Editing Diarchy

{{short description|Form of government with two individuals as leaders}}
{{redirect|Duumvirate|the Roman offices held by duumvirs|Duumviri}}
{{about||any temporary joint rule over a monarchy|coregency|the leftist political theory|dual power}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2017}}
[[File:Kings of the Visigoths by Alonso Cano.jpg|thumb|''Kings of the Visigoths'' ({{circa|1641}}) by [[Alonso Cano]]]]
{{Monarchism |related}}
{{Basic forms of government}}
'''Diarchy''' (from [[ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|{{linktext|δι-}}}}, ''di-'', "double",<ref>{{citation |contribution = di-, ''combined form'' |title = OED }}.</ref> and {{lang|grc|{{linktext|-αρχία}}}}, ''-arkhía'', "ruled"),<ref name="doed">{{citation |contribution=diarchy, ''n.'' |title=OED }}</ref><ref group=note>Occasionally spelled ''dyarchy'', as in the ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]'' article on the colonial British institution</ref><ref>{{citation |contribution=Dyarchy |contribution-url = https://global.britannica.com/topic/dyarchy |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica |year = 2009 }}</ref> '''duarchy''',<ref>{{cite web | url=http://merriam-webster.com/dictionary/duarchy | title=Definition of DUARCHY }}</ref> or '''duumvirate'''<ref name="duuuum">{{citation |title=OED |contribution=duumvirate, ''n.'' }}.</ref>{{NoteTag|from [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|[[wikt:duumviratus#Latin|duumvirātus]]}}'', "the office of the two men". Occasionally in the mistaken form ''duovirate''.}} is a form of government characterized by '''co-rule''', with two people ruling a polity together either [[de jure|lawfully]] or ''[[de facto]]'', by collusion and force. The leaders of such a system are usually known as '''corulers'''.<ref>{{citation |contribution = co-ruler, ''n.'' |title = OED }}.</ref>

Historically, ''diarchy'' particularly referred to the system of shared rule in [[British India]]<ref name="doed" /> established by the Government of India Acts [[Government of India Act 1919|1919]] and [[Government of India Act 1935|1935]], which [[Devolution|devolved]] some powers to local councils, which had included native Indian representation under the [[Indian Councils Act 1892]]. 'Duumvirate' principally referred to the offices of the various [[duumviri]] established by the [[Roman Republic]].<ref name="duuuum" /> Both, along with less common synonyms such as '''biarchy'''<ref>{{citation |contribution=biarchy, ''n.'' |title=OED }}.</ref> and '''tandemocracy''',{{sfnp|Hale & al.|2009}}{{NoteTag|The [[pun]] 'tandemocracy' particularly refers to the Putin–Medvedev diarchy, as it is a [[calque]] of [[Russian language|Russian]] ''tandemokratiya'' ({{lang|ru|тандемократия}}).}} are now used more generally to refer to any system of joint rule or office. A [[monarchy]] temporarily controlled by two or more people is, however, usually distinguished as a [[coregency]].

Corule is one of the oldest forms of government. Historical examples include the [[Pandyan dynasty]] of [[Tamilakam]], [[Sparta]]'s [[Kings of Sparta|joint kingship]], the [[Roman Republic]]'s [[Roman consul|consuls]], [[ancient Carthage|Carthage]]'s [[shophet#Punic|Judges]], and several ancient [[Polynesians|Polynesian]] societies. Systems of inheritance that often led to corule in [[Germanic kingship|Germanic]] and [[Dacians|Dacian]] monarchies may be included as well, as may the dual occupants of the imperial title of the [[Inca Empire]], or its system of succession.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rostworowski de Diez Canseco |first=María |title=Le Grand Inca Pachacútec Inca Yupanqui |publisher=Tallandier |year=2008 |isbn=978-2-84734-462-2}}</ref>

Modern examples of diarchies are [[Andorra]], whose princes are the [[President of France]] and the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell|Bishop of Urgell]] in [[Catalonia]]; [[Nicaragua]], which has been led by two [[President of Nicaragua|co-presidents]] since a constitutional amendment in 2025; and [[San Marino]], which is led by two [[Captains Regent]].

==Formal use==
=== Current diarchies ===
==== Andorra ====
{{main|Government of Andorra|List of Co-Princes of Andorra}}

[[Andorra]] is a parliamentary co-[[principality]]. Its princes are (''[[ex officio]]'') the [[France|French]] [[president of France|president]] and the [[bishop of Urgell]] in [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. Since 1962, the French president has been [[French presidential election|elected]] by [[universal suffrage]] within [[France]]. The bishop of the diocese of Urgell is appointed by the [[Roman Catholic]] [[pope]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andorramania.com/constit_gb.htm|title=The constitution of the Principality of Andorra|website=www.andorramania.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalcentral.co.uk/features/why-is-the-president-of-france-co-prince-of-andorra-130690/ |title=Why is the President of France Co-Prince of Andorra? |date=7 October 2019 |publisher=Royal Central |access-date=9 November 2019 |quote=The President of France, Emmanuel Macron, serves as Co-Prince of Andorra in addition to his duties as French President and is one of the few examples of a democratically elected leader serving in a royal capacity in another country. Since 2003, the other Co-Prince is the Catholic Bishop of Urgell from Spain, Joan-Enric Vives i Sicília.}}</ref>

==== Eswatini ====
{{main|Ngwenyama|Ndlovukati}}

The monarchy of [[Eswatini]] is traditionally headed by a male and a female monarch, the [[Ngwenyama|iNgwenyama]] (King, {{lit|lion}}) and the [[Ndlovukati]] ({{lit|she-elephant}}, usually the mother of the reigning iNgwenyama) respectively. In practice, the iNgwenyama effectively holds power as the executive and administrative head of state; the Ndlovukati's role is spiritual and more symbolic but may act as [[queen regent]] in the absence of a king.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thom |first=Liezl |date=28 April 2021 |title=Princess Sikhanyiso Dlamini of Eswatini is looking to the future while embracing her roots |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/princess-sikhanyiso-dlamini-eswatini-future-embracing-roots/story?id=77224505 |access-date=22 February 2022 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The functions of both the iNgwenyama and Ndlovukati are established in the [[Constitution of Eswatini|constitution]] in accordance with tradition.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Eswatini 2005 Constitution |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Swaziland_2005 |access-date=14 April 2025 |website=Constitute Project |language=en}}</ref>

====Nicaragua====
{{further|Co-presidents of Nicaragua}}
[[File:Daniel Ortega y Rosario Murillo Septiembre 2024.jpg|right|thumb|Daniel Ortega and Rosario Murillo in September 2024]]
In 2025, during the presidency of [[Daniel Ortega]], the [[National Assembly (Nicaragua)|National Assembly]] approved multiple amendments to the [[Constitution of Nicaragua]]  that included proclaiming Ortega and his wife, Vice President [[Rosario Murillo]], as co-presidents.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nicaragua amends constitution, grants 'absolute power' to president and his wife |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250131-nicaragua-legislature-cements-absolute-power-of-president-wife |publisher=France 24 |access-date=31 January 2025 |date=31 January 2025}}</ref>

====Northern Ireland====
Under the terms of the 1998 [[Good Friday Agreement]] intended to end [[The Troubles|conflict]] in [[Northern Ireland]], the [[First Minister of Northern Ireland|First Minister]] and [[deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland|deputy First Minister]] serve as joint heads of the area's [[Northern Ireland Executive|executive]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/47/section/16/enacted|title=Northern Ireland Act 1998}}</ref> Both positions exercise identical executive powers; however they are not [[Head of state|heads of state]].

==== San Marino ====
{{main|Government of San Marino|List of Captains Regent of San Marino}}

The [[captains regent]] ({{langx|it|Capitani Reggenti}}) of [[San Marino]] are elected every six months by the Sammarinese parliament, the [[Grand and General Council]]. They serve as joint heads of state, and are normally chosen from opposing parties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sanmarino.sm/on-line/en/home/institutions/captains-regent.html|title=Captains Regent — Repubblica di San Marino, portale ufficiale|access-date=31 January 2016}}</ref>

===Historical diarchies===
====Sparta====
{{main|List of Spartan kings}}

{{see also|Sparta#Constitution}}

The office of king in [[ancient Sparta]] was divided between two kings from separate dynasties, each holding a [[veto]] over the other's actions. However, the Spartan kings' powers and duties consisted mainly of leading the [[Spartan army]] on campaign (during which only one king would usually lead a given force) and certain religious functions, as well as having ex-officio seats in the [[Gerousia]] (Senate).  Actual day-to-day public administration in Sparta was managed by the [[ephor]]s.

====Roman Republic====
{{main|List of Roman consuls|Duumviri}}

Following the [[overthrow of the Roman monarchy]], the Romans established an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[Roman Republic]] which divided [[imperium|supreme executive power]] ({{langx|la|imperium}}) between two [[Roman consul|consuls]], both elected each year and each holding a [[veto]] over the other's actions.

The historical [[duumviri]] were not rulers but magistrates, performing various judicial, religious, or public functions.

====Kartli====
According to the ''[[Conversion of Kartli (chronicle)|Conversion of Kartli]]'', [[Leonti Mroveli]], [[Vakhushti Bagrationi]], [[Teimuraz Bagrationi]] and [[Pavle Ingorokva]], there existed a dual power in [[Kartli]] at the time of the kings mentioned below:
#<li value="11"> Bartom II and Kʽartʽam<ref name="fn1">Toumanoff, Cyrill (1969) „Chronology of the Early Kings of Iberia“ Traditio, Vol. 25, p. 33.</ref>
# Pʽarsman I and Kaos<ref name="fn1" />
# Azork and Armazel<ref name="fn1" />
# Amazasp I and Derok<ref name="fn1" />
# Pʽarsman II and Mirdat I<ref name="fn1" />
According to [[Cyril Toumanoff]], the diarchs of [[Kartli]] in 370-378 were [[Sauromaces II]] and [[Mihrdat III]].

====Hungary====
The [[Hungarians]] originally possessed a system of dual kingship, with religious authority vested in the [[kende]] and military authority vested in the [[gyula (title)|war-chief]] (''{{lang|hu|gyula}}''). It is believed that when the kende [[Kurszán]] was killed {{c.|904}} a little after the arrival of the Hungarians in [[Pannonia]], his role was usurped by the war-chief [[Árpád]], establishing the Hungarian monarchy. It is not known with certainty whether Árpád was originally the kende or the gyula.

====Afghanistan====
{{main|Ghurid dynasty}}

The [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid Empire]] was an established diarchy between [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] and [[Muhammad of Ghor]]. The diarchy lasted from 1173 to 1203 until the death of Ghiyath al-Din, leaving his ruler, Muhammad sole ruler of the Ghurid empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC |title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11Th-13th Centuries |date=1990 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10236-1 |language=en|pages=139–140}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=2019-07-25 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |language=en|pages=39–45}}</ref>

====Japan====
During [[Japan]]'s [[Shōgun|shogunate]], the [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]] was notionally a supreme spiritual and temporal lord who delegated authority for joint rule to the ''[[shōgun]]''. In practice, the ''shōguns''{{'}} power was so complete that they are usually considered ''[[de facto]]'' monarchs rather than [[viceroy]]s or corulers.

====Medieval Europe====
{{main|Paréage}}

A [[paréage]] was a [[feudalism|feudal]] treaty recognizing the "[[pari passu|equal footing]]" ({{langx|la|pari passu}}) of two sovereigns over a territory. The most famous such arrangement was the [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|1278 treaty]] that established modern [[Andorra]]. Others include [[Maastricht]], which was shared by the [[Duke of Brabant]] and the [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Prince-Bishop of Liège]]. After the establishment of the [[Dutch Republic]], it became a [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] of Liège and the United Provinces, which administered it through the [[States General of the Netherlands]] until 1794.

====Tibet====
{{main|Tibetan dual system of government|List of Dalai Lamas}}

Between 1642 and 1751, political power in [[Tibet]] was shared between the [[5th Dalai Lama|5th]], [[6th Dalai Lama|6th]], and [[7th Dalai Lama]]s who headed the realm's Buddhist [[state religion]] and various secular rulers known as desis. The growing power of the desis caused the 7th Dalai Lama to abolish the post and replace it with a council known as the [[Kashag]], permitting him to consolidate his authority over the realm. A similar system arose in [[Bhutan]], with the [[House of Wangchuck|Wangchuck]] [[penlop|governor]] (''penlop'') of [[Trongsa]] becoming the [[Druk Desi]] and [[Druk Gyalpo]] in 1907. In contrast to Tibet, the dynasty eventually consolidated its power and now rules as the kings of Bhutan.

====Russia====
{{main|February Revolution|October Revolution|Dual Power in Russia}}

From 1619-1633, Tsar [[Michael of Russia]] ruled along with his father, [[Patriarch Filaret of Moscow]]. Both were addressed as Velikiy Gosudar (Great Sovereign), held court together, and when they did not the ceremony was the same. While both were equal in theory, in practice Patriarch Filaret ruled, with Michael supporting whatever his father ordered.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205172|title=The Régime of Filaret 1619-1633|author=J. L. H. Keep|journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |year=1960 |volume=38 |issue=91 |pages=334–360 |jstor=4205172 }}</ref>

Between the [[February Revolution]] in March 1917 and the [[October Revolution]] in November, political power in Russia was divided between the [[Russian Provisional Government]] and the [[Petrograd Soviet]], a condition described by [[Vladimir Lenin]] as "Dual Power". He elaborated the situation into a [[dual power (Communism)|dual-power doctrine]], whereby [[Communist]]s collaborated with and then supplanted existing bourgeois forms of government.

==== England, Scotland and Ireland ====
Although the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]] were monarchies, they became ''[[de facto]]'' diarchies in [[personal union]] during the co-rule of [[William II and III]] and [[Mary II]]. After the [[Glorious Revolution]] deposed [[James VII and II]], his kingships were succeeded in [[1689]] by his daughter Mary and his son-in-law and nephew William, who jointly ruled England, Scotland and Ireland until Mary died in 1694, succeeded by William as the sole monarch.

==== Canada ====
{{main|Government of the Province of Canada|List of joint premiers of the Province of Canada}}

The [[British colonial empire|colonial]] [[Province of Canada]] was usually governed by two [[joint premiers of the province of Canada|joint premiers]] from 1841 to 1867. Usually, one was chosen from the English-speaking [[Canada West]] and the other one from the French-speaking [[Canada East]].

====India====
Named as the [[Secretary of State for India|India Secretary]] for the [[Lloyd George ministry]], [[Edwin Samuel Montagu]] made the "[[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms|Grand Declaration]]" on 20 August 1917 that British policy would henceforth be "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions". Montagu and [[Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford|Viscount Chelmsford]], the [[Governor-General of India]], then made an extensive tour of the subcontinent in 1917 and 1918. The [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms|Montague–Chelmsford Report]]'s recommendations formed the basis for the [[Government of India Act 1919]] that established "diarchy" in [[British India]].

Under that act, the executive was to be headed by a governor appointed by the Secretary of State, who could consult the Governor General. The governor was responsible to the Secretary of State for acts of omission and commission. He was to maintain law and order in the province and ensure that the provincial administration worked smoothly. In respect of transferred subjects, he was to be assisted by his ministers whereas reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor General and his executive council.

The members of the Executive Council were to be appointed by the Secretary of State and were responsible to him in all matters. There were certain matters that he was to administer at his own discretion, in which he was responsible to the Secretary of State. Each councillor was to remain in office for a period of four years. Their salaries and service conditions were not subject to the vote of provincial legislature. All decisions in the council were to be taken by a majority of votes, the Governor being able to break ties.

====Samoa====
{{main|Politics of Samoa}}

At the establishment of the modern state of [[Samoa]] in 1962, the office of [[O le Ao o le Malo]] (head of state) was shared between the two chiefs [[Malietoa Tanumafili II]] and [[Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole]]. Meaʻole died the next year, after which the country functioned as a monarchy until the death of Tanumafili and a republic thereafter.

==== Bolivia ====
{{main|History of Bolivia (1964–1982)}}

Following a [[1964 Bolivian coup d'état|coup d'état in 1964]], former [[Vice President of Bolivia|Vice President]] [[René Barrientos]] rose to power as president of the military junta. The following year, faced with discontent from loyalists of General [[Alfredo Ovando Candía]], Barrientos promulgated the co-presidency between himself and Ovando Candía. The pair ruled as dual presidents until 1966 when Barrientos resigned in order to run in that year's [[1966 Bolivian general election|general election]].

==== Israel ====
After the [[2019–2021 Israeli political crisis]], Israel's [[Basic Law: The Government]] underwent a major change.  A system of two prime ministers, appointed at the same time by the [[Knesset]], was established. According to the new method, there was an [[Alternate Prime Minister of Israel]] in addition to the standard [[Prime Minister of Israel]]. After a half of the government's term, the two prime ministers would change positions as part of a [[rotation government]]. During the term, the government's roles and duties were divided between the two prime ministers, each one of them entitled to remove ministers without the other's interference.

However, this system did not survive even until the first planned rotation and was abolished again after the formation of the [[thirty-seventh government of Israel]] at the end of 2022.

==Informal use==

===Bureaucracy===
Shared power arrangements within a modern bureaucracy may also be known as a "diarchy" or "duumvirate". Examples include the joint authority of the [[Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)|Chief of the Defence Force]] and the Secretary of the Department of Defence over the [[Australian Defence Organisation]].

===Influential outsiders===
{{main|Éminence grise}}

The status of monarchs is sometimes impugned by accusations of corule when an advisor, family member, lover, or friend appears to have taken too great a hand in government. [[Lü Buwei]] in Chinese history and [[François Leclerc du Tremblay]] in France are famous examples of "[[éminence grise|éminences grises]]" who controlled much of their countries' policies. In British history, [[George VI]]'s reign was mocked as a "split-level [[matriarchy]] in pants" owing to the supposed influence of his mother, [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]] and his wife [[Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother|Queen Elizabeth]].<ref>{{citation |contribution=A Revolution in the Nursery |contribution-url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1389360/A-revolution-in-the-nursery.html |title=The Telegraph |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20001219165200/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ |url-status = dead |archive-date = December 19, 2000 }}.</ref>

===Informally shared power===
Owing to [[Confucianism|Confucian]] notions of [[filial piety]], Chinese and Japanese emperors were sometimes able to 'retire' but continue to exert great influence over state policy. In [[Indonesia]], [[Sukarno]] and his vice president [[Mohammad Hatta]] were nicknamed the Duumvirate (''{{lang|id|Dwitunggal}}''), with Sukarno setting government policy and rallying support and Hatta managing day-to-day administration. More recently, the great influence of [[Vladimir Putin]] over his successor [[Dmitry Medvedev]] was considered a duumvirate,{{sfnp|Martin|2009}} or tandemocracy (see also [[Medvedev–Putin tandemocracy]]),{{sfnp|Hale & al.|2009}} until Putin's resumption of the office of president established him as the greater figure.<ref>{{citation |contribution-url = http://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/daniil-kotsyubinsky/russian-politics-is-kudrin-cure-for-putin%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%98tandem-malaise%E2%80%99 |contribution=Russian Politics: Is Kudrin the Cure for Putin’s ‘Tandem Malaise’? |title=Open Democracy |access-date=6 May 2012}}.</ref>

Within electoral politics, governments, coalitions and parties may sometimes have two fairly equal leaders, as with:

* The temporary [[First Whitlam Ministry]] of 5–19 December 1972, composed of [[Gough Whitlam]] and [[Lance Barnard]], which was nicknamed the "duumvirate".
* Marama Davidson and James Shaw as joint leaders of the [[Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand]].

===Religious leaders===
In addition to actual sharing of political power between religious and military leaders, as occurred in Tibet and Bhutan, the great [[soft power]] of a religious leader such as the [[Pope]] of the [[Catholic Church]] over a devout country can sometimes be described as a form of diarchy or corule.

== In fiction ==
* In ''[[The Gondoliers]]'' by [[Gilbert and Sullivan]], the fictional land of Barataria is ruled jointly for a while by two kings, who happen to be the gondoliers themselves.
* [[Umbar]], in the works of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], was ruled by a duumvirate. In its earliest years, [[Gondor]] was also ruled jointly by two kings, the two sons of Elendil. He himself was king of its sister realm [[Arnor (Middle-earth)|Arnor]], and served as [[high king]] over both realms.
*  The Omaticaya, the [[Pandoran biosphere#Naʼvi|Na'vi]] clan at the center of the film ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'', are traditionally led by a pair of married [[tribal chief]]s. One of them, the husband, oversees political and military matters while the other one, the wife, is in charge of spiritual and otherwise ceremonial affairs.
*  The orbital colony New New York, in the ''Worlds'' trilogy by [[Joe Haldeman]], is jointly governed by an elected Policy Coordinator and Engineering Coordinator.
* The Federated Commonwealths of America, in ''[[A Different Flesh]]'' by [[Harry Turtledove]], is modelled heavily on the [[Roman Republic]], governed by two chief executives styled as [[Roman censor|Censor]]s (although the offices are more akin to the position of [[Roman consul|Consul]]). With each one being able to veto the actions of the other, the election of two politically-opposed Censors was intended as a check on executive power. Censors serve a single non-renewable five-year term and (alongside commonwealth governors) become life-long-serving members of the Senate upon leaving office.
* In ''[[Avenue 5]]'', it is suggested that the Office of [[President of the United States]] became a duumvirate comprising a human and an artificial intelligence (reminiscent of a [[virtual assistant]]).
* In ''[[My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic]]'', the nation of Equestria where most of the series takes place is shown to be a diarchy. While the older Princess Celestia is depicted as ruling on her own in the first season of the series, she is later joined by her younger sister Princess Luna as a co-ruler.
* By the end of ''[[Legend of Korra]]'', the Northern Water Tribe becomes a diarchy, ruled by the twins Desna and Eska, cousins to the title character.
* The city of Uthodurn, featured in ''[[Critical Role]]'', is lorded over by a [[dual monarchy]] made up of a dwarven queen and an elven king, referred to as the Diarchy of Uthodurn.

== See also ==
* [[Directorial system]]
* [[Monarchy]], rule by a single person
* [[Coregency]], temporary rule over a monarchy by two or more people
* [[Triumvirate]], joint rule by three people
* [[Tetrarchy]], joint rule by four people
* [[Decemviri]], joint rule by ten people
* [[Condominium (international law)]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{wiktionary|diarchy}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |title=Oxford English Dictionary |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year = 2017 }}.
* {{citation |url = http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1243871475 |title=Beyond Weimar-Russia: The Putin-Medvedev Duumvirate as Imperial Revanchist |first=Brian Joseph |last=Martin |type=MA thesis |publisher=The Ohio State University |year=2009 }}.
* {{citation |last=Hale |first=Henry E. |author2=Timothy J. Colton |display-authors=1 |ref = {{harvid|Hale & al.|2009}} |date=8 September 2009 |contribution=Russians and the Putin-Medvedev "Tandemocracy": A Survey-Based Portrait of the 2007-08 Election Season |title=The National Council for Eurasian and East European Research |publisher=University of Washington |location=Seattle |contribution-url = http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/nceeer/2009_823-03_2_Hale.pdf }}.
{{refend}}

[[Category:Collective heads of state]]
[[Category:Diarchies| ]]
[[Category:Greek words and phrases]]