also follow the verb to indicate [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]].{{sfnp|Appleyard|2012|pp=210–211}}{{sfnp|Mous|2012|pp=411–412}}

==Classification==
===Overview===
The phylum was first designated as ''Cushitic'' in 1858.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lipiński|first1=Edward|title=Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar Volume 80 of Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta|date=2001|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=90-429-0815-7 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXVqyEkPKcC&pg=PA21|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref> Traditionally, Cushitic has been divided into North Cushitic (consisting solely of [[Beja language|Beja]]), Central Cushitic (the [[Agaw languages]]), and the large [[East Cushitic languages|East Cushitic]] group. Greenberg (1950) argued for the inclusion of the [[South Cushitic languages|South Cushitic]] group. The [[Omotic languages]], once classified as West Cushitic, have almost universally been reclassified as a separate branch of Afroasiatic.

{{tree list}}
* '''Cushitic'''
** North Cushitic ([[Beja language|Beja]])
** Central Cushitic ([[Agaw languages|Agaw]])
** [[East Cushitic languages|East Cushitic]]
** [[South Cushitic languages|South Cushitic]]
{{tree list/end}}

This classification has not been without contention. For example, it has been argued that Southern Cushitic belongs in the Eastern branch, with its divergence explained by contact with [[Hadza language|Hadza-]] and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]]-like languages. Hetzron (1980) and Fleming (post-1981) exclude Beja altogether, though this is rejected by other linguists. Some of the classifications that have been proposed over the years are summarized here:

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller; float:center"
|+ Other subclassifications of Cushitic
|-
! Greenberg (1963)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Greenberg|first1=Joseph|title=The Languages of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/languagesofafric00gree|url-access=registration|date=1963|publisher=Indiana University|location=Bloomington|pages=[https://archive.org/details/languagesofafric00gree/page/48 48–49]}}</ref> !! Hetzron (1980){{sfnp|Hetzron|1980}} !! Orel & Stolbova (1995) !! Ehret (2011)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ehret|first1=Christopher|title=History and the Testimony of Language|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-26204-1|pages=138, 147}}</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|
{{tree list}}
* Cushitic
** Northern Cushitic (Beja)
** Central Cushitic
** Eastern Cushitic
** Western Cushitic ([[Omotic languages|Omotic]])
** Southern Cushitic
{{tree list/end}}
|
{{tree list}}
* Beja (not part of Cushitic)
* Cushitic
**Highland
***Rift Valley (= Highland East Cushitic)
***Agaw
**Lowland 
***Saho–Afar
***Southern
****Omo-Tana
****Oromoid
****Dullay
****Yaaku
****Iraqw (i.e. Southern Cushitic)
{{tree list/end}}
|
{{tree list}}
* Cushitic
** Omotic
** Beja
** Agaw
** Sidamic<br/>(i.e. Highland East Cushitic)
** East Lowlands
** Rift (Southern)
{{tree list/end}}
|
{{tree list}}
* Cushitic
** North Cushitic (Beja)
** Agäw–East–South Cushitic
*** Agäw
*** East–South Cushitic
**** Eastern Cushitic
**** Southern Cushitic
{{tree list/end}}
|}

For debate on the placement of the Cushitic branch within Afroasiatic, see [[Afroasiatic languages]].

===Beja===
{{main|Beja language#Classification}}

Beja constitutes the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup. As such, Beja contains a number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g. idiosyncratic features in [[Agaw languages|Agaw]] or Central Cushitic).<ref name="Zaborski1988">{{cite book|last1=Zaborski|first1=Andrzej|title=Fucus – "Remarks on the Verb in Beja"|date=1988|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=90-272-3552-X|page=491|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5G74rBLJE4C&pg=PA491|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Treis|first1=Yvonne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FYnDwAAQBAJ|title=Similative and Equative Constructions: A cross-linguistic perspective|last2=Vanhove|first2=Martine|date=2017-05-31|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-90-272-6597-5|page=189|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vanhove|first=Martine|date=2016|title=North-Cushitic|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01485896/document|journal=Halshs}}</ref> [[Robert Hetzron|Hetzron]] (1980) argues that Beja therefore may comprise an independent branch of the Afroasiatic family.{{sfnp|Hetzron|1980}} However, this suggestion has been rejected by most other scholars.{{sfnp|Güldemann|2018|pp=327–328}} The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are instead generally acknowledged as normal branch variation.<ref name="Zaborski1988"/>

Didier Morin (2001) assigned Beja to Lowland East Cushitic on the grounds that the language shared lexical and phonological features with the Afar and Saho idioms, and also because the languages were historically spoken in adjacent speech areas. However, among linguists specializing in the Cushitic languages, the standard classification of Beja as North Cushitic is accepted.<ref name="Vanhove2016">{{cite web|last1=Vanhove|first1=Martine|title=North-Cushitic|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01485896/document|publisher=LLACAN, CNRS-INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité|access-date=12 November 2017}}</ref>

[[Blemmyan language|Blemmyan]], an early form of Beja – mostly attested through [[onomastic]] evidence, but also directly by a small text on an [[ostracon]] from [[Saqqara]] – was spoken by the [[Blemmyes]], an ancient people of Lower Nubia that appears in the Egyptian historical records from the 6th century BCE onwards. It is also likely that the [[Medjay]] spoke a language that was ancestral to Beja.{{sfn|Rilly|2019|pp=131–134}}

===Omotic===
Cushitic was formerly seen as also including most or all of the [[Omotic languages]]. An early view by [[Enrico Cerulli]] proposed a "Sidama" subgroup comprising most of the Omotic languages and the Sidamic group of Highland East Cushitic. Mario Martino Moreno in 1940 divided Cerulli's Sidama, uniting the Sidamic proper and the Lowland Cushitic languages as East Cushitic, the remainder as West Cushitic or ''ta/ne'' Cushitic. The [[Aroid languages]] were not considered Cushitic by either scholar (thought by Cerulli to be instead [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]]); they were added to West Cushitic by [[Joseph Greenberg]] in 1963. Further work in the 1960s soon led to the putative West Cushitic being seen as typologically divergent and renamed as "Omotic".<ref>{{cite journal|first=Marcello|last=Lamberti|year=1991|title=Cushitic and its Classifications|journal=Anthropos|pages=552–561}}</ref>

Today the inclusion of Omotic as a part of Cushitic has been abandoned. Omotic is most often seen as an independent branch of Afroasiatic, primarily due to the work of [[Harold C. Fleming]] (1974) and [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] (1975); some linguists like [[Paul Newman (linguist)|Paul Newman]] (1980) challenge Omotic's classification within the Afroasiatic family itself.

===Other divergent languages===

There are also a few languages of uncertain classification, including [[Yaaku language|Yaaku]], [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]], [[Asa language|Aasax]], [[Kw'adza language|Kw'adza]], [[Boon language|Boon]], [[Ongota language|Ongota]] and the Cushitic component of [[Mbugu language|Mbugu]] (Ma'a). There is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated.<ref name=Hayward>Richard Hayward, "Afroasiatic", in Heine & Nurse, 2000, ''African Languages''</ref>

The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain. They have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic subbranch along with Highland (Sidamic) and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node and that its constituents should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic.<ref name=Hayward/> Bender (2020) suggests Yaaku to be a divergent member of the Arboroid group.<ref>Bender, M. Lionel. (2020). Cushitic Lexicon and Phonology. ed. [[Grover Hudson]]. (Schriften zur Afrikanistik / Research in African Studies, 28). Berlin: Peter Lang. {{ISBN|978-3-631-60089-4}}</ref>

The Afroasiatic identity of [[Ongota language|Ongota]] has also been broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, because of the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. [[Harold C. Fleming]] (2006) proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/pcgi/a.cgi?ausgabe=index&T=1235007315045%7Bhaupt_harrassowitz%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.harrassowitz-verlag.de%2Ftitle_3277.ahtml%3FT%3D1235007315045%7D |title=Harrassowitz Verlag – The Harrassowitz Publishing House<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716072622/http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/pcgi/a.cgi?ausgabe=index&T=1235007315045%7Bhaupt_harrassowitz%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.harrassowitz-verlag.de%2Ftitle_3277.ahtml%3FT%3D1235007315045%7D |archive-date=16 July 2011 }}</ref> Bonny Sands (2009) thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] [[Substratum (linguistics)|substratum]]. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.<ref name=Sava2003>{{cite book|last1=Savà|first1=Graziano|last2=Tosco|first2=Mauro|title=Selected comparative-historical Afrasian linguistic studies|year=2003|publisher=LINCOM Europa|editor-last=Bender|editor-first=M. Lionel|chapter=The classification of Ongota |display-editors=etal}}</ref><ref name=Sands2009>{{cite journal|last=Sands|first=Bonny|year=2009 |title=Africa's Linguistic Diversity|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=3|issue=2|pages=559–580|doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00124.x}}</ref>

[[Robert Hetzron|Hetzron]] (1980)<ref>Robert Hetzron, "The Limits of Cushitic", ''Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika'' 2. 1980, 7–126.</ref> and [[Christopher Ehret|Ehret]] (1995) have suggested that the South Cushitic languages (Rift languages) are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity.

==Hypothesized Cushitic substrate languages==
Some of the ancient peoples of [[Nubia]] are hypothesized to have spoken languages belonging to the Cushitic group, especially the people of the [[C-Group culture]]. It has been speculated that these people left a substratum of Cushitic words in the modern Nubian languages. Given the scarcity of data (all omomastic or [[toponym]]ic), however, it remains unclear if the C-Group culture in fact spoke a Cushitic language.{{sfnp|Rilly|2019|pp=134–137}}

[[Christopher Ehret]] (1998) proposed on the basis of loanwords that South Cushitic languages (called "Tale" and "Bisha" by Ehret) were spoken in an area closer to Lake Victoria than are found today.<ref name="Mous">{{cite book |last1=Kießling |first1=Roland |first2=Maarten |last2=Mous |first3=Derek |last3=Nurse |year=2007 |chapter=The Tanzanian Rift Valley area |title=A Linguistic Geography of Africa |editor=Bernd Heine |editor2=Derek Nurse |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/825370 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=22 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 183030|title = We Are What We Eat: Ancient Agriculture between the Great Lakes|last1 = Schoenbrun|first1 = David L.|journal = The Journal of African History|year = 1993|volume = 34|issue = 1|pages = 1–31|doi = 10.1017/S0021853700032989|s2cid = 162660041}}</ref>

Also, historically, the [[Southern Nilotic languages]] have undergone extensive contact with a "missing" branch of [[East Cushitic languages|East Cushitic]] that Heine (1979) refers to as ''Baz''.{{sfnp|Güldemann|2018}}<ref>Heine, Bernd, Franz Rottland & Rainer Voßen. 1979. Proto-Baz: Some aspects of early Nilotic-Cushitic contacts. ''Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika'' 1. 75‒92.</ref>

==Reconstruction== <!---[[Proto-Cushitic]] redirects here--->
{{Main|Proto-Cushitic language}}
[[Christopher Ehret]] proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Cushitic in 1987, but did not base this on individual branch reconstructions.<ref>Ehret, Christopher. 1987. Proto-Cushitic Reconstruction. In ''Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika'' 8: 7–180. University of Cologne.</ref> [[Grover Hudson]] (1989) has done some preliminary work on Highland East Cushitic,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hudson |first1=Grover |title=Highland East Cushitic Dictionary |date=1989 |publisher=Helmut Buske Verlag |location=Hamburg |isbn=3-87118-947-2}}</ref> David Appleyard (2006) has proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Agaw,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Appleyard |first1=David |title=A Comparative Dictionary of the Agaw Languages |date=2006 |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe |location=Köln |isbn=3-89645-481-1}}</ref> and Roland Kießling and Maarten Mous (2003) have jointly proposed a reconstruction of West Rift Southern Cushitic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kießling |first1=Roland |last2=Mous |first2=Maarten |title=The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic |date=2003 |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe Verlag |location=Köln |isbn=3-89645-068-9}}</ref> No reconstruction has been published for Lowland East Cushitic, though Paul D. Black wrote his (unpublished) dissertation on the topic in 1974.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Black |first=Paul |date=1974 |title=Lowland East Cushitic: Subgrouping and Reconstruction |type=PhD |publisher=Yale University}}</ref> Hans-Jürgen Sasse (1979) proposed a reconstruction of the consonants of Proto-East Cushitic.<ref name="Sasse79">{{cite journal |last1=Sasse |first1=Hans-Jürgen |title=Consonant Phonemes of Proto East Cushitic |journal=Afro-Asiatic Linguistics |date=1979 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1–57}}</ref> No comparative work has yet brought these branch reconstructions together.

==Comparative vocabulary==
===Basic vocabulary===
Sample basic vocabulary of Cushitic languages from Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020:318) (with PSC denoting Proto-Southern Cushitic):<ref name="Vossen">Vossen, Rainer and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). 2020. ''The Oxford Handbook of African Languages''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan = "1" | Branch
! colspan = "1" | Northern
! colspan = "1" | Southern
! colspan = "2" | Eastern
! colspan = "2" | Central
|-
! Gloss !! [[Beja language|Beja]]<ref>Roper, E.M. (1928). ''Tu Beḍawiɛ: Grammar, texts and vocabulary''. Hertford: Stephen Austin and Sons.</ref> !! [[Iraqw language|Iraqw]]<ref>Kieβling, Roland (2002). ''Iraqw texts''. (Archiv afrikanistischer Manuskripte, 4.) Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.</ref><ref>Kieβling, R., and Mous, M. (2003). ''The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic''. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref> !! [[Oromo language|Oromo]]<ref>Mahdi Hamid Muudee (1995). ''Oromo Dictionary I''. Atlanta: Sagalee Oromoo Publishing.</ref> !! [[Somali language|Somali]]<ref>Puglielli, A. & Mansuur, C. (2012). ''Qaamuuska Af-Soomaaliga''. Roma: RomaTrE-Press.</ref> !! [[Awngi language|Awŋi]]<ref>Appleyard, D. (2006). ''A Comparative Dictionary of the Agäw Languages''. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref> !! [[Qimant language|Kemantney]]<ref>Zelealem Leyew (2003). ''The Kemantney Language: A sociolinguistic and grammatical study of language replacement''. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.</ref>
|-
| 'foot' || ragad/lagad || yaaee || miila/luka || lug || lɨk<sup>w</sup> || lɨk<sup>w</sup>
|-
| 'tooth' || kwire || siħinoo || ilkee || ilig|| ɨrk<sup>w</sup>í || ɨrk<sup>w</sup>
|-
| 'hair' || hami/d.ifi || seʔeengw || dabbasaa || timo || ʧiʧifí || ʃibka
|-
| 'heart' || gin'a || muuná || onnee || wadne || ɨʃew || lɨbäka
|-
| 'house' || gau/'anda || doʔ || mana || guri/min || ŋɨn || nɨŋ
|-
| 'wood' || hindi || ɬupi || mukha || qori/alwaax|| kani || kana
|-
| 'meat' || ʃa/dof || fuʔnaay || foon || so'/hilib || ɨʃʃi || sɨya
|-
| 'water' || yam || maʔay || biʃan || biyo/maayo || aɣu || ax<sup>w</sup>
|-
| 'door' || ɖefa/yaf || piindo || balbala || irrid/albaab || lɨmʧi/sank || bäla
|-
| 'grass' || siyam/ʃuʃ || gitsoo || ʧ'itaa || caws || sig<sup>w</sup>i || ʃanka
|-
| 'black' || hadal/hadod || boo || gurraʧʧa || madow || ʧárkí || ʃämäna
|-
| 'red' || adal/adar || daaʕaat || diimaa || cas/guduud || dɨmmí || säraɣ
|-
| 'road' || darab || loohi || karaa/godaana || jid/waddo || dad || gorwa
|-
| 'mountain' || reba || tɬooma || tuullu || buur || kán || dɨba
|-
| 'spear' || fena/gwiʃ'a || *laabala (PSC) || waraana || waran || werém || ʃämärgina
|-
| 'stick' (n) || 'amis/'adi || *ħada || ulee/dullaa || ul || gɨmb || kɨnbɨ
|-
| 'fire' || n'e || ʔaɬa || ibidda || dab || leg || wɨzɨŋ
|-
| 'donkey' || mek || daqwaay || haare || dameer || dɨɣ<sup>w</sup>arí || dɨɣora
|-
| 'cat' || bissa/kaffa || maytsí || adure || bisad/dummad || anguʧʧa || damiya
|-
| 'dog' || yas/mani || seeaay || seere || eey || gɨséŋ || gɨzɨŋ
|-
| 'cow' || ʃ'a/yiwe || ɬee || sa'a || sac || ɨllwa || käma
|-
| 'lion' || hada || diraangw || lenʧ'a || libaax || wuʤi || gämäna
|-
| 'hyena' || galaba/karai || *bahaa (PSC) || waraabo || waraabe || ɨɣ<sup>w</sup>í || wäya
|-
| 'sister' || kwa || ħoʔoo || obboleeytii || walaalo/abbaayo || séná || ʃän
|-
| 'brother' || san || nana || obboleessa || walaal/abboowe || sén || zän
|-
| 'mother' || de || aayi || haaɗa || hooyo || ʧwá || gäna
|-
| 'father' || baba || taata || aabba || aabbe || tablí || aba
|-
| 'sit' || s'a/ʈaʈam || iwiit || taa'uu || fadhiiso || ɨnʤik<sup>w</sup>- || täkosɨm-
|-
| 'sleep' || diw/nari || guuʔ || rafuu || hurud || ɣur\y- || gänʤ-
|-
| 'eat' || tam/'am || aag || ɲaaʧʧu || cun || ɣ<sup>w</sup>- || x<sup>w</sup>-
|-
| 'drink' || gw'a/ʃifi || wah || ɗugaaiti || cab || zɨq- || ʤax-
|-
| 'kill' || dir || gaas || aʤʤeesuu || dil || k<sup>w</sup>- || k<sup>w</sup>-
|-
| 'speak' || hadid/kwinh || ʔooʔ || dubbattu || hadal || dibs- || gämär-
|-
| 'thin' || 'iyai/bilil || *ʔiiraw (PSC) || hap'ii || caato || ɨnʧu || k'ät'än-
|-
| 'fat' || dah/l'a || *du/*iya (PSC) || furdaa || shilis/buuran || morí || wäfär-
|-
| 'small' || dis/dabali || *niinaw (PSC) || t'innoo || yar || ʧɨlí || ʃig<sup>w</sup>ey
|-
| 'big' || win/ragaga || *dir (PSC) || guddaa/dagaaga || weyn || dɨngulí || fɨraq
|}

===Numerals===
Comparison of numerals in individual Cushitic languages:<ref name="ChanNumeralsNC">{{cite book|chapter=The Niger-Congo Language Phylum|last=Chan|first=Eugene|title=Numeral Systems of the World's Languages|date=2019}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"  style="font-size: 85%"
! Classification !! Language !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|-
| North || [[ISO 639:bej|Beja (Bedawi)]] || ɡaːl || ˈmale || mheːj || ˈfaɖiɡ || eːj (lit: 'hand') || aˈsaɡ<sup>w</sup>ir (5 + 1) || asaːˈrama (5 + 2) || asiˈmheːj (5 + 3) || aʃˈʃaɖiɡ (5 + 4) || ˈtamin
|-
| Central || [[ISO 639:byn|Bilin (Bilen)]] || lax<sup>w</sup> / la || ləŋa || səx<sup>w</sup>a || sədʒa || ʔank<sup>w</sup>a || wəlta || ləŋəta || səx<sup>w</sup>əta || səssa || ʃɨka
|-
| Central, Eastern || [[ISO 639:xan|Xamtanga]] || lə́w || líŋa || ʃáq<sup>w</sup>a || síza || ák<sup>w</sup>a || wálta || láŋta / lánta || sə́wta || sʼájtʃʼa || sʼɨ́kʼa
|-
| Central, Southern || [[ISO 639:awn|Awngi]] || ɨ́mpɨ́l / láɢú || láŋa || ʃúɢa || sedza || áŋk<sup>w</sup>a || wɨ́lta || láŋéta || sóɢéta || sésta || tsɨ́kka
|-
| Central, Western || [[ISO 639:ahg|Kimant (Qimant)]] || laɣa / la || liŋa || siɣ<sup>w</sup>a || sədʒa || ank<sup>w</sup>a || wəlta || ləŋəta || səɣ<sup>w</sup>əta || səssa || ʃɨka
|-
| East, Highland || [[ISO 639:alw|Alaaba]] || matú || lamú || sasú || ʃɔːlú || ʔɔntú || lehú || lamalá || hizzeːtú || hɔnsú || tɔnnsú
|-
| East, Highland || [[ISO 639:bji|Burji]] || mitʃːa || lama || fadia || foola || umutta || lia || lamala || hiditta || wonfa || tanna
|-
| East, Highland || [[ISO 639:drs|Gedeo]] || mitte || lame || sase || ʃoole || onde || dʒaane || torbaane || saddeeta || sallane || tomme
|-
| East, Highland || [[ISO 639:hdy|Hadiyya]] || mato || lamo || saso || sooro || onto || loho || lamara || sadeento || honso || tommo
|-
| East, Highland || [[ISO 639:ktb|Kambaata]] || máto || lámo || sáso || ʃóolo || ónto || lého || lamála || hezzéeto || hónso || tordúma
|-
| East, Highland || [[ISO 639:liq|Libido]] || mato || lamo || saso || sooro || ʔonto || leho || lamara || sadeento || honso || tommo
|-
| East, Highland || [[ISO 639:sid|Sidamo (Sidaama)]] || mite || lame || sase || ʃoole || onte || lee || lamala || sette || honse || tonne
|-
| East, Dullay || [[ISO 639:gwd|Gawwada]] || tóʔon || lákke || ízzaħ || sálaħ || xúpin || tappi || táʔan || sétten || kóllan || ħúɗɗan
|-
| East, Dullay || [[ISO 639:tsb|Tsamai (Ts'amakko)]] || doːkːo || laːkːi || zeːħ || salaħ || χobin || tabːen || taħːan || sezːen || ɡolːan || kuŋko
|-
| East, Konsoid|| [[ISO 639:dox|Bussa (Harso-Bobase)]] || tóʔo || lakki, lam(m)e,<br/>lamay || ezzaħ,<br/>siséħ || salaħ || xúpin || cappi || caħħan || sásse /sésse || kollan || húddʼan
|-
| East, Konsoid|| [[ISO 639:gdl|Dirasha (Gidole)]] || ʃakka(ha) (fem.) /<br/>ʃokko(ha) (masc.) || lakki || halpatta || afur || hen || lehi || tappa || lakkuʃeti || tsinqoota || hunda
|-
| East, Konsoid|| [[ISO 639:kxc|Konso]] || takka || lakki || sessa || afur || ken || lehi || tappa || sette || saɡal || kuɗan
|-
| East, Oromo || [[ISO 639:orc|Orma]] || tokkō || lamā || sadi || afurī || ʃanī || dʒa || torbā || saddeetī || saɡalī || kuɗenī
|-
| East, Oromo || [[ISO 639:gaz|West Central Oromo]] || tokko || lama || sadii || afur || ʃani || dʒaha || torba || saddet || saɡal || kuɗan
|-
| East, Saho-Afar || [[ISO 639:aar|Afar]] || enèki / inìki || nammàya || sidòħu /<br/>sidòħoòyu || ferèyi /<br/>fereèyi || konòyu /<br/>konoòyu || leħèyi /<br/>leħeèyi || malħiini || baħaàra || saɡaàla || tàbana
|-
| East, Saho-Afar || [[ISO 639:ssy|Saho]] || inik || lam:a || adoħ || afar || ko:n || liħ || malħin || baħar || saɡal || taman
|-
| East, Rendille-Boni || [[ISO 639:bob|Boni]] || kóów, hál-ó (masc.) /<br/>hás-só (fem) || lába || síddéh || áfar || ʃan || líh || toddóu || siyyéèd || saaɡal || tammán
|-
| East, Rendille-Boni || [[ISO 639:rel|Rendille]] || kôːw /<br/>ko:kalɖay (isolated form) || lámːa || sɛ́jːaħ || áfːar || t͡ʃán || líħ || tɛːbá || sijːɛ̂ːt || saːɡáːl || tomón
|-
| East, Somali || [[ISO 639:gex|Garre (Karre)]] || kow || lamma || siddeh || afar || ʃan || liʔ || toddobe || siyeed || saɡaal || tommon
|-
| East, Somali || [[ISO 639:som|Somali]] || ków || labá || sáddeħ || áfar || ʃán || liħ || toddobá || siddèed || saɡaal || toban
|-
| East, Somali || [[ISO 639:tqq|Tunni (Af-Tunni)]] || ków || lámma || síddiʔ || áfar || ʃán || líʔ || toddóbo || siyéed || saɡáal || tómon
|-
| East, Arboroid || [[ISO 639:arv|Arbore]] || tokkó (masc.) /<br/>takká (fem.), ˈtaˈka || laamá, ˈlaːma || sezzé, ˈsɛːze || ʔafúr, ʔaˈfur || tʃénn, t͡ʃɛn || dʒih, ˈd͡ʒi || tuzba, ˈtuːzba || suyé, suˈjɛ || saaɡalɗ,<br/>ˈsaɡal || tommoɲɗ,<br/>ˈtɔmːɔn
|-
| East, Arboroid || [[ISO 639:bsw|Bayso (Baiso)]] || koo (masc.)<br/>too (fem.) || lɑ́ɑmɑ || sédi || ɑ́fɑr || ken || le || todobɑ́ || siddéd || sɑ́ɑɡɑɑl || tómon
|-
| East, Arboroid || [[ISO 639:dsh|Daasanach]] || tɪ̀ɡɪ̀ɗɪ̀ (adj.) /<br/>tàqàt͡ʃ ̚ (ord.)/ ʔɛ̀ɾ (ord.) || nàːmə̀ || sɛ̀d̪ɛ̀ || ʔàfʊ̀ɾ || t͡ʃɛ̀n || lɪ̀<sup>h</sup> || t̪ɪ̀ːjə̀ || síɪ̀t̚ || sàːl || t̪òmòn
|-
| East, Arboroid || [[ISO 639:elo|El Molo]] || t'óko / t'áka || l'ááma || séépe || áfur || kên, cên || yíi || tíípa, s'ápa || fúe || s'áákal || t'ómon
|-
| South or East || [[ISO 639:dal|Dahalo]] || vattúk<sup>w</sup>e (masc.) /<br/>vatték<sup>w</sup>e (fem.) || líima || kʼaba || saʕála || dáwàtte,<br/>possibly ← 'hand' || sita < Swahili || saba < Swahili || nane || kenda / tis(i)a || kumi
|-
| South || [[ISO 639:wbj|Alagwa (Wasi)]] || wák || ndʒad || tam || tsʼiɡaħ || kooʔan || laħooʔ || faanqʼw || dakat || ɡwelen || mib<sup>i</sup>
|-
| South || [[ISO 639:bds|Burunge]] || leyiŋ / leẽ || t͡ʃʼada || tami || t͡ʃʼiɡaħa || koːʔani || laħaʔu || faɴqʼu || daɡati || ɡweleli || mili
|-
| South || [[ISO 639:gow|Gorowa (Gorwaa)]] || wak || tsʼar || tám || tsʼiyáħ || kooʔán || laħóoʔ || fâanqʼw || dakáat || ɡwaléel / ɡweléel || mibaanɡw
|-
| South || [[ISO 639:irk|Iraqw]] || wák || tsár || tám || tsíyáħ || kooán || laħoóʔ || faaɴw || dakaát || ɡwaleél || mibaaɴw
|}

==See also==
*[[Cushitic speaking peoples]]
*[[Wiktionary:Appendix:List of Proto-Cushitic reconstructions|List of Proto-Cushitic reconstructions]] (Wiktionary)
*[[Meroitic language]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/cushitic Ethnologue on the Cushitic branch]
* {{cite book |last1=Ambrose |first1=Stanley H. |year=1984 |chapter=The Introduction of Pastoral Adaptations to the Highlands of East Africa |editor-last1=Clark |editor-first1=J. Desmond |editor-last2=Brandt |editor-first2=Steevn A. |title=From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-04574-2 |pages=212–239 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dftPHu1o2s8C&pg=PA234 |access-date=23 February 2020 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Appleyard|first1=David|editor1-last=Edzard|editor1-first=Lutz|title=Semitic and Afroasiatic: Challenges and Opportunities|year=2012|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden|isbn=978-3-447-06695-2|chapter=Cushitic |pages=199–295 }}
* [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Bender, Marvin Lionel]]. 1975. Omotic: a new Afroasiatic language family. Southern Illinois University Museum series, number 3.
* Bender, M. Lionel. 1986. A possible Cushomotic isomorph. Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 6:149–155.
* {{cite book|last=Bender|first=M. Lionel|editor=Grover Hudson|title=Cushitic Lexicon and Phonology|series=Schriften Zur Afrikanistik – Research in African Studies|volume=28|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2019|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-631-60089-4}}
* {{cite book|first1=Marianne |last1=Bechhaus-Gerst |year=2000 |chapter=Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan |editor-first1=Roger |editor-last1=Blench |editor-first2=Kevin |editor-last2=MacDonald |title=The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-43416-8|pages=449–461|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-t5QAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA453|access-date=22 February 2020 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Julien |year=2017 |title=Toponymic Strata in Ancient Nubia Until the Common Era |journal= Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies |volume=4 |url=https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=djns |pages=197–212 |doi=10.5070/D64110028 |doi-access=free }}
* Fleming, Harold C. 1974. Omotic as an Afroasiatic family. In: Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on African linguistics (ed. by William Leben), p 81-94. African Studies Center & Department of Linguistics, UCLA.
* {{cite journal |last=Greenberg |first=Joseph H. |author-link=Joseph Greenberg |year=1950 |title=Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |volume=6 |number=1 |pages=47–63}}
* {{cite book |last=Güldemann |first=Tom |year=2018 |chapter=Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa |editor-last=Güldemann |editor-first=Tom |title=The Languages and Linguistics of Africa |pages=58–444 |series=The World of Linguistics, Volume 11 |place=Berlin |publisher=De Mouton Gruyter }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hetzron|first1=Robert|title=The limits of Cushitic|journal=Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika|date=1980|volume=2|pages=7–126 }}
* Kießling, Roland & Maarten Mous. 2003. ''The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic.'' Cushitic Language Studies Volume 21
* {{cite book |last=König |first=Christa |year=2008 |title=Case in Africa |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923282-6 }}
* Lamberti, Marcello. 1991. Cushitic and its classification. Anthropos 86(4/6):552-561.
* {{cite book |last=Mous |first=Maarten |year=2012 |chapter=Cushitic |editor-last1=Frayzingier |editor-first1=Zygmunt |editor-last2=Shay |editor-first2=Erin |title=The Afroasiatic Languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=342–422 }}
* [[Paul Newman (linguist)|Newman, Paul]]. 1980. [https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/21581/ClassificationChadicAfroasiatic.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic]. Universitaire Pers.
* {{cite book |last1=Rilly |first1=Claude |author-link=Claude Rilly |year=2008 |chapter=Enemy brothers. Kinship and relationship between Meroites and Nubians (Noba) |editor-last1=Godlewski |editor-first1=Włodzimierz |editor-last2=Łajtar |editor-first2=Adam |title=Between the Cataracts. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference for Nubian Studies Warsaw University 27 August-2 September 2006. Part 1. Main Papers |pages=211–225 |location=Warszawa |publisher=PAM Supplement Series |isbn=978-83-235-3326-9 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36487671 |doi=10.31338/uw.9788323533269.pp.211-226 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Rilly |first=Claude |author-link=Claude Rilly |year=2011 |title=Recent Research on Meroitic, the Ancient Language of Sudan |journal=ITYOPIS – Northeast African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities  |volume=1 |pages=10–24 |url=http://www.ityopis.org/Issues-1_files/ITYOPIS-I-Rilly.pdf }} 
* {{cite journal |last=Rilly |first=Claude |author-link=Claude Rilly |year=2016 |title=The Wadi Howar Diaspora and its role in the spread of East Sudanic languages from the fourth to the first millenia BCE |journal=Faits de Langues |volume=47 |pages=151–163 |doi=10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000010 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last=Rilly |first=Claude |author-link=Claude Rilly |year=2019 |chapter=Languages of Ancient Nubia |editor=Dietrich Raue |title=Handbook of Ancient Nubia |pages=129–151 |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gryuter}}
* Zaborski, Andrzej. 1986. Can Omotic be reclassified as West Cushitic? In Gideon Goldenberg, ed., Ethiopian Studies: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, pp.&nbsp;525–530. Rotterdam: Balkema.
* Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (1995) [[Christopher Ehret]]
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Skoglund|first1=Pontus|last2=Thompson|first2=Jessica C.|last3=Prendergast|first3=Mary E.|last4=Mittnik|first4=Alissa|last5=Sirak|first5=Kendra|last6=Hajdinjak|first6=Mateja|last7=Salie|first7=Tasneem|last8=Rohland|first8=Nadin|last9=Mallick|first9=Swapan|date=2017-09-21|title=Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure|url= |journal=Cell|language=en|volume=171|issue=1|pages=59–71.e21|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049|issn=0092-8674|pmid=28938123|pmc=5679310}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/147348/Cushitic-languages Encyclopædia Britannica: Cushitic languages]
* [http://www.msu.edu/~hudson/HECrefs.htm BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HIGHLAND EAST CUSHITIC]
* [http://www.summerschools.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/cushitic_bibliography_ss.doc Faculty of Humanities – Leiden University]

{{Afro-Asiatic languages}}

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[[Category:Cushitic languages| ]]
[[Category:Afroasiatic languages]]