Editing Diamond Jenness

{{Short description|Canadian anthropologist}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Diamond Jenness
|image = [[File:Diamond Jenness (51237) (cropped).jpg|200px|Cropped version of original Wikimedia Commons photo for use in Diamond Jenness article]]
|alt = Colourized studio portrait of Diamond Jenness, circa 1950
|caption = Diamond Jenness at Bernard Harbour, 1916
|birth_name =
|birth_date = {{birth date|1886|2|10}}
|birth_place = [[Wellington]], [[New Zealand]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1969|11|29|1886|2|10}}
|death_place = [[Chelsea, Quebec]], Canada
|resting_place = Beechwood Cemetery, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
|known_for = His comprehensive early studies of Canada's First Nation's people and the Copper Inuit.
|education = [[University of New Zealand]] (from the constituent college in Wellington, then called [[Victoria University of Wellington|Victoria University College]])<br />[[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol College]], [[University of Oxford]]
|alma_mater =
|employer = [[National museums of Canada|National Museum of Canada]]
|occupation = Anthropologist
|predecessor = Dr. [[Edward Sapir]]
|spouse = Frances Eilleen Jenness
|children = John L. Jenness, Stuart E. Jenness, Robert A. Jenness}}

'''Diamond Jenness''', {{Post-nominals|country=CAN|CC|FRCGS}} (February 10, 1886, [[Wellington]], [[New Zealand]] – November 29, 1969, [[Chelsea, Quebec|Chelsea]], [[Quebec]], Canada) was one of Canada's greatest early scientists<ref>Granatstein, J., 1998. "Sir William Logan", ''Maclean's magazine'', vol. 111, no. 26, (July 1), pp. 38–40.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://beechwoodottawa.ca/en/blog/father-inuit-archaeology-diamond-jenness |title=Father of Inuit Archaeology - Diamon Jenness|date=20 July 2023 |access-date=January 29, 2024|quote=in 1998 Maclean’s magazine listed him as one of the 100 most important Canadians in history as well as third among the ten foremost Canadian scientists.}}</ref> and a pioneer of Canadian [[anthropology]].

== Early life (1886–1910) ==
[[File:Oxford Anthropologists 1911.jpg|thumb|University of Oxford Anthropology Diploma class of 1910–11. Jenness is in the center of the back row.]]

=== Family and childhood ===
Diamond Jenness was the second youngest son in a middle-class family of ten children. His father's profession was that of a watchmaker/jeweler, though he also installed several clocks in municipal building towers in New Zealand. The family was encouraged to read, learn music, and engage in sports. Richling, in his biography “In Twilight and in Dawn,” writes that the young Jenness “was a proficient outdoorsman and an accomplished sharpshooter,” skills that helped prepare him for his experience in the arctic years later.<ref name="Rich">{{Cite book|last=Richling|first=Barnett|title=In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies)|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0773539815|location=Montreal, Quebec|pages=8–11|language=English}}</ref>

=== Education ===
At an early age, Jenness showed proficiency for learning. He earned his first scholarship at the age of twelve by entering a composition competition for children under fourteen. In those days, in New Zealand, secondary education was only available to the wealthier families, so this scholarship enabled Jenness to complete high school and three years of college. He finished his final year of secondary education with six prizes: mathematics, science, Latin, French and English, and was named top student. He attended Lower Hutt School, then [[Wellington College (New Zealand)|Wellington College]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NZTIM18990113.2.16?end_date=31-12-1899&items_per_page=10&query=Diamond+Jenness&snippet=true&start_date=01-01-1897&type=ARTICLE |title= Junior scholarships |publisher=  Papers Past  |date= 1898}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/EP19040126.2.6?end_date=31-12-1904&items_per_page=10&query=Diamond+Jenness&snippet=true&start_date=01-01-1899&type=ARTICLE |title= Junior scholarships |publisher=  Papers Past  |date= 1904}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/EP19040126.2.6?end_date=31-12-1904&items_per_page=10&query=Diamond+Jenness&snippet=true&start_date=01-01-1899&type=ARTICLE |title= December Examinations |publisher=  Papers Past  |date= 1904}}</ref> He and sister May were the only two siblings to proceed on to college.<ref name="Rich"/>

Jenness graduated from the [[University of New Zealand]] (from the constituent college then called [[Victoria University College]]) (B.A. 1907; M.A. 1908), receiving first class honors for both degrees. Then, when 22 years old, he received a scholarship that allowed him to pursue further education at [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol College]], [[University of Oxford]] (Diploma in Anthropology, 1910; M.A. 1916).

== Career (1911–1948) ==

=== Field work – Northern D’Entrecasteaux ===
From 1911 to 1912, as an Oxford Scholar, he studied a little-known group of people on the [[D'Entrecasteaux Islands]] in eastern [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref name="Rich"/> Jenness comments:

:::"They peered at me from out-of-the-way corners, or through the doors of their huts, always at a safe distance. Recalling a children's [game] I had learned in one of the coast villages, I stooped down, tapped the ground with my fingers and chanted the refrain. The children drew nearer and nearer, and one or two with broad smiles began to imitate me. Then with a piece of string, I made some of their own cat's cradle figures and held them out for their inspection. This turned the scale. Five minutes later a laughing crowd surrounded me…The natives could hardly believe that I was a white man, and kept asking my [guides] who I was, how I came to speak their language and where I had learned their game.”<ref name="Jenness 2008. p.33">Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p.33</ref>

=== Canadian Arctic Expedition ===
In 1913, Jenness was invited to join the government-funded [[Canadian Arctic Expedition]] (CAE) that was led by two Arctic explorers - [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]] and [[Rudolph Martin Anderson|R.M. Anderson]].<ref name="coltay">Collins, Henry B. & Taylor, William E. Jr. "[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic23-2-71.pdf Diamond Jenness (1886–1969)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116195244/https://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca//arctic/Arctic23-2-71.pdf |date=2022-11-16 }}.</ref> He would be one of the two anthropologists on board; the other was Henri Beuchat.<ref name="helmer">Helmer, James. "[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic36-1-108.pdf Arctic Profiles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116195239/https://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca//arctic/Arctic36-1-108.pdf |date=2022-11-16 }}". Department of Archaeology. Calgary, Canada.</ref> In June of that year, having barely recuperated from [[yellow fever]] contracted while in New Guinea, Jenness boarded the whaling vessel [[HMCS Karluk|''Karluk'']] along with 12 other scientists. The ship steamed up the British Columbia coastline towards [[Nome, Alaska]], where they met up with Stefansson who had purchased two 60-foot schooners to assist in the expedition work. The three vessels then proceeded towards their rendezvous point, [[Herschel Island]], just east of the mouth of the [[Mackenzie River]], Northwest Territories.<ref name="coltay"/>

The rendezvous never took place. On 12 August, the Karluk became locked in the sea ice. Stefansson, with his secretary McConnell, Jenness, Wilkins (later [[Sir Hubert Wilkins]]), and two Eskimos, set out to procure meat for the crew. While they were ashore, the Karluk drifted westward to the [[East Siberian Sea]], where it was eventually [[Last voyage of the Karluk|crushed in the ice]] off [[Wrangel Island]].<ref name="coltay"/><ref name="helmer"/> Thirteen of the crew perished on board, including Henri Beuchat.<ref name="natreca">Natural Resources Canada. [http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/trailblazers/diamond-jenness/692 Diamond Jenness profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203055944/http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/trailblazers/diamond-jenness/692 |date=2013-12-03 }}, nrcan.gc.ca; accessed February 3, 2018.</ref>

With the ship gone, the hunting party set off on foot towards [[Barrow, Alaska]] (Utqiaġvik), 150 miles away, hoping to meet the two other vessels involved in the expedition: the ''Mary Sachs'' and ''Alaska''.<ref name="helmer"/>  In Barrow, they learned that the two ships had anchored in Camden Bay, making it their winter base.<ref name="coltay"/> Jenness remained behind and spent the first winter at Harrison Bay, Alaska, where he learned how to speak the Northern Eskimo language, and compiled information about their customs and folklore. The next year, in 1914, assisted by interpreter Patsy Klengenberg (son of Gremnia, a [[Tikiġaġmiut|Tikigaq]] from Tigerah ([[Point Hope, Alaska|Point Hope]]), [[Noatak National Preserve|Noatak]]-[[Kobuk Valley National Park|Kobuk]], and the trader [[Christian Klengenberg]]), Jenness commenced studying the [[Copper Inuit]], sometimes called the [[Blond Eskimos]], in the [[Coronation Gulf]] area.<ref name="CDNM">Canadian Museum of History, [https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/peo60e.html]"The People of the CAE"</ref> This group of people had had very little contact with Europeans, and Jenness, now the only anthropologist, was solely in charge of recording the aboriginal way of life in this area.<ref name="coltay"/><ref name="helmer"/><ref name="natreca"/>

[[File:Ikpukhuak and his shaman wife Higalik.jpg|thumb|[[Hubert Wilkins]] photograph of Ikpukhuak and his shaman wife Higalik]]
Jenness spent two years with the Copper Inuit and lived as an adopted son of a hunter named Ikpukhuak and his shaman wife Higalik (name meaning Ice House).<ref name="coltay"/><ref name="helmer"/> During that time he hunted and travelled with his "family," sharing both their festivities and their famine.<ref name="helmer"/> By living with this Inuit family and partaking in their everyday experiences, Jenness did something that was "not often employed by other ethnologists" at the time: he lived with the people who were the subjects of his fieldwork.<ref name="coltay"/> As Morrison in his “Arctic Hunters: The Inuit and Diamond Jenness” states:  “His goal was to understand the Copper Inuit on their own terms, not in relation to some preconceived ‘ladder of creation’ with Europeans perched firmly at the top.”<ref>Morrison, David  “Arctic Hunters: The Inuit and Diamond Jenness”, 1992, Canadian Museum of Civilization, pp. 14-15</ref>

Summarizing his first year with the Copper Inuit, Jenness wrote:

:::"By Isolating myself among the Eskimos ... I had followed their wanderings day by day from autumn round to autumn. 
:::I had observed their reactions to every season, the disbanding of the tribes and their reassembling, the migrations 
:::from sea to land and from land to sea, the diversion from sealing to hunting, hunting to fishing, fishing to hunting, 
:::and then to sealing again. All these changes caused by their economic environment I had seen and studied; now, 
:::with a greater knowledge of the language, I could concentrate on other phases of their life and history."<ref>Jenness, Diamond “The People of the Twilight”, 1928f, p. 191</ref>

As anthropologist de Laguna noted years later, his “accomplishments are the more remarkable when it is remembered that Jenness had to perform not only his own duties but [also] those of his unfortunate colleague, Beauchat.”<ref name="deLaguna">de Laguna, Frederica. "Diamond Jenness, C. C. 1886-1969". American Anthropologist (New Series), v 73, February, 1971.</ref> Furthermore, Jenness's camera, anthropometric instruments, books, papers and even heavy winter clothing had all remained on board the ill-fated Karlak.<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. p.70 ISBN 978-0773539815</ref>

The CAE scientists kept daily diary logs, took extensive research notes, and collected samples which were shipped or brought back to Ottawa. Jenness collected a variety of ethnological materials from clothing and hunting tools to stories and games, and 137 [[Phonograph cylinder|wax phonographic cylinder]] song recordings he had made.<ref name="CDNM"/><ref name="coltay"/>  (The latter's musical transcription and analysis by Columbia University's Hellen H. Roberts with Jenness's word translations can be found in the monograph “Songs of the Copper Eskimos” (1925).<ref>Roberts, Helen Hefron and Diamond Jenness “Songs of the Copper Eskimos. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18, Southern Party 1913-16, Volume XIV” Ottawa : F.A. Acland, 1925</ref> Eight of Jenness's Copper Inuit recordings can be heard on [http://www.ckug.ca/index.php?p=5_2 CKUG's website.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201124445/http://ckug.ca/index.php?p=5_2 |date=2021-12-01 }} The radio station is located in Kugluktuk, [[Nunavut]], Canada. The website also features a short video demonstrating how Jenness recorded these songs with the technology available in 1913.)

====Copper Inuit subgroups studied by Jenness====
Several subgroups were reported on by Jenness and they include:<ref>{{cite journal|year=1915|title=Anthropology in the Canadian Arctic Expedition|journal=Anthropologic Miscellanea|publisher=American Anthropological Association.|pages=776–780|jstor=660004|volume=17|issue=4}}</ref>
*[[Akuliakattagmiut]]
*[[Haneragmiut]]
*[[Kogluktogmiut]]
*[[Pallirmiut]]
*Puiplirmiut
*Uallirgmiut (Kanianermiut)

====Origin of the Copper Eskimos and their copper culture====
In his article in ''Geographical Review'', Jenness described how the Copper Inuit are more closely related to tribes of the east and southeast in comparison to western cultural groups, basing his conclusion on archaeological remains, materials used for housing, weapons, utensils, art, tattoos, customs, traditions, religion, and also linguistic patterns. He also considered how the dead are handled: whether they are covered by stone or wood, without any artifacts, as in the west, or “as in the east, laid out on the surface of the ground, unprotected but with replicas of their clothing and miniature implements placed beside them.”.<ref name="jenn">Jenness, Diamond. "Origin of Copper Eskimos and Their Copper Culture." Geographical Review. 13(4): 540–551.</ref>

Jenness characterized the "Copper Eskimos" as being in a pseudo-metal stage, in between the [[Stone Age|Stone]] and [[Iron Age]]s, because this cultural group treated copper as simply a malleable stone which is hammered into tools and weapons. He discussed whether the use of copper arose independently with different cultural groups or in one group and was then "borrowed" by others. Jenness goes on to explain that indigenous communities began to use copper first and following this, the Inuit adopted it. He cited the fact that slate was previously used among Inuit and was replaced by copper at a later time after the indigenous communities had begun to use it.<ref name="jenn"/>

=== First World War ===
The scientific members of the Canadian Arctic Expedition completed their mission and left the north in 1916. Jenness was assigned an office in the Victoria Museum of Ottawa and instructed to write up his expedition findings. After six months of feverishly working on his collections, notes, and initial reports for the government, Jenness, concerned about the events in Europe, enlisted in the World War 1 and served in France and Belgium. Being of slight build and short of stature, he was assigned to duties other than direct combat.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, pp. 67-68.</ref>

===Field work and writing===

In December 1918, Jenness applied and received military leave to finish writing his Papua studies report in Oxford, (delayed due his having joined the CAE and then the war). While in Oxford, he received word that his unit was one of the first to be sent home from the war. Jenness returned to Ottawa in March, 1919, and the next month married his fiancé, Eileen Bleakney. After their honeymoon in New Zealand, Jenness set about writing up his Arctic reports, and produced eight government reports in five volumes, totaling 1,368 pages.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p. 76-77</ref> Richling states: “The scientific results of the Canadian Arctic Expedition filled fifteen volumes. One-third of them contained the product of Jenness's investigations.”<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 335. ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref>

==== Canadian First Nations ====
A year and a half after his return from the war, the Canadian Government made his employment at the Victoria Memorial Museum permanent, and he was assigned to study many of the Indian tribes of Canada. (Jenness's employment had previously been on a yearly contract basis.)<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p. 78</ref>

The Sarcee, on a reserve in Calgary, Alberta, were the first of many First Nation tribes in Jenness's fieldwork. That experience also provided his first encounter with the deplorable conditions Canada's indigenous peoples experienced on reserves.<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. p.163 ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref>  After the Sarcee, Jenness undertook fieldwork study of the Sekani. Beothuk (extinct), Ojibwa, and Salish. Collins and Taylor refer to Jenness's ''Indians of Canada'' (1931c) as "the definitive work on the Canadian aborigines, dealing comprehensively with the ethnology and history of the Canadian Indians and Eskimos".<ref name="coltay"/>

==== Archaeological discoveries ====
Although most of Jenness's time was devoted to [[First Nations in Canada|Indian]] studies and administrative duties, he also identified two very important prehistoric [[Eskimo]] cultures: the [[Dorset culture]] in Canada (in 1925)<ref>Jenness, D., 1925. "A new Eskimo culture in Hudson Bay". ''Geographical Review'', vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 428–437.</ref> and the [[Thule people#Old Bering Sea stage, 200&nbsp;BC to AD&nbsp;500|Old Bering Sea culture]] in [[Alaska]] (in 1926),<ref>Jenness, D., 1928. "Archaeological investigations in Bering Strait, 1926". ''National Museum of Canada Bulletin'' no. 50, pp. 71–80.</ref> for which he later was named "Father of Eskimo Archaeology."<ref>Collins, Henry B., 1967. "Diamond Jenness: Arctic Archaeology". ''The Beaver'', Autumn, pp. 78–79.</ref> These archaeological findings were fundamental in explaining migration patterns, and Jenness's views were thought to be "radical" at that time.  Helmer states: “These theories are now widely accepted, having been vindicated by carbon-14 dating and subsequent field research.”<ref name="helmer"/>

===Administrative duties===
In 1926, Jenness succeeded Canada's first Chief Anthropologist, Dr. [[Edward Sapir]], as Chief of Anthropology at the [[Canadian Museum of History|National Museum of Canada]], a position he retained until his retirement in 1948. During the intervening years, although hampered by the [[Great Depression]] and [[World War II]], he “strove passionately, but with mixed success, to improve the knowledge and welfare of Canada's aboriginal peoples and to enhance the international reputation of the National Museum.”<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p. vii, Abstract</ref>

Other administrative duties during this time include representing Canada at the Fourth Pacific Science Congress in 1929, and chairing the Anthropological Section of the First Pacific Science Congress in 1933. Jenness also served as Canada's official delegate to the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences in Copenhagen, 1938.

===Second World War and its aftermath===
In 1941, eager to contribute to the war effort, he was seconded to the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]], where he served until 1944 as civilian deputy director of Special Intelligence. In 1944, he was made chief of the newly established Inter-Services Topographic Section (ISTS), the non-military section of the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Canadian Department of National Defence]] (patterned after a similar Great Britain military intelligence organization, [[Inter-Services Topographic Department]].) Jenness retained this position when, in 1947, the Canadian ISTS unit changed name (became the Geographic Bureau) and was placed under the Department of Mines and Resources.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, pp. 193-202.</ref>

==Retirement years (1948–1969)==
During his retirement, Jenness continued to travel, research, and publish. (See ''Through Darkening Spectacles'', Table 2, p.&nbsp;364 for a complete table of locations visited.) He also taught courses at universities, such as the University of British Columbia (1951) and McGill (1955), on arctic ethnology and archaeology.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p.</ref>

From 1949 until his death in 1969, Jenness published more than two dozen writings, including the monographs: ''The Corn Goddess and other tales from Indian Canada'' (1956), ''Dawn in Arctic Alaska'' (1957) a popular account of the one year (1913 to 1914) he spent among the [[Inupiat]] of Northern Alaska, ''The Economics of Cypress'' (1962), and four scholarly reports on Eskimo Administration in Alaska, Canada, [[Labrador]], and [[Greenland]], plus a fifth report providing an analysis and overview of the four government systems (published between 1962 and 1968 by the [[Arctic Institute of North America]]).<ref name="Jenness 2008. p.33"/> He was able to complete these writings due to an award from the Guggenheim Foundation to further “whatever scholarly purposes he deemed fit,” an award that amounted to more than two and half times his annual pension from the Canadian government. When health prevented him from escaping Canada's bitter winters, he commenced writing his memoir, a project which his son, Stuart Edward Jenness, “completed” and published in 2008 under the title ''Through Darkening Spectacles''.<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 303 ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref>

==Role in applied anthropology==
Jenness entered the field of anthropology at its outset and was able to study cultures that had experienced little or no previous interaction with “white” people. He began his career engaging in the early traditional fields: ethnology, linguistics, physical (biological), and archaeology. But as he noticed the decline in the morale, economics and health of Canada's indigenous peoples, he shifted his attention towards applied anthropology. Richling, who spent over two decades studying the professional life of Jenness, writes, “Jenness's interest in Indian affairs deepened in the thirties out of concern for the worsening crisis among Native peoples wrought by the Depression and the effects of a long-outmoded government policy of ‘Bible and Plough’.”<ref name="RBUSE">Richling, Barnett. "[https://www.academia.edu/21402676/Diamond_Jenness_and_Useful_Anthropology_in_Canada_1930_1950?auto=download Diamond Jenness and ‘useful anthropology’ in Canada 1930-1950."] The Journal of New Zealand Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1991)</ref>

===Recommendations to deputy minister (1936)===
In his biography “In Twilight and in Dawn,” Richling writes that in 1936 Jenness sent a memo to Deputy Minister Charles Camsell stating the reserves “had degenerated into a ‘system of permanent segregation,’ one whose inhabitants have been stripped of all but a token remnant of control over their own material and spiritual well-being. Rather than bringing opportunity, choice, and self-sufficiency, reserves brought hardship, hopelessness, and dependency, ‘destroy[ing] their morale and their health’ making them outcasts in the wider society.”<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill–Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 278–79. ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref> Jenness recommended: 1) closing of separate schools; 2) creation of scholarships for attending high school, technical schools, and in special cases universities; 3) establishing follow-up after completion of school to help ensure they had steady employment; 4) not enforcing the Potash Law;  5) improving Indian health services; 6) protecting native hunting and trapping grounds.<ref name="JJ170">Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, “Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness” by Diamond Jenness and Stuart E. Jenness, Canadian Museum of Civilization, Mercury Series, (2008) p. 170</ref>

His suggestions appear to have had little influence.<ref name="JJ170"/> The government shifted attention away from domestic problems when World War II broke out, and Jenness (being too old for combat) was assigned temporary duties to assist in war efforts at home.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, “Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness” by Diamond Jenness and Stuart E. Jenness, Canadian Museum of Civilization, Mercury Series, (2008) pp. 193–201</ref> Shortly after the war, he is recorded as having said: “Unhappily nearly all our Indians today—not only the northern ones, but those in the south, too, who live on reserves, whether here in the east or on the prairies or in British Columbia—have lost their dignity, their self-reliance and self-respect.”<ref name="Canada, Parliament 1947, p. 307">Canada, Parliament, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons, vol. 1. Ottawa: King's Printer 1947, p. 307</ref>

===Joint parliamentary committee meeting (1947)===
In 1947, Jenness – officially billed as “Dominion Anthropologist” – was called before a joint parliamentary committee to share his views and answer questions.<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 291. ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref> He presented a plan to address what he referred to as the “immorally indefensible” state of Indian social and economic conditions. His plan was based upon New Zealand's management of its native affairs since the early 1860s, which, in his view, was being administered successfully at that time. “Because they are ‘free citizens,’ ” Jenness stated, “Maori are neither segregated on reserves, nor subject to state-sanctioned institutional barriers limiting their participation in national life.”<ref name="Canada, Parliament 1947, p. 307"/> He pointed out that Maoris were treated as full and equal citizens but also encouraged to maintain their distinct cultural identity, values, and traditions. They were allowed to attend public schools and hold government office. Their local communities were becoming largely self-governing - operating in accord with customary tribal authority yet with access to courts to settle land disputes.<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 293. ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref>

===Some modern viewpoints===
Some anthropologists are critical of the role played by Diamond Jenness in Canadian state policies. Stevenson, one of Jenness's modern critics who references Kulchyski's views in her book, concludes that his solution for Inuit groups was to "ensure that in a 'definite and not too remote' future there will be 'no such thing' as an Indian or an Eskimo."<ref name="Stevenson, Lisa 2014">Stevenson, Lisa. 2014. Life Beside Itself: Imagining Care in the Canadian Arctic. University of California Press.</ref> These critics say that a focus on assimilation destroys the cultural identity of the indigenous peoples.

Richling points out that fifteen years before he presented his plan, Jenness had “pessimistically predicted in ''The Indians of Canada'' that social and economic forces had already foreclosed on the cultural (and for some, even physical) survival of nearly all Canada's Aboriginal peoples.”<ref name="RBUSE"/>

At the meeting in 1947, Jenness, as before in his memo to the Deputy Minister Camden, emphasized the importance of education and vocational training to assist these already displaced peoples in becoming more self-sufficient.<ref name="CP310">Canada, Parliament, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons, vol. 1. Ottawa: King's Printer 1947, p. 310</ref> Using the example of Eskimos in Greenland and Siberia, he suggested teaching the migratory northern Indians skills for trades such as airplane pilot and mechanic, mineral prospecting, wireless operation, game and forest protection, and fur farming.<ref>Canada, Parliament, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons, vol. 1. Ottawa: King's Printer 1947, p. 311</ref>

Jenness also pointed out that Japanese children were attending schools with white children in British Columbia while half a mile away Indian children attended segregated schools.<ref name="CP310"/> In response to his comment, one of the committee members said that this was his district and he'd personally observed Japanese students in classrooms with white children. He added that the Japanese and [west coast] Indians are both members of Oriental races, a fact that had been overlooked, and to put the Indian children in separate schooling, in his opinion, was wrong.<ref>Canada, Parliament, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons, vol. 1. Ottawa: King's Printer 1947, p. 315</ref>

Another criticism of Jenness is that he “cared about the Inuit: he didn't want them to become dependent on welfare and thus demoralized, and he wanted them to be as resourceful as their ancestors. However, his way of caring ignored who they were or wanted to become."<ref name="Stevenson, Lisa 2014"/>

In the same 1947 parliamentary proceedings the critic refers to, Jenness told the committee there certainly were other approaches to be weighed [than the ones he suggested], especially those originating with the peoples whose future hung in the balance. The committee then questioned him whether he felt the Indians themselves should be asked what they think? Jenness responded “Yes.” He continued to say he felt a proposed plan should be shared with them, and their views should be considered. “I think you would get some very constructive ideas from some of the Indians,” he said.<ref>Canada, Parliament, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons, vol. 1. Ottawa: King's Printer 1947, p. 316</ref>

:::“A truth we often overlook,” Jenness wrote before the war, 
:::“[is] that the strongest forces for the regeneration or upbuilding of peoples 
:::comes from within their own ranks, not from without.”<ref name="Rich294">Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 294. ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref>

===Outcome of the 1947 meeting===
“In the end,” Richling writes, “little of a practical nature came of Jenness's proposals on policy reform in the early post-war period.”<ref name="RBUSE"/> During the next decade, the government reorganized its bureaucratic departments, replaced mission-run residential schools with state-run (but not integrated) day schools, and offered social benefits such as unemployment insurance, child allowances, and universal health care.<ref name="Rich294"/>

In 1968, in the appendix of Eskimo Administration V5: Reflections and Recommendations, Jenness included his proposed plan to help the indigenous peoples of Canada's north become more self-sufficient. He again emphasized the importance of vocational training, giving several specific suggestions such as establishing a small Seaman's School (Navigation School) to train Eskimo youth. Denmark, Jenness wrote, was helping her indigenous by training fishermen to work offshore in well-equipped vessels, and training seaman in a seaman's school at Kogtved, Denmark—a school with an international reputation—then enlisting them among crew for arctic and Antarctic navigation.<ref>Jenness, Diamond "Diamond Eskimo Administration V5: Reflections and Recommendations," Arctic Institute of America, March 1968, p. 62.</ref>

===21st-century reflections===
Richling not only provides biographical information on the professional life of Jenness in ''In Twilight and in Dawn'', he objectively reviews many opposing viewpoints of Jenness's role in applied anthropology — including his own. He shares that critics’ arguments range from his being “a well-intentioned … supporter of assimilation, … [to] an ardent imperialist idealogue”<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 337. ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref> then concludes with the following quotes in his last chapter:

:::“ 'Today, makes yesterday mean.’ ~Emily Dickinson
:::"There is an ‘undoubted truth’ in Dickinson's lovely double entendre. 
:::“It is that ‘perspectives of the present invariably colour the meanings we ascribe to the past.’ ”  
::: ~Richling (who includes quote from Wilson, Douglas.)<ref>Wilson, Douglas L. “Thomas Jefferson and the Character Issue,” The Atlantic Monthly 270, no. 5 (1992): 57:74.</ref>

==Recognition==
===Awards and honors===
Diamond Jenness received many distinguished awards and honors in recognition of his contributions to his profession. In 1953 Jenness was awarded a [[List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 1953|Guggenheim Fellowship]].<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p.348.</ref> In 1962, he was awarded the [[Massey Medal]] by the [[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]], and in 1968 he was made a [[Order of Canada|Companion of the Order of Canada]], Canada's highest honor. Between 1935 and 1968, he was awarded honorary doctorate degrees from the University of New Zealand, Waterloo University, University of Saskatchewan, Carleton University, and McGill University.<ref name="deLaguna"/> In 1973, the Canadian government designated him a [[Persons of National Historic Significance|Person of National Historic Significance]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/rech-srch/clic-click.aspx?%2Fcgi-bin%2FMsmGo.exe%3Fgrab_id=0&page_id=27493&query=diamond%20jenness&hiword=DIAMONDS%20diamond%20jenness%20 |title=Jenness, Diamond National Historic Person |access-date=2014-04-17 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304210915/http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/rech-srch/clic-click.aspx?%2Fcgi-bin%2FMsmGo.exe%3Fgrab_id=0&page_id=27493&query=diamond%20jenness&hiword=DIAMONDS%20diamond%20jenness%20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in the same year the [[Diamond Jenness Secondary School]] in [[Hay River, Northwest Territories|Hay River]] was named after him.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p.350.</ref> In 1978, the Canadian Government named the middle peninsula on the west coast of [[Victoria Island (Canada)|Victoria Island]] for him, and in 1998 Maclean's magazine listed him as one of the 100 most important Canadians in history as well as third among the ten foremost Canadian scientists.<ref>Granatstein, Jack (1998) Maclean's magazine, vol 111, no. 26 (July 1), p.39</ref> In 2004, his name was used for a rock examined by the Mars exploration rover [[Opportunity (rover)|Opportunity]].<ref>Boswell, Randy (2004) Ottawa man "astounded" to learn NASA names Mars rock after father. Ottawa Citizen, September 22, 2004, pp. A1, A11.</ref>

===Appointments===
Moreau writes that Jenness held many high posts in professional societies, demonstrating the high regard he was held in by his colleagues. For example, Jenness was vice-president and later President of the American Anthropological Association,(1937-1940), President of the Society for American Archaeology (1937),<ref>Maxwell, Moreau S (1972) [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/diamond-jenness-18861969/B6CC409D69333B198C2310C65AFBE2F0  “Diamond Jenness, 1886-1979.”] American Antiquity, v.37, Issue 1, p. 87 (Published online by Cambridge University Press.)</ref> and vice-president of Section H (Anthropology) of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1938).<ref>Collins, Henry B. and William E. Taylor, Jr. (1970) [https://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca//arctic/Arctic23-2-71.pdf “Diamond Jenness (1886-1969).”] Arctic 23(2), p.77</ref>

==Publications==
During his lifetime, Jenness authored more than 100 works on Canada's [[Inuit]] and [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] people. Chief among these are his scholarly government report, ''Life of the Copper Eskimos'' (published 1922), his ever-popular account of two years with the Copper Inuit, ''The People of the Twilight'' (published 1928), his definitive and durable ''The Indians of Canada'' (published 1932 and now in its seventh edition), and four scholarly reports on Eskimo Administration in Alaska, Canada, [[Labrador]], and [[Greenland]], plus a fifth report providing an analysis and overview of the four government systems (published between 1962 and 1968 by the [[Arctic Institute of North America]]). He also published a popular account of the one year (1913 to 1914) he spent among the [[Inupiat people|Inupiat]] of Northern Alaska, ''Dawn in Arctic Alaska'' (published 1957 and 1985).<ref name="deLaguna"/>

For a complete list of Jenness's 138 articles and publications, please refer to Appendix 2 in ''Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness'' by Diamond Jenness and Stuart E. Jenness, Canadian Museum of Civilization, Mercury Series, (2008).  Dr. de Laguna's obituary of Jenness in the American Anthropologist <ref name="deLaguna"/> lists 109 publications, and the University of Calgary's: Arctic 23-2-71  obituary of Jenness by Collins, Henry B. & Taylor, William E. Jr. lists 98.<ref name="coltay"/>

==Biographies==
Nansi Swayze published a brief popular account about Jenness's life in ''The Man Hunters'' (1960).

The Canadian Museum of Civilization published ''Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness'' (2008). The story is told primarily by Diamond himself with additional sections by his son Stuart Jenness. This biography covers Diamond's professional and personal life.

Barnett Richling has, since 1989, published several articles on various aspects of Jenness's life, and a complete, scholarly biography of Jenness's professional life:  ''In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness'' published in 2012 by [[McGill–Queen's University Press]].

==See also==
*[[Uloqsaq]]
*[[String figure]]

==Further reading==
(The first two books were published by the [[Canadian Museum of History]]):
* ''Arctic Odyssey: Diary of Diamond Jenness, 1913–1916'' Jenness's detailed diary while he was with the Canadian Arctic Expedition. It was edited by his son Stuart and published in 1991.
* ''Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness'' (2008). In this book, Stuart Jenness completed Jenness's last manuscript, creating a hybrid auto-biography and biography.
*''In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness'' (Volume 67, McGill–Queens Indigenous and Northern Studies, 2012); by Barnett Richling.
* ''Life Beside Itself: Imagining Care in the Canadian Arctic,'' by Lisa Stevenson. In this book (2014:115–121), Stevenson critiques Jenness for his advocacy for and participation in state-sponsored assimilationist policies.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/trailblazers/diamond-jenness/3457 Diamond Jenness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507151002/http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/trailblazers/diamond-jenness/3457 |date=2018-05-07 }} archived at [[Natural Resources Canada]]
*[http://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/peo622e.shtml People of the Canadian Arctic Expedition]
*[http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040803a.html 'Diamond Jenness': After the Grind] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080127141733/http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040803a.html |date=2008-01-27 }}
*[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic23-2-71.pdf Bio sketch by Henry B. Collins and William E. Taylor, Jr.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116195244/https://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca//arctic/Arctic23-2-71.pdf |date=2022-11-16 }}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Diamond Jenness}}
* [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1195 The Papers of Diamond Jenness] at Dartmouth College Library

{{American Anthropological Association presidents|state=uncollapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jenness, Diamond}}
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1969 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Anthropology writers]]
[[Category:Canadian ethnologists]]
[[Category:Canadian diarists]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of Canada]]
[[Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[Category:New Zealand anthropologists]]
[[Category:New Zealand emigrants to Canada]]
[[Category:String figures]]
[[Category:Victoria University of Wellington alumni]]
[[Category:Massey Medal recipients]]
[[Category:History of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Canadian Geographical Society]]
[[Category:20th-century Canadian anthropologists]]
[[Category:People educated at Wellington College, Wellington]]