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{{Short description|Key concept in Indian philosophy and Eastern religions, with multiple meanings}} {{About|the concept found in Indian religions|}} {{Distinguish|Dharna}} {{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}} '''Dharma''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑːr|m|ə}}; {{langx|sa|[[wikt:धर्म#Sanskrit|धर्म]]}}, {{IPA|sa|dʱɐrmɐ|pron|Dharma.ogg}}) is a key concept in various [[Indian religions]]. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear [[Untranslatability|translation]] and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold'' or ''to support'', thus referring to law that sustains things—from one's life to society, and to the Universe at large. In its most commonly used sense, dharma refers to an individual's moral responsibilities or duties; the dharma of a farmer differs from the dharma of a soldier, thus making the concept of dharma a varying dynamic. As with the other components of the [[Puruṣārtha]], the concept of ''dharma'' is pan-Indian. The antonym of dharma is ''[[adharma]]''. In [[Hinduism]], ''dharma'' denotes behaviour that is considered to be in accord with ''[[Ṛta]]''—the "order and custom" that makes [[life]] and universe possible.{{refn|group=note|name="ODWR-Dharma"|From the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]'': "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."<ref name="ODWR-Dharma">{{cite web |last=Bowker |first=John |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 |title=Dharma |work=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |date=June 8, 2018 |via=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref>}} This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living" according to the stage of life or social position. ''Dharma'' is believed to have a transtemporal validity, and is one of the Puruṣārtha. The concept of ''dharma'' was in use in the [[historical Vedic religion]] (1500–500 BCE), and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. In [[Buddhism]], ''dharma'' ({{langx|pi|dhamma|italic=yes}}) refers to the [[The Buddha#Teachings and views|teachings of the Buddha]] and to the true nature of reality (which the teachings point to). In [[Buddhist philosophy]], ''[[#Buddhism|dhamma/dharma]]'' is also the term for specific "[[phenomena]]" and for the [[Two truths doctrine|ultimate truth]].{{refn|group=note|name="DK"|David Kalupahana: "The old Indian term ''dharma'' was retained by the Buddha to refer to phenomena or things. However, he was always careful to define this ''dharma'' as "dependently arisen phenomena" (''paticca-samuppanna-dhamma'') ... In order to distinguish this notion of ''dhamma'' from the Indian conception where the term ''dharma'' meant reality (''atman''), in an ontological sense, the Buddha utilised the conception of result or consequence or fruit (''attha'', Sk. ''artha'') to bring out the pragmatic meaning of ''dhamma''."<ref name=david />}} [[Dharma (Jainism)|''Dharma'' in Jainism]] refers to the teachings of [[Tirthankara]] (Jina) and the body of doctrine pertaining to purification and moral transformation. In [[Sikhism]], ''dharma'' indicates the path of righteousness, proper religious practices, and performing moral duties. ==Etymology== [[File:Dhamma inscription.jpg|thumb|The [[Prakrit]] word "''dhaṃ-ma''"/[[wikt:𑀥𑀁𑀫|𑀥𑀁𑀫]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Dharma [[wikt:धर्म#Sanskrit|धर्म]]) in the [[Brahmi script]], as inscribed by Emperor [[Ashoka]] in his [[Edicts of Ashoka]] (3rd century BCE)]] The word ''dharma'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑːr|m|ə}})<ref>{{cite book |last=Wells |first=John C. |year=2008 |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |edition=3rd |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> has roots in the [[Sanskrit]] ''dhr-'', which means ''to hold'' or ''to support'', and is related to Latin ''firmus'' (firm, stable).<ref name="EtymologicalDictionary">Barnhart, R. K. (ed.) (1998) ''Chambers Dictionary of Etymology''.</ref> From this, it takes the meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". It is derived from an older [[Vedic Sanskrit]] ''n''-stem ''dharman-'', with a literal meaning of "bearer, supporter", in a [[Historical Vedic religion|religious sense]] conceived as an aspect of [[Rta]].{{sfn|Day|1982|pp=42–45}} In the [[Rigveda]], the word appears as an ''n''-stem, ''{{IAST|dhárman-}}'', with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles). Figuratively, it means "sustainer" and "supporter" (of [[Hindu deities|deities]]). It is semantically similar to the Greek ''[[themis]]'' ("fixed decree, statute, law").{{sfn|Brereton|2004}} In [[Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]], and in the [[Vedic Sanskrit]] of the [[Atharvaveda]], the stem is thematic: ''{{IAST|dhárma-}}'' ([[Devanagari]]: धर्म). In [[Prakrit]] and [[Pali]], it is rendered ''dhamma''. In some [[Indo-Aryan languages#New Indo-Aryan|contemporary Indian languages]] and dialects it alternatively occurs as ''dharm''. In the 3rd century BCE the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan Emperor]] [[Ashoka]] translated ''dharma'' into [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and he used the Greek word ''[[eusebeia]]'' (εὐσέβεια, piety, spiritual maturity, or godliness) in the [[Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription]] and the [[Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka|Kandahar Greek Edicts]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/905466/how-did-the-ramayana-and-mahabharata-come-to-be-and-what-has-dharma-got-to-do-with-it |title=How did the 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?|date=13 December 2018}}</ref> In the former, he used the Aramaic word {{lang|arc|קשיטא}} (''{{lang|arc-Latn|qšyṭ’}}''; truth, rectitude).{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=U4NF8pYxdvIC&pg=PA36 36–37]}} ==Definition== {{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=280|caption_align=center | title = Dharma | image1 = Ahimsa hand.png | caption1 = [[Ahimsa]]<ref>see below: *{{harvp|Van Buitenen|1957}}; *Fitzgerald, James (2004), "Dharma and its Translation in the Mahābhārata", ''Journal of Indian philosophy'', 32(5), pp. 671–685; Quote – "virtues enter the general topic of dharma as 'common, or general, dharma', ..."</ref> | image2 = Yoga Meditation Pos-410px.png | caption2 = Yoga<ref>see: *[[David Frawley|Frawley, David]] (2009), ''Yoga and Ayurveda: Self-Healing and Self-Realization'', {{ISBN|978-0-9149-5581-8}}; Quote – "Yoga is a dharmic approach to the spiritual life..."; * Harvey, Mark (1986), The Secular as Sacred?, Modern Asian Studies, 20(2), pp. 321–331.</ref> | image3 = Balanced scales.svg | caption3 = Law and justice<ref>Jackson, Bernard S. (1975), "From dharma to law", ''The American Journal of Comparative Law'', Vol. 23, No. 3 (Summer, 1975), pp. 490–512.</ref> | image4 = A havan ceremony on the banks of Ganges, Muni ki Reti, Rishikesh.jpg | caption4 = Rituals and rites of passage<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1994|loc="Chapter 3"}}; Quote – "Rites of passage are dharma in action."; "Rites of passage, a category of rituals,..."</ref> | image5 = Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg| caption5 = Sannyasa and [[Āśrama (stage)|stages of life]]<ref>{{harvnb|Coward|2004}}; Quote – "Hindu stages of life approach (ashrama dharma)..."</ref> | image6 = Dharma Wheel.svg| caption6 = Duties, such as learning from [[Dharmachakra|teachers]]<ref>see: * Creel, Austin (1975), "The Reexamination of Dharma in Hindu Ethics", ''Philosophy East and West'', 25(2), pp. 161–173; Quote – "Dharma pointed to duty, and specified duties.."; * Trommsdorff, Gisela (2012), Development of "agentic" regulation in cultural context: the role of self and world views, Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), pp. 19–26; Quote – "Neglect of one's duties (dharma – sacred duties toward oneself, the family, the community, and humanity) is seen as an indicator of immaturity."</ref> }} Dharma is a concept of central importance in [[Indian philosophy]] and [[Indian religions]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dhand |first=Arti |date=17 December 2002 |title=The Dharma of Ethics, the Ethics of Dharma: Quizzing the Ideals of Hinduism |journal=Journal of Religious Ethics |volume=30 |issue=3 |page=351 |doi=10.1111/1467-9795.00113 |issn=1467-9795}}</ref> It has multiple meanings in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=dharma |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/dharma-religious-concept |access-date=14 September 2021 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for ''dharma'', as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations.{{sfn|Van Buitenen|1957|p=36}} There is no equivalent single-word synonym for ''dharma'' in western languages.<ref name=lraw>See: * {{harvp|Rocher|2003}}. * {{harvp|Widgery|1930}}.</ref> There have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word ''dharma'' into [[German language|German]], English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused exceptional difficulties for modern commentators and translators.{{sfn|Horsch|2004}} For example, while Grassmann's translation of Rig-Veda identifies seven different meanings of dharma,<ref>Hermann Grassmann, ''Worterbuch zum Rig-veda'' (German Edition), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1636-7}}</ref> [[Karl Friedrich Geldner]] in his translation of the Rig-Veda employs 20 different translations for dharma, including meanings such as "[[law]]", "[[justice]]", "righteousness", "order", "[[duty]]", "custom", "quality", and "model", among others.{{sfn|Horsch|2004}} However, the word ''dharma'' has become a widely accepted [[loanword]] in English, and is included in all modern unabridged English dictionaries. The root of the word ''dharma'' is "dhr̥", which means "to support, hold, or bear". It is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|pp=34–45}} ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers<ref>see: * [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0500/mw__0543.html "Dharma"] Monier Monier-Williams, [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/monier/ ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' (2008 revision)], pp. 543–544; * Carl Cappeller (1999), ''Monier-Williams: A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Etymological and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages'', Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|978-81-206-0369-1}}, pp. 510–512.</ref> numerous definitions of the word ''dharma'', such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty, right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality, property. Yet, each of these definitions is incomplete, while the combination of these translations does not convey the total sense of the word. In common parlance, ''dharma'' means "right way of living" and "path of rightness".{{sfn|Rosen|2006|pp=34–45}} Dharma also has connotations of order, and when combined with the word ''sanatana'', it can also be described as eternal truth.{{sfn|Jacobs|2010|p=57}} The meaning of the word ''dharma'' depends on the context, and its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through history. In the earliest texts and ancient myths of Hinduism, ''dharma'' meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well as rituals; in later [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]], [[Puranas]] and the [[Indian epic poetry|Epics]], the meaning became refined, richer, and more complex, and the word was applied to diverse contexts.<ref name=phph>see: *English translated version by Jarrod Whitaker: Horsch, Paul, (December 2004) "From Creation Myth to World Law: the Early History of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Volume 32, Issue 5–6, pp. 423–448; Original peer-reviewed publication in German: Horsch, Paul, (1967) "Vom Schoepfungsmythos zum Weltgesetz", ''Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Asiankunde'', Volume 21, pp. 31–61; *English translated version by Donald R. Davis: Paul Hacker, (2006) "Dharma in Hinduism", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Volume 34, Issue 5, pp. 479–496; Original peer-reviewed publication in German: Paul Hacker, (1965) "Dharma im Hinduismus" ''Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft'' Volume 49, pp. 93–106.</ref> In certain contexts, ''dharma'' designates human behaviours considered necessary for order of things in the universe, principles that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in nature, society, family as well as at the individual level.<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" /><ref name=phph/><ref>see: * {{harvp|Bowker|2018}}; "...the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order". * ''[[Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]]'', 2007.{{fcn|date=June 2024}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="ODWR-Dharma"}} ''Dharma'' encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally upright.<ref>see: * Albrecht Wezler, "Dharma in the Veda and the Dharmaśāstras", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', December 2004, Volume 32, Issue 5–6, pp. 629–654 * Johannes Heesterman (1978). "Veda and Dharma", in W. D. O'Flaherty (ed.), ''The Concept of Duty in South Asia'', New Delhi: Vikas, {{ISBN|978-0-7286-0032-4}}, pp. 80–95 * K. L. Seshagiri Rao (1997), "[https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3431&context=flr Practitioners of Hindu Law: Ancient and Modern]", ''Fordham Law Review'', Volume 66, pp. 1185–1199.</ref> For further context, the word ''varnasramdharma'' is often used in its place, defined as dharma specifically related to the stage of life one is in.{{sfn|Jacobs|2010|p=58}} The concept of ''Dharma'' is believed to have a transtemporal validity.{{sfn|Kumar|Choudhury|2021}} The antonym of ''dharma'' is ''[[adharma]]'' (Sanskrit: अधर्म),<ref>see * [http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+adharma&trans=Translate&direction=AU अधर्मा] "adharma", ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', Germany (2011) * [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html "adharma"] ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', University of Koeln, Germany (2009).</ref> meaning that which is "not dharma". As with ''dharma'', the word ''adharma'' includes and implies many ideas; in common parlance, adharma means that which is against nature, immoral, unethical, wrong or unlawful.<ref>see: * {{harvp|Flood|1998|pp=30–54 and 151–152}}; * {{harvp|Coward|2004}}; * {{harvp|Van Buitenen|1957|p=37}}.</ref> In Buddhism, ''dharma'' incorporates the teachings and doctrines of the founder of Buddhism, [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]]. ==History== According to [[Pandurang Vaman Kane]], author of the book ''[[History of Dharmaśāstra]]'', the word ''dharma'' appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of the [[Rigveda]], as an adjective or noun. According to Paul Horsch, the word ''dharma'' has its origin in Vedic Hinduism.{{sfn|Horsch|2004}} The hymns of the [[Rigveda]] claim [[Brahman]] created the universe from chaos, they hold (dhar-) the earth and sun and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away and distinct from earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains.{{sfn|Horsch|2004}}<ref>RgVeda 6.70.1, 8.41.10, 10.44.8, for secondary source see [[Karl Friedrich Geldner]], Der Rigveda in Auswahl (2 vols.), Stuttgart; and [[Harvard Oriental Series]], 33–36, Bd. 1–3: 1951.</ref> The [[Hindu deities|Deities]], mainly [[Indra]], then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chaos, stability from instability – actions recited in the Veda with the root of word dharma.<ref name=phph/> In hymns composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning as a [[Buddhist cosmology|cosmic]] principle and appears in verses independent of [[Hindu deities|deities]]. It evolves into a concept, claims Paul Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense in [[Atharvaveda]] for example, where it becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject.{{sfn|Horsch|2004}} Dharma, in these ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning. The ritual is connected to the cosmic, and "dharmani" is equated to ceremonial devotion to the principles that deities used to create order from disorder, the world from chaos.{{sfn|Horsch|2004|pp=430–431}} Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current world to mythical universe, the concept extends to an ethical-social sense that links human beings to each other and to other life forms. It is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism.{{sfn|Horsch|2004|pp=430–432}}<ref>P. Thieme, Gedichte aus dem Rig-Veda, Reclam Universal-Bibliothek Nr. 8930, p. 52.</ref> Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature of [[Hinduism]], in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Epics; the word dharma also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism.<ref name="phph"/> According to Brereton, ''Dharman'' occurs 63 times in [[Rigveda|Rig-veda]]; in addition, words related to Dharman also appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times as ''satyadharman'', and once as ''dharmavant'', 4 times as ''dharman'' and twice as ''dhariman''.<ref name="jbrereton" /> [[Indo-European studies|Indo-European]] parallels for "dharma" are known, but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian ''darmān'', meaning "remedy". This meaning is different from the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] ''dhárman'', suggesting that the word "dharma" did not play a major role in the [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] period. Instead, it was primarily developed more recently under the Vedic tradition.<ref name=jbrereton>{{harvp|Brereton|2004}}; "There are Indo-European parallels to ''dhárman'' (cf. Wennerberg 1981: 95f.), but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian ''darmān'', 'remedy', which has little bearing on Indo-Aryan ''dhárman''. There is thus no evidence that IIr. *dharman was a significant culture word during the Indo-Iranian period." (p. 449) "The origin of the concept of dharman rests in its formation. It is a Vedic, rather than an Indo-Iranian word, and a more recent coinage than many other key religious terms of the Vedic tradition. Its meaning derives directly from dhr 'support, uphold, give foundation to' and therefore 'foundation' is a reasonable gloss in most of its attestations." (p. 485).</ref> It is thought that the ''[[Daena]]'' of [[Zoroastrianism]], also meaning the "eternal Law" or "religion", is related to Sanskrit "dharma".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morreall |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aM461tmUDe4C&pg=PT324 |title=The Religion Toolkit: A Complete Guide to Religious Studies |last2=Sonn |first2=Tamara |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-4371-7 |page=324 |language=en}}</ref> Ideas in parts overlapping to ''Dharma'' are found in other ancient cultures: such as Chinese [[Tao]], Egyptian [[Maat]], Sumerian [[Me (mythology)|Me]].{{sfn|Rosen|2006|pp=34–45}} ===Eusebeia and dharma=== <!-- "Merit § Merit-making in Buddhist societies" links here --> [[File:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|The [[Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription]] is from Indian [[Emperor Asoka]] in 258 BCE, and found in [[Afghanistan]]. The inscription renders the word ''dharma'' in Sanskrit as ''[[eusebeia]]'' in Greek, suggesting ''dharma'' in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.{{sfn|Hacker|2006}}]] In the mid-20th century, an inscription of the Indian [[Emperor Asoka]] from the year 258 BCE was discovered in Afghanistan, the [[Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription]]. This rock inscription contains [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] text. According to [[Paul_Hacker_(Indologist)|Paul Hacker]],{{sfn|Hacker|2006}} on the rock appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma: the word [[eusebeia]].{{sfn|Hacker|2006}} Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia means not only to venerate [[Hindu deities|deities]], but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, the right conduct between husband and wife, and the conduct between biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription, concludes Paul Hacker, suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward the human community.{{sfn|Hacker|2006}}<ref>[[Etienne Lamotte]], Bibliothèque du Museon 43, Louvain, 1958, p. 249.</ref> ===Rta, maya and dharma=== The evolving literature of Hinduism linked ''dharma'' to two other important concepts: ''Ṛta'' and ''Māyā''. [[Ṛta]] in Vedas is the truth and [[Buddhist cosmology|cosmic]] principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.{{sfn|Koller|1972|pp=136–142}}<ref>Holdrege, Barbara (2004), "Dharma" in: Mittal & Thursby (eds.) ''The Hindu World'', New York: Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-21527-7}}, pp. 213–248.</ref> [[Māyā]] in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception, magic that misleads and creates disorder,<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0800/mw__0844.html "Māyā"] ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', {{ISBN|978-81-206-0369-1}}</ref> thus is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish order, predictability and harmony. Paul Horsch suggests Ṛta and ''dharma'' are parallel concepts, the former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere;{{sfn|Horsch|2004}} while Māyā and ''dharma'' are also correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law and moral life, the later being that which strengthens law and moral life.{{sfn|Koller|1972|pp=136–142}}<ref>Northrop, F. S. C. (1949), "Naturalistic and cultural foundations for a more effective international law", ''Yale Law Journal'', 59, pp. 1430–1441.</ref> Day proposes ''dharma'' is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more complex concept of ''dharma'', as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner.{{sfn|Day|1982|pp=42–44}} The following verse from the [[Rigveda]] is an example where ''rta'' and ''dharma'' are linked: {{quote|O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils...|[[Mandala 10|RV 10]].133.6}} ==Hinduism== {{Hinduism small}} ''Dharma'' is an organising principle in [[Hinduism]] that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of [[cosmos]] and its parts.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|pp=34–45}} It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics.<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" />{{refn|group=note|name="ODWR-Dharma"}} [[Hindus|Hindu]] ''dharma'' includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref>"Dharma", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, {{ISBN|978-0-7876-5015-5}}</ref> ''Dharma'', according to Van Buitenen,{{sfn|Van Buitenen|1957}} is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In Hinduism, it is the ''dharma'' of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow.{{sfn|Van Buitenen|1957}} In terms of humanity, ''dharma'' is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|pp=34–45}}{{sfn|Hacker|2006}} This includes duties, rights, [[Law|laws]], conduct, [[Virtue|virtues]] and "right way of living".<ref name=srdtce>see: *"Dharma", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, {{ISBN|978-0-7876-5015-5}}; *{{harvp|Rosen|2006|loc="Chapter 3"}}.</ref> In its true essence, ''dharma'' means for a Hindu to "expand the mind". Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual, similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the society, for better or for worse. This has been subtly echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning ''dharma'' is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} In Hinduism, ''dharma'' generally includes various aspects: * [[Sanātana Dharma]], the eternal and unchanging principals of ''dharma''.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/sanatana-dharma Sanatana dharma]". Encyclopædia Britannica, 18 Jun. 2009. Accessed 14 September 2021.</ref> * Varṇ āśramā dharma, one's duty at specific [[Ashrama_(stage)|stages of life]] or inherent duties.{{sfn|Conlon|1994|p=50}} * [[Svadharma]], one's own individual or personal duty.{{sfn|Fritzman|2015|p=326}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=112}} * Āpad dharma, ''dharma'' prescribed at the time of adversities.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=112}} * Sadharana dharma, moral duties irrespective of the [[Ashrama_(stage)|stages of life]].{{sfn|Kumar|Choudhury|2021|p=8}}{{refn|group=note|The common duties of ''Sadharana-dharma'' is based on the idea that, individuals ([[Jiva]]) are born with a number of debts, hence through common moral duties prescribed in the ''Sadharana dharma'' would help to repay one's debts to the humanity.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=12}}}} * [[Yuga dharma]], ''dharma'' which is valid for a [[yuga]], an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition and thus may change at the conclusion of its time.<ref name=":0"/>{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=112-113}} ===In Vedas and Upanishads=== The [[#History|history section]] of this article discusses the development of ''dharma'' concept in [[Vedas]]. This development continued in the [[Upanishads]] and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept of ''dharma'' continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to ''[[satya]]'' ({{langx|sa|सत्यं}}, truth),{{sfn|Horsch|2004}}<ref name=chjo/> in hymn 1.4.14 of [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]], as follows: {{quote| Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv{{sfn|Horsch|2004}}<ref name=chjo>[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Johnston, Charles]], ''The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra'', {{ISBN|978-1-4959-4653-0}}, p. 481, for discussion: pp. 478–505.</ref>}} === Dharma and Mimamsa === ''[[Mīmāṃsā|Mimamsa]]'', developed through commentaries on its foundational texts, particularly the ''[[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa Sutras]]'' attributed to [[Jaimini]], emphasizes "the desire to know dharma" as the central concern, defining dharma as what connects a person with the highest good, always yet to be realized. While some schools associate dharma with post-mortem existence, ''Mimamsakas'' focus on the continual renewal and realization of a ritual world through adherence to Vedic injunctions. They assert that the ultimate good is essentially inaccessible to perception and can only be understood through language, reflecting confidence in Vedic injunctions and the reality of language as a means of knowing.<ref>{{Citation |last=Arnold |first=Daniel |title=Kumārila |date=Summer 2024 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2024/entries/kumaarila/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240708163510/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2024/entries/kumaarila/ |archive-date= 8 Jul 2024 }}</ref> ''Mimamsa'' addresses the delayed results of actions (like wealth or heaven) through the concept of apurva or adrsta, an unseen force that preserves the connection between actions and their outcomes. This ensures that Vedic sacrifices, though their results are delayed, are effective and reliable in guiding toward dharma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Junankar |first=N. S. |date=1982 |title=The Mīmāṃsā Concept of Dharma |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23444178 |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=51–60 |doi=10.1007/BF00200183 |jstor=23444178 |issn=0022-1791|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ===In the Epics=== The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Daniel Ingalls]], places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|p=43}} In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".<ref>Fitzgerald, James L. (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=p9SzCuLIlQ0C&pg=PA124 The Mahābhārata: Vol. 7, Book 11: The Book of Women; Book 12: The Book of Peace, Part 1]. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|9780226252506}}. p. 124. {{OCLC|59170383}}</ref> ''Dharma'' is at the centre of all major events in the life of Dasharatha, [[Rama]], [[Sita]], and [[Lakshmana|Lakshman]] in Ramayana. In the Ramayana, Dasharatha upholds his dharma by honoring a promise to Kaikeyi, resulting in his beloved son Rama's exile, even though it brings him immense personal suffering.{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|pp=41–48}} In the [[Mahabharata]]'', dharma'' is central, and it is presented through symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, Yama referred to as ''dharma'' in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a [[dog]] to test the compassion of [[Yudhishthira]], who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal. Yudhishthira refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised by ''dharma''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m17/m17003.htm |title=The Mahabharata, Book 17: Mahaprasthanika Parva: Section 3 |via=Internet Sacred Text Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113173402/https://sacred-texts.com/hin/m17/m17003.htm |archive-date= Jan 13, 2024 }}</ref> The value and appeal of the Mahabharata, according to Ingalls, is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book.{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|pp=41–48}} Indian metaphysics, he argues, is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures. Instead, the appeal of Mahabharata, like [[Ramayana]], lies in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, where there are usually three answers:{{sfn|Ingalls|1957|pp=41–48}} one answer is of [[Bhima]], which represents brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of [[Yudhishthira]], which appeals to piety, [[Hindu deities|deities]], social virtue, and tradition; the third answer is of introspective [[Arjuna]], which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of ''dharma''.<ref>There is considerable amount of literature on dharma-related discussion in Hindu Epics: of Egoism versus Altruism, Individualism versus Social Virtues and Tradition; for examples, see: * Meyer, Johann Jakob (1989), [https://books.google.com/books?id=izFNswlJ9LMC&pg=PA92 Sexual life in ancient India], {{ISBN|81-208-0638-7}}, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 92–93; Quote – "In Indian literature, especially in Mahabharata over and over again is heard the energetic cry – Each is alone. None belongs to anyone else, we are all but strangers to strangers; (...), none knows the other, the self belongs only to self. Man is born alone, alone he lives, alone he dies, alone he tastes the fruit of his deeds and his ways, it is only his work that bears him company. (...) Our body and spiritual organism is ever changing; what belongs, then, to us? (...) Thus, too, there is really no teacher or leader for anyone, each is his own Guru, and must go along the road to happiness alone. Only the self is the friend of man, only the self is the foe of man; from others nothing comes to him. Therefore, what must be done is to honor, to assert one's self..."; Quote – "(in parts of the epic), the most thoroughgoing egoism and individualism is stressed..." * Piper, Raymond F. (1954), "In Support of Altruism in Hinduism", ''Journal of Bible and Religion'', Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1954), pp. 178–183 * Ganeri, J. (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.</ref> There is extensive discussion of ''dharma'' at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.<ref>{{harvp|Ingalls|1957|pp=44–45}}; Quote – "(...)In the Epic, free will has the upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with the doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among the ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given the following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny.{{'"}} (Mahabharata 12.106.20).</ref> The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of ''dharma'' with metaphors.<ref>[[Huston Smith|Smith, Huston]] (2009) The World Religions, HarperOne, {{ISBN|978-0-06-166018-4}}; For summary notes: [http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm Background to Hindu Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040922160422/http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm |date=2004-09-22}}</ref> ===According to 4th-century Vatsyayana=== According to [[Klaus Klostermaier]], 4th-century CE Hindu scholar [[Vātsyāyana]] explained ''dharma'' by contrasting it with adharma.<ref name=klausk>Klostermaier, Klaus. Chapter 3: "Hindu dharma", A survey of Hinduism, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|0-88706-807-3}}.</ref> Vātsyāyana suggested that ''dharma'' is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:<ref name=klausk/><ref>{{cite book |translator=Ganganatha Jha |title=Gautama's Nyāyasūtras, with Vātsyāyana-Bhāṣya |series=2 vols |publisher=Oriental Books |year=1939}}</ref> # Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner) # Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others) # Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk) # Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self-study) # Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and religiosity) # Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others) ===According to Patanjali Yoga=== In the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|''Yoga Sutras'' of Patanjali]] the ''dharma'' is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal.{{sfn|Woods|1914|p={{page needed|date=December 2019}}}} ''Dharma'' is part of [[yoga]], suggests [[Patanjali]]; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga.{{sfn|Woods|1914|p={{page needed|date=December 2019}}}} Patanjali explained ''dharma'' in two categories: ''[[yamas]]'' (restraints) and ''[[niyama]]s'' (observances).<ref name=klausk/> The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others.{{sfn|Woods|1914|pp=178–180}} The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.{{sfn|Woods|1914|pp=180–181}} The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.{{sfn|Woods|1914|pp=181–191}} ===Sources=== ''Dharma'' is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism.{{sfn|Hacker|2006}}<ref>Kumarila Bhatta, Tantravarttika, Anandasramasamskrtagranthavalih, Vol. 97, pp. 204–205. {{in lang|sa}}; For an English Translation, see Ganganatha Jha (tr.) (1924), Bibliotheca Indica, Work No. 161, Vol. 1.</ref> For example, [[Apastamba|Apastamba Dharmasutra]] states: {{quote| ''Dharma'' and ''Adharma'' do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what is ''Dharma'' and what is ''Adharma''.| ''Apastamba Dharmasutra''{{sfn|Olivelle|1999|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}}}} In other texts, three sources and means to discover ''dharma'' in Hinduism are described. These, according to [[:de:Paul Hacker|Paul Hacker]], are:{{sfn|Hacker|2006|pp=487–489}} First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and other [[Sanskrit literature]] with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behaviour and example of good people. The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, "[[atmatusti]]" is the source of ''dharma'' in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.{{sfn|Hacker|2006|pp=487–489}} ===Dharma, life stages and social stratification=== {{main|Āśrama (stage)|Puruṣārtha|l1=Āśrama}} Some texts of Hinduism outline ''dharma'' for society and at the individual level. Of these, the most cited one is ''[[Manusmriti]]'', which describes the four ''Varnas'', their rights and duties.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}} Most texts of Hinduism, however, discuss ''dharma'' with no mention of ''Varna'' ([[Caste system in India|caste]]).<ref>Thapar, R. (1995), The first millennium BC in northern India, Recent perspectives of early Indian history, 80–141.</ref> Other ''dharma'' texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}} Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna. [[Bhrigu]], in the Epics, for example, presents the theory that ''dharma'' does not require any varnas.<ref>Trautmann, Thomas R. (Jul 1964), "On the Translation of the Term Varna", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'', '''7'''(2) pp. 196–201.</ref> In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their [[Ashrama (stage)|asramas]] of life, in search of moksa.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}}<ref>see: * {{harvp|Van Buitenen|1957|pp=38–39}}. * {{harvp|Koller|1972|pp=131–144}}.</ref> While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word varnadharma (that is, the ''dharma'' of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the ''dharma'' of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate ''dharma'' with varna system of India.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}}<ref>Kane, P.V. (1962), History of Dharmasastra (Ancient and Medieval Religious and Civil Law in India), Volume 1, pp. 2–10.</ref> In 6th-century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of varnasramadharma" – that is, ''dharma'' of varna and asramas of life.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=215–227}}<ref>Olivelle, P. (1993). ''The Asrama System: The history and hermeneutics of a religious institution'', New York: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline [[Ashrama (stage)|four āśrama]]s, or stages of life as individual's ''dharma''. These are:{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} (1) [[Brahmacharya|brahmacārya]], the life of preparation as a student, (2) [[Grihastha|gṛhastha]], the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3) [[Vanaprastha|vānprastha]] or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) [[sannyāsa]], the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters. Patrick Olivelle suggests that "ashramas represented life choices rather than sequential steps in the life of a single individual" and the vanaprastha stage was added before renunciation over time, thus forming life stages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |title=The strides of Vishnu: Hindu culture in historical perspective |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University press |isbn=978-0-19-531405-2 |location=Oxford |pages=87}}</ref> The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism.<ref name=jkkpwg/> ''Dharma'' enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact successfully with society. The other three strivings are [[Artha]] – the striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, and so forth; [[Kama]] – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfilment, and so forth; and [[Moksa]] – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth cycle, self-realisation in this life, and so forth. The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu ''dharma''.<ref name=jkkpwg>see: * {{harvp|Koller|1972|pp=131–144}}. * {{harvp|Potter|1958|pp=49–63}}. * {{harvp|Goodwin|1955|pp=321–344}}.</ref> ===Dharma and poverty=== ''Dharma'' being necessary for individual and society, is dependent on poverty and prosperity in a society, according to Hindu dharma scriptures. For example, according to Adam Bowles,<ref name=adambowles>Bowles, Adam (2007), "Chapter 3", ''Dharma, Disorder, and the Political in Ancient India'', Brill's Indological Library (Book 28), {{ISBN|978-90-04-15815-3}}.</ref> [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and ''dharma'' through water. Waters come from rains, it claims; when rains are abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to follow ''Dharma'' – moral and lawful life. In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers including relations between human beings and the human ability to live according to ''dharma''.<ref name=adambowles/> In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and ''dharma'' reaches a full circle. A land with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful life, which further increases distress.<ref name=adambowles/><ref>Derrett, J. D. M. (1959), "Bhu-bharana, bhu-palana, bhu-bhojana: an Indian conundrum", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 22, pp. 108–123.</ref> Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers), because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve prosperity.<ref>[[Jan Gonda|Gonda, Jan]], "Ancient Indian Kingship from the Religious Point of View", ''Numen'', Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Jan., 1956), pp. 36–71.</ref> ===Dharma and law=== {{main|Hindu law}} The notion of ''dharma'' as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts. Common examples of such use are pitri dharma (meaning a person's duty as a father), putra dharma (a person's duty as a son), raj dharma (a person's duty as a king) and so forth.{{sfn|Kumar|Choudhury|2021}} In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per ''dharma''. The [[Dharmashastra]] is a record of these guidelines and rules.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gächter |first=Othmar |title=Anthropos |journal=Anthropos Institute |year=1998}}</ref> The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection of ''dharma'' related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these are now referred to as Dharmasutras.{{sfn|Olivelle|1999|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}} Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient scholars.<ref>Davis, Donald Jr. (September 2006) "A Realist View of Hindu Law", ''Ratio Juris''. Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 287–313.</ref><ref>Lariviere, Richard W. (2003), The Naradasmrti, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass</ref> These different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources of ''dharma'' in Hinduism. These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of the young, their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality.{{sfn|Olivelle|1999|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}} ==Buddhism== {{Also see|Buddhist paths to liberation}} {{anchor|Buddhism}} {{Buddhism}} Buddhism held the Hindu view of ''Dharma'' as "cosmic law", as in the working of [[Karma]].<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" /> The term Dharma ({{langx|pi|dhamma|italic=yes}}) later came to refer to the teachings of [[the Buddha]] (''pariyatti''); the practice (''paṭipatti'') of the Buddha's teachings is then comprehended as Dharma.<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" /><ref name="Concise-PED">"[https://suttacentral.net/define/dhamma dhamma]", ''The New Concise Pali English Dictionary''.</ref> In [[Buddhist philosophy]], ''dhamma/dharma'' is also the term for "[[phenomena]]".<ref name="Concise-PED" /><ref name="david">[[David Kalupahana|Kalupahana, David]] (1986) ''The Philosophy of the Middle Way''. SUNY Press, pp. 15–16.</ref> ===Buddha's teachings=== <!--"Sacca-kiriya" links here. Please adjust link there if this section is removed or renamed. Thanks.--> For practising Buddhists, references to ''dharma'' (''dhamma'' in Pali) particularly as "the dharma", generally means the teachings of the Buddha, commonly known throughout the East as Buddhadharma. It includes especially the discourses on the fundamental principles (such as the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]), as opposed to the parables and to the poems. The Buddha's teachings explain that in order to end suffering, ''dharma'', or the right thoughts, understanding, actions and livelihood, should be cultivated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Hannah Jean |title=Key Tenets of Classical Buddhist ''Dharma'' Leave Space for the Practice of Abortion and are Upheld by Contemporary Japanese Buddhist ''Mizuko Kuyo'' Remembrance Rituals |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |year=2019 |volume=58 |issue=2 |page=477 |doi=10.1007/s10943-019-00763-4|pmid=30673995 }}</ref> The status of ''dharma'' is regarded variably by different Buddhist traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate truth, or as the fount of all things which lie beyond the "[[three realms]]" (Sanskrit: ''tridhatu'') and the "wheel of becoming" (Sanskrit: ''[[bhavachakra]]''). Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the ''dharma'' as the [[essence]] of the "84,000 different aspects of the teaching" (Tibetan: ''chos-sgo brgyad-khri bzhi strong'') that the Buddha gave to various types of people, based upon their individual propensities and capabilities. Dharma refers not only to the sayings of the [[The Buddha|Buddha]], but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various [[schools of Buddhism]] have developed to help explain and to expound upon the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see the ''dharma'' as referring to the "truth", or the ultimate reality of "the way that things really are" (Tibetan: ''Chö''). The ''dharma'' is one of the [[Three Jewels]] of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge, or that upon which one relies for his or her lasting happiness. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the [[Buddhahood|Buddha]], meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment, the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|''dharma'']], meaning the teachings and the methods of the Buddha, and the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]], meaning the community of practitioners who provide one another guidance and support. ===Chan Buddhism=== Dharma is employed in [[Chan Buddhism]] in a specific context in relation to transmission of authentic doctrine, understanding and bodhi; recognised in [[dharma transmission]]. ===Theravada Buddhism=== In [[Theravada]] Buddhism obtaining ultimate realisation of the dhamma is achieved in three phases; learning, practising and realising.<ref name="What is the Triple Gem">{{cite web |url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/triplegem.html#sorts3 |title=What is the Triple Gem? – ''Dhamma'': Good Dhamma is of three sorts |first=Ajaan |last=Lee Dhammadharo |date=1994 |translator=Thanissaro Bhikkhu |page=33}}</ref> In Pali: #[[Pariyatti]] – the learning of the theory of ''dharma'' as contained within the suttas of the Pali canon #Patipatti – putting the theory into practice and #Pativedha – when one penetrates the ''dharma'' or through experience realises the truth of it.<ref name="What is the Triple Gem" /> ==Jainism== {{Main|Dharma (Jainism)}} {{Jainism}} The word ''dharma'' in Jainism is found in all its key texts. It has a contextual meaning and refers to a number of ideas. In the broadest sense, it means the teachings of the Jinas,<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" /> or teachings of any competing spiritual school,{{sfn|Cort|2001|p=100}} a supreme path,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Clarke, Peter B. |author2=Beyer, Peter |title=The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC |year=2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-21100-4|page=325}}</ref> socio-religious duty,<ref>{{cite book|first=Torkel |last=Brekke |title=Makers of Modern Indian Religion in the Late Nineteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6YUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-925236-7|page=124}}</ref> and that which is the highest {{lang|sa|mangala}} (holy).{{sfn|Cort|2001|pp=192–194}} The ''[[Tattvartha Sutra]]'', a major [[Jain text]], mentions {{lang|sa|daśa dharma}} ({{lit|ten ''dharma''s}}) with referring to ten righteous virtues: forbearance, modesty, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment, and celibacy.{{sfn|Jain|2011|p=128}} Ācārya Amṛtacandra, author of the Jain text, {{IAST|Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya}} writes:{{sfn|Jain|2012|p=22}} {{Blockquote|A right believer should constantly meditate on virtues of dharma, like supreme modesty, in order to protect the Self from all contrary dispositions. He should also cover up the shortcomings of others.|''Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya'' (27)}} ===''Dharmāstikāya''=== {{further|Dravya}} The term {{lang|sa|dharmāstikāya}} ({{langx|sa|धर्मास्तिकाय}}) also has a specific [[ontology|ontological]] and soteriological meaning in Jainism, as a part of its theory of six {{lang|sa|dravya}} (substance or a reality). In the Jain tradition, existence consists of {{lang|sa|[[Jīva (Jainism)|jīva]]}} (soul, {{lang|sa|[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]}}) and {{lang|sa|[[ajīva]]}} (non-soul, {{lang|sa|[[Anātman (Hinduism)|anātman]]}}), the latter consisting of five categories: inert non-sentient atomic matter ({{lang|sa|pudgalāstikāya}}), space ({{lang|sa|[[ākāśa]]}}), time ({{lang|sa|[[kāla]]}}), principle of motion ({{lang|sa|dharmāstikāya}}), and principle of rest ({{lang|sa|adharmāstikāya}}).<ref>{{cite book|first=John E. |last=Cort|title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3786-5|pages=10–11}}</ref><ref name="Dundas2003p93">{{cite book |author=Paul Dundas |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |year=2003 |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-26605-5 |pages=93–95}}</ref> The use of the term {{lang|sa|dharmāstikāya}} to mean motion and to refer to an ontological sub-category is peculiar to Jainism, and not found in the [[metaphysics]] of Buddhism and various schools of Hinduism.<ref name="Dundas2003p93"/> ==Sikhism== {{main|Sikhism}} [[File:Khanda Orange.jpg|thumb|upright|Sikhism]] For [[Sikh]]s, the word ''dharam'' ({{langx|pa|ਧਰਮ|dharam}}) means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice.<ref name=rinehart138>Rinehart, Robin (2014), in Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-19-969930-8}}, [[Oxford University Press]], pp. 138–139.</ref> [[Guru Granth Sahib]] connotes ''dharma'' as duty and moral values.<ref>Cole, W. Owen (2014), in Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-19-969930-8}}, Oxford University Press, p. 254.</ref> The [[3HO]] movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh beliefs, defines Sikh Dharma broadly as all that constitutes religion, moral duty and way of life.<ref>Dusenbery, Verne (2014), in Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-19-969930-8}}, Oxford University Press, pp. 560–568.</ref> ==In Sangam literature== {{Main article|Sangam literature}} Several works of the [[Sangam era|Sangam]] and post-Sangam period, many of which are of [[Hindu]] or [[Jain]] origin, emphasizes on ''dharma''. Most of these texts are based on ''[[Aram (Kural book)|aṟam]]'', the Tamil term for ''dharma''. The ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] moral text of the ''[[Tirukkuṟaḷ]]'' or ''Kural'', a text probably of Jain or Hindu origin,<ref>{{cite book |author=Zvelebil, Kamil |title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155 |year=1973 |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-03591-5|pages=156–171}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lal, Mohan |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4341 |year=1992 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1221-3 |pages=4333–4334, 4341–4342}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roy, Kaushik |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRE3n1VwDTIC |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01736-8|pages=144–154}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Iraianban, Swamiji |title=Ambrosia of Thirukkural |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPmMQoJkXV0C&pg=PA13 |year=1997 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-346-5 |pages=13}}</ref>{{sfn|Purnalingam Pillai|2015|p=75}} despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on ''dharma'' (''aram''), artha (''porul''), and kama (''inpam''),<ref name="Blackburn2000">{{cite journal |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=April 2000 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00003632 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/corruption-and-redemption-the-legend-of-valluvar-and-tamil-literary-history/578480EEAB1B71821BBC5D2A9B42205F |title=Corruption and Redemption: The Legend of Valluvar and Tamil Literary History |page=453 |volume=34 |issue=2 |first=Stuart |last=Blackburn |s2cid=144101632|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Sanjeevi2006">{{cite book |last=Sanjeevi |first=N. |title=First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers |year=2006 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Madras |location=Chennai |page=82}}</ref> is completely and exclusively based on ''aṟam''.<ref name="VelusamyFaraday2017">{{cite book |editor1=Velusamy, N. |editor2=Faraday, Moses Michael |title=Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India? |year=2017 |publisher=Unique Media Integrators |edition=1st |location=Chennai| language=ta, en |isbn=978-93-85471-70-4 |page=55}}</ref> The [[Naladiyar]], a Jain text of the post-Sangam period, follows a similar pattern as that of the Kural in emphasizing ''aṟam'' or ''dharma''.{{sfn|Purnalingam Pillai|2015|p=70}} ==Dharma in symbols== [[File:Sarnath_Ashoka_Lions_with_Dharma_Wheel.jpg|thumb|The original [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]], from [[Sarnath]]. It originally supported a large [[dharmachakra]] (the earliest symbol of the Dharma) on the top (which has been reconstructed here).]] [[File:Flag of India.svg|thumb|The wheel in the centre of India's flag symbolises Ashoka's dhamma.]] The importance of ''dharma'' to Indian civilization is illustrated by India's decision in 1947 to include the [[Ashoka Chakra]], a depiction of the ''[[dharmachakra]]'' (the "wheel of ''dharma''"), as the central motif on its flag.<ref>Narula, S. (2006), ''International Journal of Constitutional Law'', 4(4), pp. 741–751.</ref> ==See also== * [[Ayyavazhi]] * [[Dhammapada]] * [[Karma]] * [[List of Hindu empires and dynasties]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == * {{Cite journal|last=Brereton|first=Joel P.|date=December 2004 |title=Dhárman In The Rgveda|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=32 |issue=5–6|pages=449–489|doi=10.1007/s10781-004-8631-8 |s2cid=170807380|issn=0022-1791 |url=https://www.academia.edu/5993798}} * {{cite journal|journal= South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=17|year=1994|issue=2|title= Hindu revival and Indian womanhood: The image and status of women in the writings of Vishnubawa Brahamachari|first=Frank F.|last=Conlon|pages=43–61|doi=10.1080/00856409408723205}} * {{cite book|first=John E.|last=Cort|year=2001|title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803037-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC}} * {{cite journal |last=Coward |first=Harold |author-link=Harold Coward |date=2004 |title=Hindu bioethics for the twenty-first century |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=291 |issue=22 |pages=2759–2760|doi=10.1001/jama.291.22.2759 }} * {{cite book |last=Day |first=Terence P. |year=1982 |title=The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature |location=Ontario |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-919812-15-4}} * {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood |year=1994 |chapter=Hinduism |editor1=Jean Holm |editor2=John Bowker |title=Rites of Passages |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=1-85567-102-6}} * {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |year=1998 |chapter=Chapter 2, Making moral decisions |editor=Paul Bowen |title=Themes and issues in Hinduism |publisher=Cassell |isbn=978-0-304-33851-1}} * {{cite journal|journal= International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East |volume=25 |year=2015 |issue=4 |last=Fritzman |first=J.M. |title=The Bhagavadgītā, Sen, and Anderson |pages=319–338 |doi=10.1080/09552367.2015.1102693 |s2cid=146705129}} * {{cite journal |last=Goodwin |first=William F. |date=Jan 1955 |title=Ethics and Value in Indian Philosophy |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=321–344|doi=10.2307/1396742 |jstor=1396742 }} * {{cite book|first=John A.|last=Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1996|isbn= 0791430677}} * {{cite journal |last=Hacker |first=Paul |date=October 2006 |title=Dharma in Hinduism |journal=[[Journal of Indian Philosophy]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=479–496 |translator=Donald R. Davis |jstor=23497312 |doi=10.1007/s10781-006-9002-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Hiltebeitel |first1=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |date=2011 |title=Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-539423-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U4NF8pYxdvIC&pg=PA215}} * {{cite journal |last=Horsch |first=Paul |translator=Jarrod Whitaker |title=From Creation Myth to World Law: the Early History of Dharma |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |date=December 2004 |volume=32 |issue=5–6 |pages=423–448 |doi=10.1007/s10781-004-8628-3 |jstor=23497148}} * {{cite journal |last=Ingalls |first=Daniel H. H. |date=Apr–Jul 1957 |title=Dharma and Moksa |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=7 |issue=1/2 |pages=41–48|doi=10.2307/1396833 |jstor=1396833 }} * {{Cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Stephen |title=Hinduism Today |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2010 |isbn=9780826440273}} * {{cite book |last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Acharya Umasvami's Tattvārthsūtra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLmx9bvtglkC |year=2011 |publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-2-1}} * {{cite book |last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya |year=2012 |publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-4-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8190363948}} * {{cite journal |last=Koller |first=J. M. |date=1972 |title=Dharma: an expression of universal order |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=131–144|doi=10.2307/1398120 |jstor=1398120 }} * {{cite journal |first1=Shailendra |last1=Kumar |first2=Sanghamitra |last2=Choudhury |date=2021 |orig-date=Published online: 27 Dec 2020 |editor-last=Meissner |editor-first=Richard |doi=10.1080/23311886.2020.1858562 |title=Ancient Vedic Literature and Human Rights: Resonances and Dissonances |journal=Cogent Social Sciences |volume=7 |issue=1 |at=1858562 |issn=2331-1886 |s2cid=234164343 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book |last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle |date=1999 |title=Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-283882-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Potter |first=Karl H. |date=Apr–Jul 1958 |title=Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=8 |issue=1/2 |pages=49–63|doi=10.2307/1397421 |jstor=1397421 }} * {{cite book |last=Purnalingam Pillai |first=M. S. |year=2015 |title=Tamil Literature |publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies |location=Chennai}} * {{cite book |last=Rocher |first=Ludo |year=2003 |chapter=Chapter 4, The Dharmasastra |editor=Gavin Flood |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-21535-6}} * {{cite book |last=Rosen |first=Steven |date=2006 |title=Essential Hinduism |publisher=Praeger |isbn=0-275-99006-0}} * {{cite journal |last=Van Buitenen |first=J. A. B. |author-link=J. A. B. van Buitenen |date=Apr–Jul 1957 |title=Dharma and Moksa |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=7 |issue=1/2 |pages=33–40|doi=10.2307/1396832 |jstor=1396832 }} * {{cite journal |last=Widgery |first=Alban G. |date=Jan 1930 |title=The Principles of Hindu Ethics |journal=International Journal of Ethics |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=232–245|doi=10.1086/intejethi.40.2.2377977 }} * {{cite book |last=Woods |first=James Haughton |year=1914 |title=The yoga-system of Patanjali |publisher=Harvard University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft}} == Further reading == * {{cite book |title = Sanatana Dharma: an advanced text book of Hindu religion and Ethics|publisher=Central Hindu College, Benaras |year = 1904 |url = https://archive.org/stream/sanatanadharmaad00benaiala#page/n3/mode/2up }} * {{cite book |author-first=Surendranath |author-last=Dasgupta |author-link=Surendranath Dasgupta |year=1955 |orig-year=1949 |title=A History of Indian Philosophy: Indian Pluralism |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindianp0000dasg_k4i0/page/2/mode/1up |volume=IV |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press & Assessment|Cambridge University Press]] |pages=2–11}} * Murthy, K. Krishna. "Dharma – Its Etymology." ''The Tibet Journal'', Vol. XXI, No. 1, Spring 1966, pp. 84–87. * {{cite book |last = Olivelle |first = Patrick |title = Dharma: Studies in Its Semantic, Cultural and Religious History |year = 2009 |publisher = MLBD |location = Delhi |isbn = 978-81-208-3338-8 |url = https://openlibrary.org/works/OL15911180W/Dharma}} ==External links== {{wikiquote|Dharma}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100228020950/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/DHARMA.HTM India Glossary – Dharma] (archived 28 February 2010) * [http://online.sfsu.edu/rone/Buddhism/Buddhism/BuddhistDict/BDD.html Buddhism A–Z: "D" Entries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228223257/http://online.sfsu.edu/rone/Buddhism/Buddhism/BuddhistDict/BDD.html |date=2012-12-28 }} * [[Rajiv Malhotra]], [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rajiv-malhotra/dharma-religion_b_875314.html Dharma Is Not The Same As Religion] (huffingtonpost.com) {{Indian philosophy}} {{Buddhism topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]] [[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]] [[Category:Hindu law]] [[Category:Buddhist law]] [[Category:Puruṣārthas]] [[Category:Words and phrases with no direct English translation]] [[Category:Jain philosophical concepts]] [[Category:Natural law]] [[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]
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