Editing Discrete trial training

{{Short description|Applied behavior analysis teaching technique}}
{{Distinguish|text = the broader discipline of [[applied behavior analysis]], in which discrete trial training is one technique}}
{{Promotional|date=September 2023}}
'''Discrete trial training''' ('''DTT''') is a technique used by practitioners of [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA) that was developed by [[Ole Ivar Lovaas|Ivar Lovaas]] at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (UCLA). DTT uses mass instruction and [[reinforcement (psychology)|reinforcers]] that create clear [[Three-term contingency|contingencies]] to [[shaping (psychology)|shape]] new skills. Often employed as an '''early intensive behavioral intervention''' ('''EIBI''') for up to 25–40 hours per week for [[autistic]] children, the technique relies on the use of [[Applied behavior analysis#Prompting|prompts]], [[observational learning|modeling]], and [[positive reinforcement]] strategies to facilitate the child's learning. It previously used [[aversives]] to [[Punishment (psychology)|punish]] unwanted behaviors. DTT has also been referred to as the "Lovaas/UCLA model",<ref name=Spreat/> "rapid motor imitation antecedent",<ref name=Tsiouri>{{cite journal|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21918912/|vauthors=Tsuroi I, Simmons ES, Paul R|title=Enhancing the application and evaluation of a discrete trial intervention package for eliciting first words in preverbal preschoolers with ASD|journal= Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|date=2012|volume=42|issue=7|pages=1281–1293|doi=10.1007/s10803-011-1358-y|pmid=21918912|s2cid=7164416}}</ref> "listener responding",<ref name=science_direct>{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1750946713000822|vauthors=Causin KG, Albert KM, Carbone VJ, Sweeney-Kerwin EJ|title=The role of join control in teaching listener responding to children with autism and other developmental disabilities|journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders|volume=7|issue=9|pages=997–1011|date=September 2013|doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2013.04.011|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=behavior_analysis_practice>{{cite journal|vauthors=Grow L, LeBlanc L|title=Teaching receptive language|journal=Behavior Analysis in Practice|volume=6|issue=1|pages=56–75|pmc=3680153|pmid=25729507|date=2013|doi=10.1007/BF03391791}}</ref><ref name=behavior_analysis_practice_2>{{cite journal|vauthors=Geiger KB, Carr JE, LeBlanc LA, Hanney NM, Polick AS, Heinicke MR|title=Teaching receptive discriminations to children with autism: A comparison of traditional and embedded discrete trial teaching|journal=Behavior Analysis in Practice|volume=5|issue=2|pages=49–59|pmc=3592489|pmid=23730466|doi=10.1007/BF03391823|date=2012}}</ref> "[[errorless learning]]", and "mass trials".<ref name=Rogers/>

==Technique==
Discrete trial training (DTT) is a process whereby an activity is divided into smaller distinct sub-tasks and each of these is repeated continuously until a person is proficient. The trainer rewards successful completion and uses errorless correction procedures if there is unsuccessful completion by the subject to condition them into mastering the process. When proficiency is gained in each sub-task, they are re-combined into the whole activity: in this way proficiency at complex activities can be taught.<ref name=Waltz>{{cite book |vauthors=Waltz M |title=Autism: A Social and Medical History |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-349-35819-9}}</ref>{{rp|93}}

DTT is carried out in a one-on-one therapist to student ratio at the table. Intervention can start when a child is as young as two years old and can last from two to six years. Progression through goals of the program are determined individually and are not determined by which year the client has been in the program. The first year seeks to reduce self-stimulating/self-regulatory ("[[stimming]]") behavior, teach listener responding, eye contact, and rapid fine and gross motor imitation, as well as to establish playing with toys in their correct manner, and integrate the family into the treatment protocol. The second year teaches early expressive language and abstract linguistic skills. The third year strives to include the individual's community in the treatment to optimize "mainstreaming" by focusing on peer interaction, basic socializing skills, basic social rules, emotional expression and variation, in addition to observational learning and pre-academic skills, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Rarely is the technique implemented for the first time with adults.<ref name=LOI>{{update after|2020|9|3|reason=1987 study, this should be updated to a newer source, do we know this is still true?}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Lovaas OI |title=Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children |journal=J Consult Clin Psychol |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=3–9 |date=February 1987 |pmid=3571656 |doi=10.1037/0022-006x.55.1.3 }}</ref>{{primary source inline|This is a 2007 primary source, should be replaced with a secondary source or review|date=September 2020}}

DTT is typically performed five to seven days a week with each session lasting from five to eight hours, totaling an average of 30–40 hours per week.<ref>{{update after|2020|9|3|reason=1998 study, this should be updated to a newer source}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacobson JW, Mulick JA, Green G | year = 1998 | title = Cost-benefit estimates for early intensive behavioral intervention for young children with autism: General model and single state case | journal = Behavioral Interventions | volume = 13 | issue = 4| pages = 201–226 | doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-078x(199811)13:4<201::aid-bin17>3.0.co;2-r| citeseerx = 10.1.1.522.9130 }}</ref> Sessions are divided into trials with intermittent breaks, and the therapist is positioned directly across the table from the student receiving treatment. Each trial is composed of the therapist giving an instruction (i.e., "Look at me", "Do this", "Point to", etc.), in reference to an object, color, simple imitative [[gesture]], etc., which is followed by a prompt ([[Words|verbal]], [[gesture|gestural]], physical, etc.). The concept is centered on [[shaping (psychology)|shaping]] the child to respond correctly to the instructions throughout the trials. Should the child fail to respond to an instruction, the therapist uses either a "partial prompt" (a simple nudge or touch on the hand or arm) or a "full prompt"{{clarify|date=June 2024}} to facilitate the child to successfully complete the task. Correct responses are [[reinforcement|reinforced]] with a reward, and the prompts are discontinued as the child begins to master each skill.<ref name=LOI/><ref name=Lovaas1993>{{cite journal |vauthors=McEachin JJ, Smith T, Lovaas OI |title=Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment |journal=Am J Ment Retard |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=359–72; discussion 373–91 |date=January 1993 |pmid=8427693 }}</ref>{{primary source inline|This is a 2007 primary source, should be replaced with a secondary source or review|date=September 2020}}

The intervention is often used in conjunction with the [[Picture Exchange Communication System]] (PECS) as it primes the child for an easy transition between treatment types. The PECS program serves as another common intervention technique used to conform autistic individuals.{{primary source inline|This is a 2007 primary source, should be replaced with a secondary source or review|date=September 2020}}<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Howlin P, Gordon RK, Pasco G, Wade A, Charman T |title=The effectiveness of picture exchange communication system training for those who teach children with autism: a pragmatic, group randomised controlled trial |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=473–81 |date=May 2007 |pmid= 17501728 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01707.x }}</ref> As many as 25% of autistic individuals have no functional speech.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Volkmar FR, Lord C, Bailey A, Schultz RT, Klin A |title=Autism and pervasive developmental disorders |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=135–70 |date=January 2004 |pmid=14959806 |doi=10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00317.x }}</ref> The program teaches spontaneous social communication through symbols or pictures by relying on ABA techniques.{{page needed|date=September 2020}}<ref name=FLA>{{cite book | vauthors = Frost LA, Bondy AS |year= 2002 |title= The picture exchange communication system training manual |edition= Second |location= Newark, DE |publisher= Pyramid Educational Products Inc }}</ref>  PECS operates on a similar premise to DTT in that it uses systematic [[chaining]] to teach the individual to pair the concept of expressive speech with an object.  It is structured in a similar fashion to DTT, in that each session begins with a preferred reinforcer survey to ascertain what would most motivate the child and effectively facilitate learning.<ref name=FLA/>

==Effectiveness==
Limited research shows DTT to be effective in enhancing [[spoken language]],<ref name=AutismResearch2023Study>{{cite journal|author=Kasari C, Shire S, Shih W, Landa R, Levato L, Smith T|title=Spoken language outcomes in limited language preschoolers with autism and global developmental delay: RCT of early intervention approaches|journal=Autism Research|date=June 2023|volume=16|issue=6|pages=1236–1246|doi=10.1002/aur.2932|pmc=10460274|pmid=37070270}}</ref><ref name=Cochrane2>{{cite journal|author=Brignell A, Chenausky KV, Song H, Zhu J, Suo C, Morgan AT|title=Communication interventions for autism spectrum disorder in minimally verbal children|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=November 2018|volume=2018|issue=11|pages=CD01234PMC|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD012324.pub2|pmc=6516977|pmid=30395694}}</ref><ref name=Yale_Child_Study_Center_2013_Study>{{cite journal|author=Paul R, Campbell D, Gilbert K, Tsiouri I|title=Comparing spoken language treatments for minimally verbal preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders|journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|date=February 2013|volume=43|issue=11|pages=418–431|pmid=22733301|doi=10.1007/s10803-012-1583-z|s2cid=263518387 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22733301/}}</ref> academic and adaptive skills,<ref name=Rogers>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Vismara LA | title = Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism | journal = Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–38 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18444052 | pmc = 2943764 | doi = 10.1080/15374410701817808 }}</ref><ref name=":06">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith T, Iadarola S |date=2 November 2015 |title=Evidence Base Update for Autism Spectrum Disorder |journal=Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |issn=1537-4416 |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=897–922 |doi=10.1080/15374416.2015.1077448 |pmid=26430947 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Pediatrics>{{cite journal | vauthors = Myers SM, Johnson CP | title = Management of children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 1162–1182 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 17967921 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 | url = https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/120/5/1162 | doi-access =  | s2cid = 1656920 | url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref name=Eikeseth2>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eikeseth S | title = Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 158–178 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18385012 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.615.3336}}</ref> as many studies are of low quality research design and there needs to be more larger sample sizes.<ref name=PLOS>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ospina MB, Krebs Seida J, Clark B, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Smith V |title=Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a clinical systematic review |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e3755 |date=2008 |pmid=19015734 |pmc=2582449 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003755|bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.3755O |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Reichow2018>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reichow B, Hume K, Barton EE, Boyd BA | title = Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 5 | pages = CD009260 | date = May 2018 | issue = 10 | pmid = 29742275 | pmc = 6494600 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub3 }}</ref>

== Society and culture==
=== In media ===

A 1965 article in ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine entitled ''Screams, Slaps and Love'' has a lasting impact on public attitudes towards Lovaas's therapy. Giving little thought to how their work might be portrayed, Lovaas and parent advocate Bernie Rimland, M.D., were surprised when the magazine article appeared, since it focussed on text and selected images showing the use of aversives, including a close up of a child being slapped. Even after the use of aversives had been largely discontinued, the article continued to have an effect, galvanizing public concerns about behavior modification techniques.<ref name=Silverman/><ref name=Pediatrics2/>

===United States cost ===
In April 2002 treatment cost in the U.S. was about US$4,200 per month ($50,000 annually) per child.{{update after|2020|9|14}}<ref name=examining>{{cite journal | last = Elder | first = Jennifer Harrison | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2002 | journal = Journal of Neuroscience Nursing | url = http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-1827603/Current-treatments-in-autism-examining.html | title = Current treatments in autisms: Examining scientific evidence and clinical implications | volume = 34 | issue =  2 | pages = 67–73 | access-date = 2007-07-23 | doi = 10.1097/01376517-200204000-00005| s2cid = 145106552 | url-access = subscription }}</ref>  The 20–40 hours per week intensity of the program, often conducted at home, may place additional stress on already challenged families.<ref name=baojournal.com>{{cite journal |author1=Lovaas O.I. |author2=Wright Scott | year = 2006 | title = A reply to recent public critiques…  | journal = JEIBI | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 221–229 }}</ref>

==History==
Discrete trial training is rooted in the hypothesis of [[Charles Ferster]] who theorized that autism was caused in part by a person's inability to react appropriately to "social reinforcers", such as praise or criticism. Lovaas's early work concentrated on showing that it was possible to strengthen autistic people's responses to these social reinforcers, but he found these improvements were not associated with any general improvement in overall behavior.<ref name=Spreat>{{cite book |chapter=Chapter 10: Behavioral treatments for children with ASDs |vauthors=Spreat S |title=The Autism Spectrum: Scientific Foundations and Treatment |veditors=Reber M |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511978616.011 |pages=239–257 |isbn=9780511978616}} {{subscription required}}</ref>

In a 1987 paper, psychologists Frank Gresham and Donald MacMillan described a number of weaknesses in Lovass's research and judged that it would be better to call the evidence for his interventions "promising" rather than "compelling".<ref name=GRE>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gresham FM, MacMillan DL |title=Early Intervention Project: can its claims be substantiated and its effects replicated? |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=5–13 |year=1998 |pmid=9546297 |doi=10.1023/a:1026002717402 |s2cid=7219819 |type=Review}}</ref>

Lovaas's original technique used [[aversives]] such as striking, shouting, and electrical shocks to punish undesired behaviors.<ref name=Pediatrics2>{{cite journal|url=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/133/3/364|vauthors=Bowman RA, Baker JP|title=Screams, slaps, and love: The strange birth of applied behavior analysis|journal=Pediatrics|volume=133|issue=3|pages=364–66|date=March 2014|doi=10.1542/peds.2013-2583|pmid=24534411|s2cid=28137037|url-access=subscription}}</ref> By 1979, Lovaas had abandoned the use of aversives, and in 2012 the use of electric shocks was described as being inconsistent with contemporary practice.<ref name=Spreat/><ref name=Silverman>{{cite book |vauthors=Silverman C |publisher=Princeton University Press |title=Understanding Autism: Parents, Doctors, and the History of a Disorder |year=2011 |page=90 |isbn=978-0-691-15968-3}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Professional practice of behavior analysis]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.lovaas.com/ Lovaas Institute for Early Intervention]
*[https://riseupforautism.com/ Autism Therapy Center]

{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{Autism resources}}

[[Category:Treatment of autism]]
[[Category:Behaviorism]]
[[Category:Behavior modification]]