Editing DNA paternity testing

{{Short description|DNA matching techniques to identify someone's father}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}

'''DNA paternity testing''' uses [[DNA profiling|DNA profiles]] to determine whether an individual is the [[biology|biological]] parent of another individual. Paternity testing can be essential when the rights and duties of the father are in issue, and a child's [[Father|paternity]] is in doubt. Tests can also determine the likelihood of someone being a biological grandparent. Though [[genetics|genetic]] testing is the most reliable standard, older methods also exist, including [[blood type|ABO blood group typing]], analysis of various other [[protein]]s and [[enzyme]]s, or using [[human leukocyte antigen]] [[antigen]]s. The current paternity testing techniques are [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) and [[restriction fragment length polymorphism]] (RFLP). Paternity testing can now also be performed while the woman is still pregnant from a blood draw.<ref>[http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc1113044 "A Non-invasive Test to Determine Paternity in Pregnancy" New England Journal of Medicine May 3, 2012]</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/20/health/paternity-blood-tests-that-work-early-in-a-pregnancy.html|title=Paternity Blood Tests That Work Early in a Pregnancy|first=Andrew|last=Pollack|newspaper=The New York Times|date=19 June 2012}}</ref>

DNA testing is currently the most advanced and accurate technology to determine parentage. In a DNA paternity test, the result (called the 'probability of parentage)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Presciuttini |first1=Silvano |last2=Toni |first2=Chiara |last3=Spinetti |first3=Isabella |last4=Rocchi |first4=Anna |last5=Domenici |first5=Ranieri |date=April 2006 |title=An unusual case of disputed paternity: When the legitimate children of a deceased alleged father deny DNA |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0531513105013154 |journal=International Congress Series |language=en |volume=1288 |pages=831–833 |doi=10.1016/j.ics.2005.09.043|url-access=subscription }}</ref> is 0% when the alleged parent is not biologically related to the child, and the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. However, while almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, rare individuals, known as "[[chimera (genetics)|chimeras]]", have at least two different sets of genes. This can lead to complications during DNA analysis, such as false negative results if their reproductive tissue has a different genetic makeup from the tissue sampled for the test.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Akinola |first1=Adeyemi Adewale |last2=Anana |first2=Mariam |date=2024-09-04 |title=Exploring Entrepreneurial English in Digital Information: Harmonizing News Headlines with their Introductions in Phoenix |url=https://doi.org/10.3126/access.v3i1.69420 |journal=Access: An International Journal of Nepal Library Association |volume=3 |pages=51–64 |doi=10.3126/access.v3i1.69420 |issn=2822-2075|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Paternity or maternity testing for child or adult==
The DNA test is conducted by collecting buccal (cheek) cells found on the inside of a person's cheek using a buccal or cheek [[Cotton swab|swab]]. These swabs have handles made of wood or plastic with a cotton synthetic tip. The collector rubs the inside of a person's cheek to collect as many buccal cells as possible, which are then sent to a laboratory for testing. Samples from both the alleged father or mother and the child are required for the test.

==Prenatal paternity testing for unborn child==

===Invasive prenatal paternity testing===
It is possible to determine who the biological father of the fetus is while the woman is still pregnant through a procedure known as [[chorionic villus sampling]] or [[amniocentesis]]. Chorionic villus sampling retrieves placental tissue, which can be done either through the cervix (transcervical) or the adbominal wall (transabdominal). Amniocentesis involves collecting amniotic fluid by inserting a needle through the pregnant mother's abdominal wall. Both procedures are highly accurate because they obtain samples directly from the fetus. However, there is a small risk of miscarriage associated with them, which could result in the loss of the pregnancy. Both CVS and amniocentesis require the pregnant woman to consult a maternal-fetal medicine specialist who will perform the procedure.

===Non-invasive prenatal paternity testing===
Recent advances in [[genetic testing]] have led to the ability to identify the biological father while the woman is still pregnant. A small quantity of cell-free fetal DNA ([[cffDNA]]) is present in the mother's blood during pregnancy. This allows for accurate paternity testing during pregnancy from a blood draw without any risk of miscarriage. Research indicates that cffDNA can first be detected as early as seven weeks into the pregnancy, and its quantity increases as the pregnancy continues.<ref>{{cite journal|title="The New England Journal of Medicine "A Non-invasive Test to Determine Paternity in Pregnancy" May 3, 2012|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=366|issue=18|pages=1743–1745|publisher=The New England Journal of Medicine|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1113044|pmid=22551147|year=2012|last1=Guo|first1=Xin|last2=Bayliss|first2=Philip|last3=Damewood|first3=Marian|last4=Varney|first4=John|last5=Ma|first5=Emily|last6=Vallecillo|first6=Brett|last7=Dhallan|first7=Ravinder|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bloomfield |first=Frank |date=2009-07-01 |title=The peri-conceptional origins of the life-long physiological consequences of being a twin |url=https://doi.org/10.36866/pn.75.31 |journal=Physiology News |issue=Summer 2009 |pages=31–33 |doi=10.36866/pn.75.31}}</ref>

==DNA profiling==
[[File:DNA paternity testing en.svg|thumb|Example of DNA profiling in order to determine the father of a child (Ch). Child's DNA sample should contain a mixture of different size DNA bands of both parents. In this case, person #1 is likely the father.]]
{{Main|DNA profiling}}
The [[DNA]] of an individual is identical in all somatic (non reproductive) [[Cells (biology)|cells]]. During [[sexual reproduction]], the DNA from both parents combines to create a unique genetic makeup in a new cell. As a result, an individual's genetic material is derived equally from each parent. This genetic material is referred to as the nuclear [[genome]] because it is located in the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] of a cell.

Autosomal DNA testing allows for a comparison between the child's DNA, the mother's DNA, and the alleged father's DNA. By examining the genetic contribution from the mother, researchers can determine possible genotypes for the actual father. Specific sequences are examined to see if they were copied verbatim from one individual's genome; if so, then the genetic material of one individual could have been derived from that of the other (i.e. one is the parent of the other). If the alleged father cannot be excluded as the true father, then statistical analysis can be performed to assess how likely it is that the alleged father is the true father compared to a random man.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=Advanced Topics in Forensic DNA Typing: Interpretation |date=October 22, 2014 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=9780124052130 |pages=349–400}}</ref>

In addition to nuclear DNA, [[Mitochondrion|mitochondria]] contain their own genetic material known as [[mitochondrial DNA]]. This mitochondrial DNA is inherited solely from the mother and is passed down without any mixing. As a result, establishing a relationship through the comparison of the mitochondrial genome is generally easier than doing so with the nuclear genome. However, testing the mitochondrial DNA can only confirm whether two individuals share a maternal ancestry; it cannot be used to determine paternity. Therefore, its application is somewhat limited.

In testing the paternity of a male child, the [[Y chromosome]] can be used for comparison, as it is inherited directly from father to son. Like mitochondrial DNA, the Y chromosome is passed down through the paternal line. This means that the two brothers share the same Y chromosome from their father. Therefore, if one brother is the alleged father, his biological brother could also be the father based solely on Y chromosomal data. This holds true for any male relative related to the suspected father along the paternal line. For this reason, autosomal DNA testing would provide a more accurate method for determining paternity. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=Forensic DNA Typing Biology, Technology, and Genetics of STR Markers |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=0-12-147952-8 |pages=201–240}}</ref>

In the US, the [[AABB]] has established regulations for DNA paternity and family relationship testing, although AABB accreditation is not mandatory. DNA test results can be considered legally admissible if the collection and  processing adhere to a proper chain of custody. Similarly, in Canada, the SCC has regulations on DNA paternity and relationship testing, while accreditation is recommended, it is not required.

The Paternity Testing Commission of the [[International Society for Forensic Genetics]] is responsible for creating biostatistical recommendations by the [[ISO/IEC 17025]] standards.<ref name="GjertsonBrenner2007">{{cite journal|last1=Gjertson|first1=David W.|last2=Brenner|first2=Charles H.|last3=Baur|first3=Max P.|last4=Carracedo|first4=Angel|last5=Guidet|first5=Francois|last6=Luque|first6=Juan A.|last7=Lessig|first7=Rüdiger|last8=Mayr|first8=Wolfgang R.|last9=Pascali|first9=Vince L.|last10=Prinz|first10=Mechthild|last11=Schneider|first11=Peter M.|last12=Morling|first12=Niels|title=ISFG: Recommendations on biostatistics in paternity testing|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=1|issue=3–4|year=2007|pages=223–231|issn=1872-4973|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2007.06.006|pmid=19083766|s2cid=24450117 }}</ref> Biostatistical evaluations of paternity should be based on the likelihood ratio principle, resulting in the [[Paternity Index]] (PI). These recommendations offer guidance on the concepts of genetic hypotheses, calculation concerns necessary for producing valid PIs, as well as addressing specific issues related to [[population genetics]].

==History==
Parental testing has evolved significantly since the 1920s. The earliest method was blood typing, relying on the inheritance of blood types discovered in 1901. In blood typing, the [[blood type]]s, of the child and the alleged parents are compared to assess the possibility of a parental linkage. For instance, two type O parents can only have type O children, while type B parents can have type B or O offspring. However, this method was limited, excluding about 30% of potential parents based solely on blood type.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of DNA Testing - DNA Diagnostics Center |url=http://www.dnacenter.com/science-technology/dna-history-1920.html}}</ref> 

In the 1930s, [[serology|serological]] testing improved the process by examining proteins in the blood, with an exclusion rate of around 40%.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of DNA Testing - DNA Diagnostics Center |url=http://www.dnacenter.com/science-technology/dna-history-1930.html}}</ref> The 1960s brought Human Leukocyte Antigen ([[Human leukocyte antigen|HLA]]) typing, which compared genetic markers in white blood cells, achieving about 80% accuracy but struggling to differentiate between close relatives.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Tuscaloosa News - Google News Archive Search |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19771223&id=AAkdAAAAIBAJ&pg=6700,5859572 |website=news.google.com}}</ref><ref name="answers">{{Cite journal |last1=Thuesen |first1=Nikolas Hallberg |last2=Klausen |first2=Michael Schantz |last3=Gopalakrishnan |first3=Shyam |last4=Trolle |first4=Thomas |last5=Renaud |first5=Gabriel |date=2022-11-08 |title=Benchmarking freely available HLA typing algorithms across varying genes, coverages and typing resolutions |journal=Frontiers in Immunology |language=English |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fimmu.2022.987655 |issn=1664-3224 |pmc=9679531 |pmid=36426357 |doi-access=free}}</ref>  

The 1970s saw advancements with the discovery of  [[restriction enzyme]], leading to Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism ( [[Restriction fragment length polymorphism|RFLP]]) testing in the 1980s, which offered high accuracy. By the 1990s, Polymerase Chain Reaction ([[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]]) became the standard, providing faster, simpler, and more accurate results with exclusion rates of 99.99% or higher, revolutionizing parental testing in both legal and familial matters.<ref name="answers" />

==Legal evidence==
A DNA parentage test that adheres to a strict [[chain of custody]] can produce legally admissible results used for various purposes, including child support, inheritance, social welfare benefits, immigration, and adoption. To meet the chain-of-custody legal requirements, all tested individuals must be properly identified, and their specimens must be collected by an independent third-party who is not related to any of the tested parties and has no interest in the test's outcome. The [[Legal burden of proof|quantum of evidence]] needed is [[clear and convincing evidence]], meaning that it is more substantial than in an ordinary civil case but less than the [[reasonable doubt|“beyond a reasonable doubt”]] standard needed for a criminal conviction.

In recent years, immigration authorities in multiple countries- including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, France, and others, may accept DNA parentage test results from immigration petitioners and beneficiaries in a family-based immigration case when primary documents that prove biological relationships are missing or inadequate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions About DNA Testing {{!}} Catholic Legal Immigration Network, Inc. (CLINIC) |url=https://www.cliniclegal.org/resources/family-based-immigration-law/frequently-asked-questions-about-dna-testing |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=www.cliniclegal.org}}</ref>

In the U.S., it is the responsibility of immigration applicants to arrange and cover the cost of DNA testing. U.S. immigration authorities mandate that any DNA test performed must be conducted by a laboratory accredited by the [[AABB]] (formerly the American Association of Blood Banks).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Information for Parents on U.S. Citizenship and DNA Testing |url=https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/legal/travel-legal-considerations/us-citizenship/US-Citizenship-DNA-Testing.html |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=travel.state.gov |language=en}}</ref> Similarly, in Canada, the laboratory must be certified by the [[Standards Council of Canada]].

Although paternity tests are more prevalent than maternity tests, there are situations where the biological mother of the child is uncertain. Examples include cases in which an [[Adoption|adopted]] child seeks to reunite with their biological mother, potential [[Babies switched at birth|hospital mix-ups]], and [[in vitro fertilization]] scenarios where an unrelated embryo may have been implanted in the mother.

Other factors, such as new laws regarding reproductive technologies involving donated eggs and sperm or surrogate mothers, can also complicate the determination of legal motherhood. For instance, in Canada, the federal ''Human Assisted Reproduction Act'' allows for the use of hired surrogate mothers, meaning that the legal mother may be the egg donor rather than the woman who gave birth. Similar laws exist in the United Kingdom and Australia.

In Brazil in 2019, two male identical twins were ordered to both pay maintenance for a child fathered by one of them because the father could not be identified with DNA.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-04-02 |title=Brazilian identical twins both ordered to pay maintenance |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-47794844 |access-date=2025-03-24 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Legal issues==

===Australia===
Peace-of-mind parentage tests are readily available online. However, for a parentage test (whether paternity or maternity) to be admissible in legal matters—such as changing a birth certificate, proceeding with Family Law Court cases, applying for visas or citizenship, or making child support claims—it must comply with the Family Law Regulations 1984 (Cth).<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 8, 2021 |title=Court Ordered Paternity Tests - The Requirements of a Legal Paternity Test |url=https://identilab.com.au/how-do-you-get-a-court-ordered-paternity-test/ |access-date=}}</ref> Additionally, the laboratory that processes the samples must be accredited by the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA).<ref>National Association of Testing Authorities, [https://www.nata.com.au/accredited-facility Accredited Facilities]</ref>

===Canada===
Personal paternity-testing kits are available for use. In Canada, the Standards Council regulates paternity testing, ensuring that laboratories are ISO 17025 approved. Only a limited number of laboratories possess this approval, making it advisable to have tests conducted at these accredited facilities. Additionally, courts can order paternity tests during divorce proceedings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paternity Test - CanadianDivorceLaws.com |url=http://www.canadiandivorcelaws.com/paternity-test/ |website=www.canadiandivorcelaws.com}}</ref>

===China===
In [[China]], paternity testing is legally available for fathers who suspect that a child may not be theirs. Chinese law also mandates a paternity test for any child born outside the [[one-child policy]] in order for the child to be eligible for a ''[[Hukou system|Hukou]]'', which is a family registration record. Additionally, family ties established by adoption can only be confirmed through a paternity test. Each year, a significant number of Chinese citizens seek paternity testing, leading to the emergence of many unlicensed and illegal testing centers being set up.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |title=China's census gives rise to paternity test, distrust; netizens' comments and our thoughts - Ministry of Tofu 豆腐部 |url=http://www.ministryoftofu.com/2010/11/chinas-census-gives-rise-to-paternity-test-netizens-comments-and-our-thoughts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120012453/http://www.ministryoftofu.com/2010/11/chinas-census-gives-rise-to-paternity-test-netizens-comments-and-our-thoughts/ |archive-date=November 20, 2012 |access-date=December 20, 2012 |website=www.ministryoftofu.com}}</ref>

===France===
DNA paternity testing is conducted only at the discretion of a judge during judicial proceedings aimed at either establishing or contesting paternity, or for the purposes of obtaining or denying child support.<ref>Art. 16-10 of the Civil Code</ref> Non-consensual private DNA paternity testing is illegal, even if carried out through laboratories in other countries. Violation of this law is punishable by up to one year in prison and a fine of €15,000.<ref>Art. 226-25 to 226-30 of the Penal Code. These articles only ban non consensual testing and don't apply to testing by parents of minors.</ref>  The [[Conseil d'État (France)|French Council of State]] has described the purpose of this law as upholding the "French regime of filiation" and preserving "the peace of families".<ref>{{Cite news |title=French men's insecurity over paternity of offspring creating 'a society of doubt' |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/french-men-s-insecurity-over-paternity-of-offspring-creating-a-society-of-doubt-1.773569 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]]}}</ref>

===Germany===
Under the Gene Diagnostics Act of 2009, secret paternity testing is prohibited. Any paternity test must be conducted by a licensed physician or an expert with a university degree in science and specialized education in parentage testing. Additionally, the laboratory performing the genetic testing must be accredited according to [[ISO/IEC 17025]]. Full informed consent from both parents is required for testing. Prenatal paternity testing is also prohibited, except in cases of sexual abuse and rape. If genetic testing is performed without the other parent's consent, the offender may face a fine of €5,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=BIONEWS - Germany passes genetic test laws |url=http://www.bionews.org.uk/page_13827.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620122428/http://www.bionews.org.uk/page_13827.asp |archive-date=June 20, 2013 |access-date=March 4, 2013 |website=www.bionews.org.uk}}</ref>

Furthermore, due to an amendment to civil law [http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bgb/englisch_bgb.html#p5526 section 1598a] in 2005, a man who contests paternity no longer automatically loses his legal rights and obligations regarding the child.<ref>{{cite web |date=19 November 2010 |title=Alpha Biolabs - Paternity Test |url=http://www.alphabiolabs.com/paternity-test.html |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101119013445/http://www.alphabiolabs.com/paternity-test.html |archive-date=19 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Constitutional Court Rules Secret Paternity Tests Still Illegal - Germany- News and in-depth reporting from Berlin and beyond - DW - 13.02.2007 |url=http://www.dw.de/constitutional-court-rules-secret-paternity-tests-still-illegal/a-2346882 |website=DW.COM}}</ref>

===Israel===
A paternity test that holds legal standing must be ordered by a family court. Although parents can access "peace of mind" parental tests from overseas laboratories, family courts are not obliged to accept these tests as evidence. Additionally, it is illegal to collect genetic material for a paternity test from a minor over 16 years of age without the minor's consent.

Family courts have the authority to order paternity tests even against the father's wishes in cases involving divorce, child support, and other matters like determining heirs or settling population registry questions. A man who wishes to prove that he is not the father of a child registered as his is entitled to a paternity test, regardless of the mother and guardian's objections. 

Paternity tests are not conducted if there is a belief that it could lead to the mother's death. Until 2007, such tests were also not ordered when there was a possibility that the child of a married woman could have been fathered by a man other than her husband, which would designate the child as a ''[[mamzer]]'' under Jewish law.<ref>{{cite web |date=December 21, 2007 |title=Court Orders Paternity Test Despite 'Mamzer' Factor - Israel National News |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/Flash.aspx/138511#.UPtikCfs6zo |website=Israel National News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sinai |first=Ruth |date=22 October 2008 |title=Court May Side With Husband on Paternity Test |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/court-may-side-with-husband-on-paternity-test-1.255798 |newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ilan |first=Shahar |date=24 July 2008 |title=MKs Okay Paternity Testing |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/mks-okay-paternity-testing-1.250360 |newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>

===Philippines===
DNA paternity testing for personal knowledge is legal, and home test kits can be obtained by mail from representatives of AABB- and ISO-certified laboratories.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Become AABB-Accredited - Relationship (DNA) Testing |url=https://www.aabb.org/standards-accreditation/accreditation/become-accredited/relationship-dna-testing |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=www.aabb.org |language=en}}</ref> However, DNA paternity testing intended for official purposes, such as child support (sustento) and inheritance disputes, must adhere to the Rule on DNA Evidence A.M. No. 06-11-5-SC, which was issued by the Philippine Supreme Court on October 15, 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rules on DNA Evidence {{!}} Senate Electoral Tribunal |url=https://www.set.gov.ph/resources/rules-on-dna-evidence/ |access-date=2025-04-19 |language=en-US}}</ref>  In some cases, courts may order these tests when proof of paternity is needed.

===Spain===
In [[Spain]], peace-of-mind paternity tests are a "big business," partly due to the French ban on paternity testing, with many genetic testing companies being based in Spain.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gqOQJ9Q4STQhxRm0hOlLTXDWEC0g|title=AFP: Paternity tests take off in Spain thanks to French ban|date=10 February 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210025602/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gqOQJ9Q4STQhxRm0hOlLTXDWEC0g|archive-date=10 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medindia.net/news/Spain-Offers-Paternity-Tests-to-Suspicious-French-Fathers-29966-1.htm|title=Spain Offers Paternity Tests to Suspicious French Fathers|website=Medindia|date=November 28, 2007}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]], there were previously no restrictions on paternity tests until the ''[[Human Tissue Act 2004]]'' came into effect in September 2006. Section 45 of this Act states that it is an offense to possess any human bodily material without appropriate consent if the intent is to analyze its DNA. Legally recognized fathers are allowed access to paternity-testing services under these new regulations, provided that the DNA being tested is their own. Courts may sometimes order tests when proof of paternity is necessary. In the UK, the  [[Ministry of Justice]] accredits organizations that are authorized to conduct these tests. The  [[Department of Health (United Kingdom)|Department of Health]] produced a voluntary code of practice on genetic paternity testing in 2001, which is currently under review. Responsibility for this code has been transferred to the [[Human Tissue Authority]].
In the 2018 case of [https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Fam/2016/851.html Anderson V Spencer], the Court of Appeal allowed DNA samples obtained from a deceased person to be used for paternity testing for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Analysis of DNA under the HT Act {{!}} Human Tissue Authority |url=https://www.hta.gov.uk/guidance-professionals/regulated-sectors/research/analysis-dna-under-ht-act |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=www.hta.gov.uk}}</ref>

===United States===
In the [[United States]], paternity testing is entirely legal, and fathers may test their children without the consent or knowledge of the mother. Paternity testing take-home kits are readily available for purchase, though their results are not admissible in court and are for personal knowledge only.

Only a court-ordered paternity test may be used as evidence in court proceedings. If parental testing is being submitted for legal purposes, including immigration, testing must be ordered through a lab that has [[AABB]] accreditation for relationship DNA testing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage_Testing_Accreditation_Program/AABB_Accredited_Parentage_Testing_Laboratories/|title=Accredited Parentage Testing Facilities|date=18 February 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218003033/http://www.aabb.org/Content/Accreditation/Parentage_Testing_Accreditation_Program/AABB_Accredited_Parentage_Testing_Laboratories/|archive-date=18 February 2006}}</ref>

The legal implications of a parentage result test vary by state and according to whether the putative parents are unmarried or married. If a parentage test does not meet forensic standards for the state in question, a court-ordered test may be required for the results of the test to be admissible for legal purposes. For unmarried parents, if a parent is currently receiving child support or custody, but DNA testing later proves that the man is not the father, support automatically stops. However, in many states, this testing must be performed during a narrow window of time if a voluntary acknowledgment of parentage form has already been signed by the putative father; otherwise, the results of the test may be disregarded by law, and in many cases, a man may be required to pay child support, though the child is biologically unrelated. In a few states, if the mother is receiving the support, then that alleged father has the right to file a lawsuit to get back any money that he lost from paying support. As of 2011, in most states, unwed parents confronted with a voluntary acknowledgment of parentage form are informed of the possibility and right to request a DNA paternity test. If testing is refused by the mother, the father may not be required to sign the [[birth certificate]] or the voluntary acknowledgement of parentage form for the child. For wedded putative parents, the husband of the mother is presumed to be the father of the child. But, in most states, this presumption can be overturned by the application of a forensic paternity test; in many states, the time for overturning this presumption may be limited to the first few years of the child's life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Townsend |first=Zachary |date=2023-12-28 |title=Voluntary Acknowledgement of Paternity |url=https://prolegalcare.com/voluntary-acknowledgement-of-paternity/ |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=Pro Legal Care LLC |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Reverse paternity testing==
Reverse paternity determination is the ability to establish the biological father when the father of that person is not available. The test uses the STR [[alleles]] in the mother and her child, other children and brothers of the alleged father, and the deduction of the genetic constitution of the father by the basis of genetic laws, all to create a rough amalgamation. This can compare the father's DNA when a direct sample of the father's DNA is unavailable. An episode of ''[[Solved (TV series)|Solved]]'' shows this test being used to know if a blood sample matches the victim of a kidnapping.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mixich |first=Francisc |last2=Ioana |first2=Mihai |last3=Mixich |first3=Vlad A. |date=2004-12-02 |title=Paternity analysis in special fatherless cases without direct testing of alleged father |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0379073804005304?via=ihub |journal=Forensic Science International |series=Mediterranean Academy of Forensic Sciences 1st Workshop |volume=146 |pages=S159–S161 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.09.048 |issn=0379-0738|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gehl |first=Rod |last2=Plecas |first2=Darryl |date=2017-08-01 |title=Chapter 10: Forensic Sciences |url=https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/criminalinvestigation/chapter/chapter-10-forensic-sciences/ |language=en-ca}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Paternity fraud]]
* [[Mosaic (genetics)|Mosaicism]] and [[chimerism]], rare genetic conditions that can result in false negative results on DNA-based tests
* [[Non-paternity event]]
* ''[[Lauren Lake's Paternity Court]]'', a television series that debuted in fall 2013

'''Genetic:'''
* [[Heritability]]
* [[List of Mendelian traits in humans]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Presciuttini |first1=Silvano |last2=Toni |first2=Chiara |last3=Spinetti |first3=Isabella |last4=Rocchi |first4=Anna |last5=Domenici |first5=Ranieri |date=April 2006 |title=An unusual case of disputed paternity: When the legitimate children of a deceased alleged father deny DNA |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0531513105013154 |journal=International Congress Series |language=en |volume=1288 |pages=831–833 |doi=10.1016/j.ics.2005.09.043|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Akinola |first1=Adeyemi Adewale |last2=Anana |first2=Mariam |date=2024-09-04 |title=Exploring Entrepreneurial English in Digital Information: Harmonizing News Headlines with their Introductions in Phoenix |url=https://doi.org/10.3126/access.v3i1.69420 |journal=Access: An International Journal of Nepal Library Association |volume=3 |pages=51–64 |doi=10.3126/access.v3i1.69420 |issn=2822-2075|url-access=subscription }}

==External links==
* [https://www.hta.gov.uk/faqs/analysis-dna-under-ht-act-faqs#faq13915 UK paternity testing regulations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923085507/https://www.hta.gov.uk/faqs/analysis-dna-under-ht-act-faqs#faq13915 |date=September 23, 2018 }} per the [[Human Tissue Authority]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parental Testing}}
[[Category:Applied genetics]]
[[Category:DNA]]
[[Category:Family law]]
[[Category:Fathers' rights]]
[[Category:Forensic genetics]]
[[Category:Genetics techniques]]
[[Category:Parenting]]
[[Category:Paternity|Testing]]