Editing Earl Warren

{{Short description|American attorney and politician (1891–1974)}}
{{About||the saxophonist and singer|Earle Warren|the Wisconsin politician|Earl W. Warren}}
{{Redirect|Justice Warren}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Earl Warren
| image               = Earl Warren Chief Justice (cropped).jpg
| caption             = Warren as chief justice
| office              = 14th [[Chief Justice of the United States]]
| nominator           = [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| term_start          = October 5, 1953<!-- Term start reflects recess appointment date, not oath date -->
| term_end            = June 23, 1969
| predecessor         = [[Fred M. Vinson]]
| successor           = [[Warren E. Burger]]
| order1              = 30th
| office1             = Governor of California
| lieutenant1         = [[Frederick F. Houser]]<br />Goodwin Knight
| term_start1         = January 4, 1943
| term_end1           = October 5, 1953
| predecessor1        = [[Culbert Olson]]
| successor1          = [[Goodwin Knight]]
| office2             = 20th [[California Attorney General|Attorney General of California]]
| governor2           = Culbert Olson
| term_start2         = January 3, 1939
| term_end2           = January 4, 1943
| predecessor2        = [[Ulysses S. Webb]]
| successor2          = [[Robert W. Kenny]]
| office3             = Chair of the [[California Republican Party]]
| term_start3         = 1932
| term_end3           = 1938
| predecessor3        = [[Louis B. Mayer]]
| successor3          = Justus Craemer
| office4             = 23rd [[Alameda County District Attorney's Office|District Attorney of Alameda County]]
| term_start4         = 1925
| term_end4           = 1939
| predecessor4        = Ezra Decoto
| successor4          = Ralph Hoyt
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1891|3|19}}
| birth_place         = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], U.S.
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1974|7|9|1891|3|19}}
| death_place         = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
| party               = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| spouse              = {{marriage|Nina Meyers|October 4, 1925}}
| children            = 6
| education           = [[University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]])
| signature           = Earl Warren Signature.svg
| allegiance          = United States
| branch              = [[United States Army]]
| serviceyears        = 1917–1918 (active)<br>1918–1934 (reserve)
| rank                = [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]]
| unit                = [[91st Division (United States)|91st Division]]
| resting_place       = [[Arlington National Cemetery]]
| battles             = [[World War I]]
}}
'''Earl Warren''' (March 19, 1891 – July 9, 1974) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 30th [[governor of California]] from 1943 to 1953 and as the 14th [[Chief Justice of the United States]] from 1953 to 1969. The [[Warren Court]] presided over a major shift in American [[Constitution of the United States|constitutional jurisprudence]], which has been recognized by many as a "[[Constitutionalism|Constitutional Revolution]]" in the [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] direction, with Warren writing the majority opinions in landmark cases such as ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954), ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), ''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'' (1966), and ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' (1967). Warren also led the [[Warren Commission]], a [[Presidential Commission (United States)|presidential commission]] that investigated the 1963 [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination of President John F. Kennedy]]. He served as [[Governor of California]] from 1943 to 1953, and is the last chief justice to have served in an elected office before nomination to the Supreme Court. Warren is generally considered to be one of the most influential Supreme Court justices and political leaders in the [[history of the United States]].

Warren was born in 1891 in [[Los Angeles]] and was raised in [[Bakersfield, California]]. After graduating from the [[UC Berkeley School of Law|University of California, Berkeley, School of Law]], he began a legal career in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]]. He was hired as a deputy district attorney for [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]] in 1920 and was appointed [[Alameda County District Attorney's Office|district attorney]] in 1925. He emerged as a leader of the state [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and won election as the [[Attorney General of California]] in [[1938 California Attorney General election|1938]]. In that position he supported, and was a firm proponent of the [[Internment of Japanese Americans|forced removal and internment]] of over 100,000 [[Japanese Americans]] during [[World War II]]. In the [[California gubernatorial election, 1942|1942 California gubernatorial election]], Warren defeated incumbent [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] governor [[Culbert Olson]]. As the 30th Governor of California, Warren presided over a period of major growth—for the state as well as the nation. Serving from 1943 to 1953, Warren is the only governor of California to be elected for three consecutive terms.

Warren served as [[Thomas E. Dewey]]'s running mate in the [[1948 United States presidential election|1948 presidential election]], but the ticket lost the election to incumbent President [[Harry S. Truman]] and Senator [[Alben W. Barkley]] in an election upset. Warren sought the Republican nomination in the [[1952 United States presidential election|1952 presidential election]], but the party nominated General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. After Eisenhower won election as president, he appointed Warren as Chief Justice. A series of rulings made by the Warren Court in the 1950s helped lead to the decline of [[McCarthyism]]. Warren helped arrange a unanimous decision in ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), which ruled that [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] in public schools was unconstitutional. After ''Brown'', the Warren Court continued to issue rulings that helped bring an end to the segregationist [[Jim Crow laws]] that were prevalent throughout the [[Southern United States]]. In ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States]]'' (1964), the Court upheld the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], a federal law that prohibits racial segregation in public institutions and [[public accommodations]].

In the 1960s, the Warren Court handed down several landmark rulings that significantly transformed [[criminal procedure]], [[redistricting]], and other areas of the law. Many of the Court's decisions [[incorporation of the Bill of Rights|incorporated]] the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], making the protections of the Bill of Rights apply to state and local governments. ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]'' (1963) established a criminal defendant's right to an attorney in felony cases, and ''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'' (1966) required police officers to give what became known as the [[Miranda warning|''Miranda'' warning]] to suspects taken into police custody that advises them of their constitutional protections. ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964) established that all state legislative districts must be of roughly equal population size, while the Court's holding in ''[[Wesberry v. Sanders]]'' (1964) required equal populations for congressional districts, thus achieving "[[one man, one vote]]" in the United States. ''[[Schmerber v. California]]'' (1966) established that forced extraction of a blood sample is not compelled testimony, illuminating the limits on the protections of the 4th and 5th Amendments and ''[[Warden v. Hayden]]'' (1967) dramatically expanded the rights of police to seize evidence with a search warrant, reversing the [[mere evidence rule]]. Furthermore, ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' (1965) established a constitutional [[right to privacy]] and struck down a state law that restricted access to [[Birth control|contraceptives]], and ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' (1967) struck down state [[anti-miscegenation laws in the United States|anti-miscegenation laws]], which had banned or otherwise regulated interracial marriage. 

Warren announced his retirement in 1968 and was succeeded by Appellate Judge [[Warren E. Burger]] in 1969. The Warren Court's rulings have received criticism but have received widespread support and acclamation from both liberals and conservatives, and few of the Court's decisions have been overturned.

==Early life, family, and education==
[[File:Earl Warren 1918.jpg|thumb|left|Warren as a U.S. Army officer in 1918]]
{{Liberalism US}}

Warren was born in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], on March 19, 1891, to Matt Warren and his wife, Crystal. Matt, whose original family name was Vaare, was born in [[Stavanger]], [[Norway]], in 1864, and he and his family migrated to the United States in 1866. Crystal, whose maiden name was Hernlund, was born in [[Hälsingland]], [[Sweden]]; she and her family migrated to the United States when she was an infant. After marrying in [[Minneapolis]], [[Minnesota]], Mathias and Crystal settled in [[Southern California]] in 1889, where Matthias found work with the [[Southern Pacific Railroad]]. Earl Warren was the second of two children, after his older sister, Ethel. Earl did not receive a middle name; his father later commented that "when you were born I was too poor to give you a middle name."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=16–18}} In 1896, the family resettled in [[Bakersfield, California]], where Warren grew up.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=TIME |date=1953-10-12 |title=National Affairs: EARL WARREN, THE 14th CHIEF JUSTICE |url=https://time.com/archive/6797486/national-affairs-earl-warren-the-14th-chief-justice/ |access-date=2025-02-09 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-25 |title=Earl Warren was the first to get a long SCOTUS confirmation |url=https://www.kget.com/news/politics/browns-40-day-supreme-court-confirmation-process-might-seem-lengthy-but-bakersfields-earl-warren-set-the-post-war-standard/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925170535/https://www.kget.com/news/politics/browns-40-day-supreme-court-confirmation-process-might-seem-lengthy-but-bakersfields-earl-warren-set-the-post-war-standard/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2024-09-25 |access-date=2025-02-09 }}</ref> Though not an exceptional student, Warren graduated from Kern County High School in 1908.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=19–21}}

Hoping to become a trial lawyer, Warren enrolled in the [[University of California, Berkeley]] after graduating from high school. He majored in [[political science]] and became a member of the [[Sigma Phi Society|Sigma Phi]] fraternity. Like many other students at Berkeley, Warren was influenced by the [[Progressivism in the United States|progressive movement]], and he was especially affected by Governor [[Hiram Johnson]] of California and Senator [[Robert M. La Follette]] of Wisconsin.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=23–28, 31}} While at Berkeley, Warren was little more than an average student who earned decent but undistinguished grades and after his third year, he entered the school's Department of Jurisprudence (now [[UC Berkeley School of Law]]). He received a [[Bachelor of Laws]] degree in 1914. Like his classmates upon graduation, Warren was [[Admission to the bar in the United States|admitted to the California bar]] without examination. After graduation, he took a position with the [[Associated Oil Company]] in San Francisco.  Warren disliked working at the company and was disgusted by the corruption he saw in San Francisco, so he took a position with the [[Oakland]] law firm of Robinson and Robinson.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=28–32}}

After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Warren volunteered for an officer training camp, but was rejected due to hemorrhoids. Still hoping to become an officer, Warren underwent a procedure to remove the hemorrhoids, but by the time he fully recovered from the operation the officer training camp had closed. Warren enlisted in the [[United States Army]] as a private in August 1917, and was assigned to Company I of the [[91st Division (United States)|91st Division]]'s 363rd Infantry Regiment at [[Fort Lewis (Washington)|Camp Lewis, Washington]]. He was made acting [[first sergeant]] of the company before being sent to a three-month officer training course. After he returned to the company in May 1918 as a [[second lieutenant]], the regiment was sent to [[Camp Lee|Camp Lee, Virginia]], to train draftees. Warren spent the rest of the war there and was discharged less than a month after [[Armistice Day]], following a promotion to [[First Lieutenant#United States|first lieutenant]]. Warren remained in the [[United States Army Reserve]] until 1934, rising to the rank of [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=32–33}}

==City and district attorney==
[[File:Rene C. Davidson Courthouse.jpg|thumb|The [[René C. Davidson Courthouse]], the main courthouse of the [[Alameda County Superior Court]], completed in 1934]]

In late 1918, Warren returned to Oakland, where he accepted a position as the legislative assistant to Leon E. Gray, a newly elected member of the [[California State Assembly]]. Shortly after arriving in the state capital of [[Sacramento]], Warren was appointed as the clerk of the Assembly Judiciary Committee.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=35–36}} After a brief stint as a deputy city attorney for Oakland, in 1920 Warren was hired as a deputy district attorney for [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=37–38}} By the end of 1924, Warren had become the most senior person in the department outside of the district attorney, Ezra Decoto. Though many of his professional colleagues supported [[Calvin Coolidge]], Warren cast his vote for [[Progressive Party (United States, 1924–34)|Progressive Party]] candidate Robert La Follette in the [[1924 United States presidential election|1924 presidential election]]. That same year, Warren made his first foray into electoral politics, serving as the campaign manager for his friend, Republican Assemblyman Frank Anderson.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=41–42}}

[[File:Oakland Tribune 12 January 1925 Front Page.jpg|thumb|left|Warren on the front page of the ''[[Oakland Tribune]]'', January 12, 1925]]

With the support of Governor [[Friend Richardson]] and publisher [[Joseph R. Knowland]], a leader of the conservative faction of [[San Francisco Bay Area]] Republicans, Warren was appointed as the Alameda County district attorney in 1925.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=45–47}} Warren faced a tough re-election campaign in 1926, as local Republican [[political boss|boss]] Michael Joseph Kelly sought to unseat him. Warren rejected political contributions and largely self-funded his campaign, leaving him at a financial disadvantage to Kelly's preferred candidate, Preston Higgins. Nonetheless, Warren won a landslide victory over Higgins, taking over two-thirds of the vote.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=44, 50–53}} When he ran for re-election again in 1930, he faced only token opposition.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=57}}

[[File:Earl Warren Primary Ad 1926 Edit.jpg|thumb|right|Political advertisement for Warren's re-election campaign published in the ''[[Alameda Times Star]]'', August 26, 1926]]

Warren gained a statewide reputation as a tough, no-nonsense district attorney who fought corruption in government and ran his office in a nonpartisan manner. Warren strongly supported the autonomy of law enforcement agencies, but also believed that police and prosecutors had to act fairly.{{sfn|White|1982|loc=Ch. 2}} Unlike many other local law enforcement officials in the 1920s, Warren vigorously enforced [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=55}} In 1927, he launched a corruption investigation against Sheriff [[Burton Becker]]. After a trial that some in the press described as "the most sweeping exposé of graft in the history of the country," Warren won a conviction against Becker in 1930.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=54–57}} When one of his own undercover agents admitted that he had perjured himself in order to win convictions in bootleg cases, Warren personally took charge of prosecuting the agent.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=58}} Warren's efforts gained him national attention; a 1931 nationwide poll of law enforcement officials found that Warren was "the most intelligent and politically independent district attorney in the United States".{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=60–61}}

In 1932, he argued his first Supreme Court case, Central Pacific Railway Co. v. Alameda County. That happened to be the last oral argument that Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] heard, as he announced his retirement later that afternoon, and stepped down from the court just five days later. Warren would be teased by his friends, who would say "He was 30 years on the State Court, he was 20 years on the Supreme Court, he listened to you just once and he said, "I've had it."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schwartz |first=Bernard |date=Winter 1997 |title=Chief Justice Warren: Super Chief in Action |url=https://digitalcommons.law.utulsa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2131&context=tlr |journal=Tulsa Law Review |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=481}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SCOTUS Scoops: When Warren Met Holmes {{!}} SCHS |url=https://supremecourthistory.org/scotus-scoops/when-warren-met-holmes/ |access-date=October 11, 2024 |website=Supreme Court Historical Society |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] hit the San Francisco Bay area hard in the 1930s, leading to high levels of unemployment and a destabilization of the political order.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=65–66}} Warren took a hard stance against labor in the buildup to the [[1934 West Coast waterfront strike|San Francisco General Strike]]. In ''[[Whitney v. California]]'' (1927) Warren prosecuted a woman under the [[California Criminal Syndicalism Act]] for attending a communist meeting in Oakland.<ref>[http://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/faculty/583 David Skover and Ronald Collins, ''A Curious Concurrence: Justice Brandeis' Vote in'' Whitney v. California], 2005 Supreme Court Review 333 (2005).</ref> In 1936, Warren faced one of the most controversial cases of his career after George W. Alberts, the chief engineer of a freighter, was found dead. Warren believed that Alberts was murdered in a conspiracy orchestrated by radical left-wing union members, and he won the conviction of union officials George Wallace, [[Earl King, Ernest Ramsay, and Frank Conner]]. Many union members argued that the defendants had been framed by Warren's office, and they organized protests of the trial.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=82–89}}

===State party leader===

While continuing to serve as the district attorney of Alameda County, Warren emerged as leader of the state Republican Party. He served as the county chairman for [[Herbert Hoover]]'s [[1932 United States presidential election|1932 campaign]] and, after [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] won that election, he attacked Roosevelt's [[New Deal]] agenda.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=69–71}} In 1934, Warren became chairman of the state Republican Party and he took a leading public role in opposing the gubernatorial candidacy of Democrat [[Upton Sinclair]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=74–76}} Warren earned national notoriety in 1936 for leading a successful campaign to elect a slate of unpledged delegates to the [[1936 Republican National Convention]]; he was motivated largely by his opposition to the influence of Governor [[Frank Merriam]] and publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]]. In the [[1936 United States presidential election|1936 presidential election]], Warren campaigned on behalf of the unsuccessful Republican nominee, [[Alf Landon]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=79–81}}

==Family and social life==

After World War I, Warren lived with his sister and her husband in Oakland.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=33, 39}} In 1921, he met Nina Elisabeth Meyers (née Palmquist), a widowed, 28-year-old store manager with a three-year-old son. Nina had been born in Sweden to a [[Baptists|Baptist]] minister and his wife, and her family had emigrated to the United States when she was an infant.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=40–41}} On October 4, 1925, shortly after Warren was appointed district attorney, Warren and Nina married. Their first child, Virginia, was born in 1928, and they had four more children: Earl Jr. (born 1930), Dorothy (born 1931), Nina Elisabeth (born 1933), and Robert (born 1935). Warren also adopted Nina's son, James.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=49–50, 61}} Warren was the father-in-law of [[John Charles Daly]], the host of the television game show ''[[What's My Line?]]'' through his daughter Virginia's marriage. Warren enjoyed a close relationship with his wife; one of their daughters later described it as "the most ideal relationship I could dream of."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=150}} In 1935, the family moved to a seven-bedroom home just outside of [[downtown Oakland]]. Though the Warrens sent their children to Sunday school at a local Baptist church, Warren was not a regular churchgoer.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=61–62}} In 1938, Warren's father, Matt, was murdered at the family home in Bakersfield; investigators never discovered the identity of the murderer.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=94–96}} Warren and his family moved to the state capital of [[Sacramento]] in 1943,{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=133}} and to the [[Marriott Wardman Park|Wardman Park Hotel]], a residential hotel in [[Washington, D.C.]], in 1953.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=270–271}}

Warren was very active after 1919 in such groups as [[Freemasonry]], the [[Independent Order of Odd Fellows]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3pLGZWs0wLIC&pg=PT53|title=The Extraordinary Catalog of Peculiar Inventions: The Curious World of the Demoulin Brothers and Their Fraternal Lodge Prank Machines - from Human Centipedes and Revolving Goats to ElectricCarpets and SmokingC|last=Suits|first=Julia|date=November 1, 2011|publisher=Penguin|isbn=9781101545768|language=en}}</ref> the [[Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks]], the [[Loyal Order of Moose]] (obtained the Pilgrim Degree of Merit, the highest award given in the fraternity) and the [[American Legion]]. Each one introduced Warren to new friends and political connections. He rose through the ranks in the Masons, culminating in his election in 1935 as the [[Grand Master (order)|Grand Master]] of the Freemasons for the state of California from 1935 to 1936.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.matawanlodge.org/famous.htm | title = U.S. Famous Freemasons | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080510153526/http://www.matawanlodge.org/famous.htm | archive-date = May 10, 2008 | url-status = usurped}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://mastermason.com/PGH32/famousmasons.html | title = U.S. Famous Master Mason | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160104173702/http://mastermason.com/PGH32/famousmasons.html | archive-date = January 4, 2016 | url-status = live}}</ref> Biographer Jim Newton says that Warren "thrived in the Masons because he shared their ideals, but those ideals also helped shape him, nurturing his commitment to service, deepening his conviction that society's problems were best addressed by small groups of enlightened, well-meaning citizens. Those ideals knitted together Warren's Progressivism, his Republicanism, and his Masonry."{{sfn|Newton|2006|pp=72–73}}

==Attorney General of California==
[[File:Earl Warren 1944.jpg|thumb|Warren in 1944]]
In 1934, Warren and his allies won passage of a state ballot measure that transformed the position of [[Attorney General of California]] into a full-time office; previous officeholders had worked part-time while maintaining their own private practice.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=71–72}} After incumbent [[Ulysses S. Webb]] announced his retirement, Warren jumped into the [[1938 California Attorney General election|1938 state attorney general election]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=90}} Earlier in the 20th century, progressives had passed a state constitutional amendment allowing for "[[cross-filing]]," whereby a candidate could file to run in multiple party primaries for the same office. Warren took advantage of that amendment and ran in multiple primaries.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=77–78}} Even though he continued to serve as chairman of the state Republican Party until April 1938, Warren won the Republican, [[California Progressive Party|Progressive]], and, crucially, Democratic primaries for attorney general. He faced no serious opposition in the 1938 elections, even while incumbent Republican Governor [[Frank Merriam]] was defeated by Democratic nominee [[Culbert Olson]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=92–94}}

Once elected, he organized state law enforcement officials into regions and led a statewide anti-crime effort. One of his major initiatives was to crack down on [[gambling ship]]s operating off the coast of [[Southern California]].{{sfn|White|1982|pp=44–67}} Warren continued many of the policies from his predecessor Ulysses S. Webb's four decades in office. These included [[Eugenics in California|eugenic forced sterilizations]] and the [[California Alien Land Law of 1913|confiscation of land]] from Japanese owners.<ref>[http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1183&context=twlj Sumi K. Cho, ''Redeeming Whiteness in the Shadow of Internment: Earl Warren, Brown, and a Theory of Racial Redemption''], 40 Boston College Law Review 73 (1998).</ref>  Warren, who was a member of the outspoken anti-Asian society [[Native Sons of the Golden West]],<ref>[http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1154&context=aalj Sandhya Ramadas, ''How Earl Warren Previewed Today's Civil Liberties Debate - And Got It Right in the End''], 16 Asian Am. L.J. 73 (2009).</ref> successfully sought legislation expanding the land confiscations.<ref>[http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3652&context=californialawreview Edwin E. Ferguson, ''The California Alien Land Law and the Fourteenth Amendment''], 35 Cal. L. Rev. 61 (1947).</ref> During his time as Attorney General, Warren appointed as one of his deputy attorneys general [[Roger J. Traynor]], who was then a law professor at [[UC Berkeley]] and later became the 23rd [[Chief Justice of California|chief justice of California]], as well as one of the most influential judges of his time.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=http://texts.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb4d5nb20m&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=div00167&toc.depth=1&toc.id=|title=University of California: In Memoriam, 1985|website=texts.cdlib.org|access-date=October 3, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=McCall|first=James R.|date=1984|title=Roger Traynor: Teacher, Jurist, and Friend|url=https://repository.uchastings.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1541&context=faculty_scholarship|journal=Hastings Law Journal}}</ref><ref name=":12">Les Ledbetter, [https://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/17/obituaries/roger-j-traynor-california-justice.html "Roger J. Traynor, California Justice"],  ''[[The New York Times]]'', May 17, 1983, B6. Retrieved October 3, 2017.</ref>

===Internment of Japanese Americans===
[[File:Woodland, California. Evacuees of Japanese ancestry are boarding a special train for Merced Assembl . . . - NARA - 537818.jpg|thumb|Japanese-Americans in [[Woodland, California]] board a train headed for an internment camp. Warren was a major proponent of Japanese-American internment as Attorney General and Governor of California. ]]
[[File:Granada Relocation Center, Amache, Colorado. A general all over view of a section of the emergency . . . - NARA - 539071.jpg|thumb|[[Granada Relocation Center]], one of ten [[Internment camp|internment camps]] where Japanese-American civilians were detained during World War II]]
After [[World War II]] broke out in Europe in 1939, foreign policy became an increasingly important issue in the United States; Warren rejected the [[United States non-interventionism|isolationist]] tendencies of many Republicans and supported Roosevelt's rearmament campaign. The United States entered World War II after the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=112–114}} Following the attack, Warren organized the state's civilian defense program, warning in January 1942 that "the Japanese situation as it exists in this state today may well be the [[Achilles' heel]] of the entire civilian defense effort." He became a driving force behind the [[internment of Japanese Americans|internment of over one hundred thousand Japanese Americans]] without any charges or due process.{{sfn|White|1982|pp=69–71}}

Though the decision to intern Japanese Americans was made by General [[John L. DeWitt]], and the internment was carried out by federal officials, Warren's advocacy played a major role in providing public justification for the internment.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=120–123}} In particular, Warren had claimed that Japanese Americans had willfully infiltrated "every strategic spot" in California coastal and valley counties, had warned of potentially greater danger from American born ethnic Japanese than from first-generation immigrants,<ref name=weglyn30>{{cite book |title=Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps |publisher=William Morrow & Company |location=New York |last=Weglyn |first=Michi Nishiura |authorlink=Michi Weglyn|year=1976 |pages=30–31, 37–38|isbn=978-0688079963}}</ref> and asserted that although there were means to test the loyalty of a "Caucasian" that the same could not be said for ethnic Japanese.<ref name=weglyn38>{{cite book |title=Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps |publisher=William Morrow & Company |location=New York |last=Weglyn |first=Michi Nishiura |authorlink=Michi Weglyn|year=1976 |page=38|isbn=978-0688079963}}</ref><ref name=white/>  Warren further argued that the complete lack of disloyal acts among Japanese Americans in California to date indicated that they intended to commit such acts in the future.<ref name=hosokawa288>{{cite book |title=Nisei: the Quiet Americans|publisher=William Morrow & Company |location=New York |last=Hosokawa |first=Bill |authorlink=Bill Hosokawa|year=1969|page=288|isbn=978-0688050139}}</ref>  Later, Warren vigorously protested the return of released internees back into California.<ref name=weglyn154>{{cite book |title=Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps |publisher=William Morrow & Company |location=New York |last=Weglyn |first=Michi Nishiura |authorlink=Michi Weglyn|year=1976 |page=154|isbn=978-0688079963}}</ref><ref name=white/>

By early 1944, Warren had come to regret his role in the internment of Japanese Americans, and he eventually approved of the federal government's decision to allow Japanese Americans to begin returning to California in December 1944;{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=157–159}} however, he long resisted any public expression of regret in spite of years of repeated requests from the Japanese American community.<ref name=weglyn31>{{cite book |title=Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps |publisher=William Morrow & Company |location=New York |last=Weglyn |first=Michi Nishiura |authorlink=Michi Weglyn|year=1976 |pages=31, 299|isbn=978-0688079963}}</ref><ref name=white/>

In a 1972 [[oral history]] interview, Warren said that "I feel that everybody who had anything to do with the relocation of the Japanese, after it was all over, had something of a guilty consciousness about it, and wanted to show that it wasn't a racial thing as much as it was a defense matter."{{sfn|White|1982|p=76}} When during the interview Warren mentioned the faces of the children separated from their parents, he broke down in tears and the interview was temporarily halted.{{sfn|White|1982|page=77}} In 1974, shortly before his death, Warren privately confided to journalist and former internee Morse Saito that he greatly regretted his actions during the evacuation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Saito |first=Morse |date=June 3, 1974 |title=Warren 'Regrets' His Role in 1942 Evacuation |pages=1 |work=Hokubei Mainichi Newspaper}}</ref>

In his posthumously published memoirs, Warren fully acknowledged his error, stating that he

{{blockquote|since deeply regretted the removal order and my own testimony advocating it, because it was not in keeping with our American concept of freedom and the rights of citizens... Whenever I thought of the innocent little children who were torn from home, school friends, and congenial surroundings, I was conscience-stricken... [i]t was wrong to react so impulsively, without positive evidence of disloyalty. |''The Memoirs of Earl Warren'' (1977)<ref name=white>{{cite journal |title=The Unacknowledged Lesson: Earl Warren and the Japanese Relocation Controversy |author=G. Edward White |journal=[[Virginia Quarterly Review]] |date=Autumn 1979 |pages=613–629 |url=http://www.vqronline.org/articles/1979/autumn/white-unacknowledged-lesson/ |access-date=May 12, 2012 |archive-date=November 11, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111205244/http://www.vqronline.org/articles/1979/autumn/white-unacknowledged-lesson/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

==Governor of California==
[[File:Earl Warren Portrait, half figure, seated, facing front, as Governor.jpg|thumb|right|Warren as Governor of California]]

===Election===

Warren frequently clashed with Governor Culbert Olson over various issues, partly because they belonged to different parties. As early as 1939, supporters of Warren began making plans for his candidacy in California's [[1942 California gubernatorial election|1942 gubernatorial election]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=112–114, 124–125}} Though initially reluctant to run, Warren announced his gubernatorial candidacy in April 1942. He cross-filed in the Democratic and Republican primaries, ran without a party label, and refused to endorse candidates running for other offices. He sought to attract voters regardless of party, and stated "I can and will support President Roosevelt better than Olson ever has or ever will." Many Democrats, including Olson, criticized Warren for "put[ting] on a cloak of nonpartisanship," but Warren's attempts to appear above parties resonated with many voters. In August, Warren easily won the Republican primary, and surprised many observers by nearly defeating Olson in the Democratic primary. In November, he decisively defeated Olson in the general election, taking just under 57 percent of the vote. Warren's victory immediately made him a figure with national stature, and he enjoyed good relations with both the conservative wing of the Republican Party, led by [[Robert A. Taft]], and the [[moderate wing of the Republican Party]], led by [[Thomas E. Dewey]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=126–132}}

===Policies===
[[File:Earl Warren with young miner.jpg|thumb|left|Governor Warren meets a young "gold miner" as part of the California centennials, 1948–1950]]

Warren modernized the office of governor, and state government generally. Like most progressives, Warren believed in [[Efficiency Movement|efficiency]] and planning. During World War II, he aggressively pursued postwar economic planning. Fearing another postwar decline that would rival the depression years, Governor Earl Warren initiated public works projects similar to those of the New Deal to capitalize on wartime tax surpluses and provide jobs for returning veterans. For example, his support of the Collier-Burns Act in 1947 raised gasoline taxes that funded a massive program of freeway construction. Unlike states where tolls or bonds funded highway construction, California's gasoline taxes were earmarked for building the system. Warren's support for the bill was crucial because his status as a popular governor strengthened his views, in contrast with opposition from trucking, oil, and gas lobbyists. The Collier-Burns Act helped influence passage of the [[Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956]], setting a pattern for national highway construction.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Daniel J. B.|last=Mitchell|title=Earl Warren's Fight for California's Freeways: Setting a Path for the Nation|journal=[[Southern California Quarterly]]|year=2006|volume=88|issue=2|pages=205–238|doi=10.2307/41172311|jstor=41172311|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the mid-1940s, Warren sought to implement a state [[universal health care]], but he was unable to pass his plan due to opposition from the medical and business communities.{{sfn|Mitchell|2003|pp=205–206, 219–222}} In 1945, the [[United Nations Charter]] was signed in [[San Francisco]] during Warren´s tenure as governor of California.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://governors.library.ca.gov/30-Warren.html|title=Governors of California - Earl Warren|website=governors.library.ca.gov|access-date=September 14, 2019}}</ref> He played an important role in the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]] from April 25 to June 26, 1945, which resulted in the United Nations Charter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/uncio.pdf|title=Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on International Organization (April 25, 1945 – June 26, 1945)|website=Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hoover.org/library-archives/collections/united-nations-conference-international-organization-proceedings-1945|title=Proceedings|website=Hoover Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/warren|title=Chief Justice Earl Warren Oral History Interview {{!}} Harry S. Truman|website=www.trumanlibrary.gov|access-date=September 14, 2019}}</ref>

Warren also pursued social legislation. He built up the state's higher education system based on the [[University of California]] and its vast network of small universities and [[Community colleges in the United States|community colleges]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=John Aubrey|last=Douglass|title=Earl Warren's New Deal: Economic Transition, Postwar Planning, and Higher Education in California|journal=[[Journal of Policy History]]|year=2000|volume=12|issue=4|pages=473–512|doi=10.1353/jph.2000.0029|s2cid=154088575}}</ref> After federal courts declared the segregation of Mexican schoolchildren illegal in ''[[Mendez v. Westminster]]'' (1947), Governor Warren signed legislation ending the segregation of American Indians and Asians.<ref>[http://faculty.washington.edu/joyann/EDLPS549Bwinter2008/Wollenberg.pdf Wollenberg, Charles. "Mendez v. Westminster: Race, nationality and segregation in California schools."] California Historical Quarterly 53.4 (1974): 317-332.</ref> He sought the creation of a commission to study [[employment discrimination]], but his plan was blocked by Republicans in the state legislature.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=196}} Governor Warren stopped enforcing California's [[anti-miscegenation law]] after it was declared unconstitutional in ''[[Perez v. Sharp]]'' (1948). He also improved the hospital and prison systems.{{sfn|Schwartz|1983|p=18}} These reforms provided new services to a fast-growing population; the 1950 Census showed that California's population had grown by over 50% over the previous ten years.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=168–169}}

===Re-election campaigns===

By 1946, California's economy was booming, Warren was widely popular, and he enjoyed excellent relations with the state's top Democratic officeholder, Attorney General [[Robert W. Kenny]]. At the urging of state party leaders, Kenny agreed to run against Warren in the [[1946 California gubernatorial election|1946 gubernatorial election]], but Kenny was reluctant to criticize his opponent and was distracted by his role in the [[Nuremberg trials]]. As in 1942, Warren refused to endorse candidates for other offices, and he sought to portray himself as an effective, nonpartisan governor. Warren easily won the Republican primary for governor and, in a much closer vote, defeated Kenny in the Democratic primary. After winning both primaries, Warren endorsed Republican [[William Knowland]]'s U.S. Senate candidacy and [[Goodwin Knight]]'s candidacy for lieutenant governor. Warren won the general election by an overwhelming margin, becoming the first Governor of California since Hiram Johnson in 1914 to win a second term.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=171–176}}

Though he considered retiring after two terms, Warren ultimately chose to seek re-election in 1950, partly to prevent the more conservative Knight from succeeding him. He easily won the Republican primary, but was defeated in the Democratic primary by [[James Roosevelt]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=206–209}} Warren consistently led Roosevelt in general election polls and won re-election in a landslide, taking 65 percent of the vote.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=213–215}} He was the first Governor of California elected to three consecutive terms.<ref name=":3" /> During the 1950 campaign, Warren refused to formally endorse [[Richard Nixon]], the Republican nominee for the Senate. Warren disliked what he saw as Nixon's ruthless approach to politics and was wary of having a conservative rival for leadership of the state party. Despite Warren's refusal to campaign for him, Nixon defeated Democratic nominee [[Helen Gahagan Douglas]] by a decisive margin.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=209–215}}

===National politics, 1942–1952===

After his election as governor, Warren emerged as a potential candidate for president or vice president in the [[1944 United States presidential election|1944 election]]. Seeking primarily to ensure his status as the most prominent Republican in California, he ran as a [[favorite son]] candidate in the [[Republican Party presidential primaries, 1944|1944 Republican primaries]]. Warren won the California primary with no opposition, but Thomas Dewey clinched the party's presidential nomination by the time of the [[1944 Republican National Convention]]. Warren delivered the keynote address of the convention, in which he called for a more liberal Republican Party. Dewey asked Warren to serve as his running mate, but Warren was uninterested in the vice presidency and correctly believed that Dewey would be defeated by President Roosevelt in the 1944 election.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=154–157}}

After his 1946 re-election victory, Warren began planning a run for president in the [[1948 United States presidential election|1948 election]]. The two front-runners for the nomination were Dewey and Robert Taft, but Warren, [[Harold Stassen]], [[Arthur Vandenberg]], and General [[Douglas MacArthur]] each had significant support.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=184–185}} Prior to the [[1948 Republican National Convention]], Warren attempted to position himself as a dark horse candidate who might emerge as a compromise nominee. However, Dewey won the nomination on the third ballot of the convention.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=186–187}} Dewey once again asked Warren to serve as his running mate, and this time Warren agreed. Far ahead in the polls against President [[Harry S. Truman]], the Democratic nominee, Dewey ran a cautious campaign that largely focused on platitudes rather than issues.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=188–190}} Warren campaigned across the country on behalf of the ticket, but was frustrated by his inability to support specific policies.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=190–191}} To the surprise of many observers, Truman won the election, and this became the only election Warren ever lost.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://warren.ucsd.edu/about/biography.html|title=Biography of Earl Warren|website=warren.ucsd.edu|access-date=October 3, 2019}}</ref>{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=192–194}}

After his 1950 re-election, Warren decided that he would seek the Republican nomination in the [[1952 United States presidential election|1952 presidential election]], and he announced his candidacy in November 1951. Taft also sought the nomination, but Dewey declined to make a third run for president. Dewey and his supporters instead conducted a long campaign to [[Draft Eisenhower movement|draft]] General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] as the Republican presidential nominee.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=218–223}}  Warren ran in three [[Republican Party presidential primaries, 1952|Republican presidential primaries]], but won just a handful of delegates outside of his home state. In the California primary, he defeated a challenge from [[Thomas H. Werdel]], whose conservative backers alleged that Warren had "abandoned Republicanism and embraced the objectives of the New Deal." After Eisenhower entered the race, Warren realized that his only hope of nomination was to emerge as a compromise nominee at the [[1952 Republican National Convention]] after a deadlock between supporters of Eisenhower and Taft.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=226–228}}

After the primaries, Warren had the support of 80 delegates, while Eisenhower and Taft each had about 450 delegates. Though the California delegation was pledged to support Warren, many of the delegates personally favored Eisenhower or Taft. Unknown to Warren, Eisenhower supporters had promised Richard Nixon the vice presidency if he could swing the California delegation to Eisenhower.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=229–232}} By the time of the convention, Nixon and his supporters had convinced most California delegates to switch their votes to Eisenhower after the first presidential ballot.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=233–235}} Eisenhower won 595 votes on the first presidential ballot of the convention, just 9 short of the majority. Before the official end of the first ballot, several states shifted their votes to Eisenhower, giving him the nomination.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=243–244}} Warren's decision to support a convention rule that unseated several contested delegations was critical to Eisenhower's victory; Eisenhower himself said that "if anyone ever clinched the nomination for me, it was Earl Warren."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=238–240}} Nixon was named as Eisenhower's running mate, and Warren campaigned on behalf of the Republican ticket in fourteen different states. Ultimately, Eisenhower defeated Democratic nominee [[Adlai Stevenson II]], taking 55 percent of the national popular vote.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=245–246}} Nixon resigned from the Senate to become vice president, and Warren appointed [[Thomas Kuchel]] to the Senate seat vacated by Nixon.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=248}}

==Chief Justice of the United States==
{{Further|Warren Court|List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court}}
[[File:EarlWarren.jpg|thumb|Chief Justice Earl Warren]]

===Appointment===
After the 1952 election, President-elect Eisenhower promised that he would appoint Warren to the next vacancy on the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. Warren turned down the position of [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] in the new administration, but in August 1953 he agreed to serve as the [[Solicitor General of the United States|Solicitor General]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=246–249}} In September 1953, before Warren's nomination as solicitor general was announced, Chief Justice [[Fred M. Vinson]] died.{{sfn|Abraham|1992|p=255}} To fill the critical position of chief justice, Eisenhower first offered the position of chief justice to [[Thomas E. Dewey]], but Dewey declined the offer. He then considered either elevating a sitting Supreme Court justice or appointing another individual with judicial experience but ultimately chose to honor his promise to appoint Warren to the first Supreme Court vacancy.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=250–253}} Explaining Warren's qualifications for the Court, Eisenhower wrote to his brother, "Warren has had seventeen years of practice in public law, during which his record was one of remarkable accomplishment and success.... He has been very definitely a liberal-conservative; he represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=261–262}}

Warren received a [[recess appointment]] in October 1953. In the winter of 1953–1954, the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] reported him favorably by a 12–3 majority, with three southerners in [[James Eastland]], [[Olin D. Johnston]] and [[Harley M. Kilgore]] reporting negatively.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vote Is 12 to 3: Senate Unit Backs Warren Nomination|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.|Washington, District of Columbia]]|date=February 25, 1954|page=1}}</ref> The Senate would then confirm Warren's appointment by acclamation in March 1954;{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=289–290}} unlike the future appointments of [[John Marshall Harlan II]] and [[Potter Stewart]] (who ironically would prove the most conservative members of the Warren Court) southern senators made no effort to block Warren.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kahn|first=Michael A.|date=1992|title=Shattering the Myth about President Eisenhower's Supreme Court Appointments |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27550903 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|volume=22|issue=1|pages=47–56|jstor=27550903 }}</ref> As of 2024, Warren is the most recent chief justice to have held statewide elected office at any point in his career and the most recent serving politician to be appointed Chief Justice. Warren was also the first [[Nordic and Scandinavian Americans|Scandinavian American]] to be appointed to the Supreme Court.<ref name="Collective">Schmidhauser, John Richard; ‘The Justices of the Supreme Court: A Collective Portrait’; ''[[Midwest Journal of Political Science]]''; vol. 3, no. 1 (February 1959), pp. 1-57</ref>

===Leadership and philosophy===
[[File:Warren Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|The [[Warren Court]] (1953–1954)]]

When Warren was appointed, all of the other Supreme Court justices had been appointed by Presidents [[Franklin Roosevelt]] or Harry Truman, and most were committed [[New Deal coalition|New Deal]] liberal Democrats. Nonetheless, they disagreed about the role that courts should play. [[Felix Frankfurter]] led a faction that insisted upon [[judicial restraint|judicial self-restraint]] and deference to the policymaking prerogatives of the White House and Congress. [[Hugo Black]] and [[William O. Douglas]] led the opposing faction by agreeing the Court should defer to Congress in matters of economic policy but favored a more activist role for the courts in matters related to individual liberties. Warren's belief that the judiciary must seek to do justice placed him with the Black and Douglas faction.{{sfn|Belknap|2005|pp=13–14}} [[William J. Brennan Jr.]] became the intellectual leader of the activist faction after he was appointed to the court by Eisenhower in 1956 and complemented Warren's political skills by the strong legal skills that Warren lacked.{{sfn|Hutchinson|1983}}{{page needed|date=November 2018}}

As chief justice, Warren's most important prerogative was the power to assign opinions if he was in the majority. That power had a subtle but important role in shaping the Court's majority opinions, since different justices would write different opinions.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=268–270}} Warren initially asked the senior associate justice, Hugo Black, to preside over conferences until he became accustomed to the processes of the Court. However, Warren learned quickly and soon was in fact, as well as in name, the Court's chief justice.{{sfn|White|1982|pp=159–161}} Warren's strength lay in his public gravitas, his leadership skills, and his firm belief that the Constitution guaranteed natural rights and that the Court had a unique role in protecting those rights.{{sfn|Urofsky|2001|p=157}}{{sfn|Powe|2000|pp=499–500}} His arguments did not dominate judicial conferences, but Warren excelled at putting together coalitions and cajoling his colleagues in informal meetings.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=445–446}}

Warren saw the US Constitution as the embodiment of American values, and he cared deeply about the ethical implications of the Court's rulings.{{Sfn|White|1981|pp=462–463}} According to Justice [[Potter Stewart]], Warren's philosophical foundations were the "eternal, rather bromidic, platitudes in which he sincerely believed" and "Warren's great strength was his simple belief in the things we now laugh at: motherhood, marriage, family, flag, and the like."{{sfn|Hutchinson|1983|p=927}} The constitutional historian Melvin I. Urofsky concludes that "scholars agree that as a judge, Warren does not rank with [[Louis Brandeis]], Black, or Brennan in terms of jurisprudence. His opinions were not always clearly written, and his legal logic was often muddled."<ref>{{cite book|first=Melvin I.|last=Urofsky|chapter=Warren, Earl|title=Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement 9|year=1994|page=838}}</ref> Other scholars have also reached this conclusion.<ref>{{cite book|first=Lawrence S.|last=Wrightsman|title=The Psychology of the Supreme Court|year=2006|page=211}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Priscilla Machado|last=Zotti|title=Injustice for All: Mapp vs. Ohio and the Fourth Amendment|year=2005|page=11}}</ref>

===1950s===
{{see also|Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower|History of the United States (1945–1964)}}

====''Brown v. Board of Education''====
Soon after joining the Court, Warren presided over the case of ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', which arose from the [[NAACP]]'s legal challenge against [[Jim Crow laws]]. The [[Southern United States]] had implemented Jim Crow laws in aftermath of the [[Reconstruction Era]] to [[disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchise]] African Americans and [[racial segregation in the United States|segregate]] public schools and other institutions. In the 1896 case of ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'', the Court had held that the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] did not prohibit segregation in public institutions if the institutions were "[[separate but equal]]." In the decades after ''Plessy'', the NAACP had won several incremental victories, but 17 states required the segregation of public schools by 1954. In 1951, the Vinson Court had begun hearing the NAACP's legal challenge to segregated school systems but had not rendered a decision when Warren took office.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=274–278}}

By the early 1950s, Warren had become personally convinced that segregation was morally wrong and legally indefensible. Warren sought not only to overturn ''Plessy'' but also to have a unanimous verdict. Warren, Black, Douglas, Burton, and Minton supported overturning the precedent, but for different reasons, [[Robert H. Jackson]], [[Felix Frankfurter]], [[Tom C. Clark]], and [[Stanley Forman Reed]] were reluctant to overturn ''Plessy''.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=277–281}} Nonetheless, Warren won over Jackson, Frankfurter, and Clark, in part by allowing states and federal courts the flexibility to pursue desegregation of schools at different speeds. Warren extensively courted the last holdout, Reed, who finally agreed to join a unanimous verdict because he feared that a dissent would encourage resistance to the Court's holding. After the Supreme Court formally voted to hold that the segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, Warren drafted an eight-page outline from which his law clerks drafted an opinion, and the Court handed down its decision in May 1954.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=283–286}} In the Deep South at the time, people could view signs claiming "[[Federal impeachment in the United States|Impeach]] Earl Warren."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bethune |first=Brett |date=July 2022 |title=Influence Without Impeachment: How the Impeach Earl Warren Movement Began, Faltered, But Avoided Irrelevance |journal=Journal of Supreme Court History |language=en |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=142–161 |doi=10.1111/jsch.12295 |issn=1059-4329|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Other decisions and events====
In arranging a unanimous decision in ''Brown'', Warren fully established himself as the leader of the Court.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=287–288}} He also remained a nationally prominent figure. After a 1955 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll found that a plurality of Republican respondents favored Warren as the successor to Eisenhower, Warren publicly announced that he would not resign from the Court under any circumstance. Eisenhower seriously considered retiring after one term and encouraging Warren to run in the [[1956 United States presidential election|1956 presidential election]] but ultimately chose to run after he had received a positive medical report after his heart attack.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=312–315}} Despite that brief possibility, a split developed between Eisenhower and Warren, and some writers believe that Eisenhower once remarked that his appointment was "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made."<ref>{{cite news|last=Purdum|first=Todd S.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/05/politics/politicsspecial1/presidents-picking-justices-can-have-backfires.html|title=Presidents, Picking Justices, Can Have Backfires|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=July 5, 2005|access-date=June 15, 2015}}</ref>{{efn|Eisenhower biographer Jean Edward Smith concluded in 2012 that "Eisenhower never said that. I have no evidence that he ever made such a statement."<ref>{{cite book|first=Jean Edward|last=Smith|title=Eisenhower in War and Peace|year=2012|publisher=Random House|page=603N}}</ref> Nonetheless, Eisenhower privately expressed his displeasure regarding some of Warren's decisions, and Warren grew frustrated at Eisenhower's unwillingness to support the Court publicly in ''Brown''. Warren was recorded in the 1957 diary of Justice Harold Burton as confiding in Burton that "[Eisenhower] expressed disappointment at the trend of decisions of Chief Justice and Brennan."<ref>[https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1997-09-07-1997250003-story.html Anecdotes are dangerous to biographers and truth Mistakes: When essential little stories are distorted, vast damage is done.]</ref> In 1961, when Eisenhower was asked whether he had made any major mistakes as president, the former president responded that "yes, two, and they are both sitting on the Supreme Court."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=336–337}}}}

Meanwhile, many Southern politicians expressed outrage at the Court's decisions and promised to resist any federal attempt to force desegregation, a strategy known as [[massive resistance]]. Although ''Brown'' did not mandate immediate school desegregation or bar other "separate but equal" institutions, most observers recognized that the decision marked the beginning of the end for the Jim Crow system.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=290–291}} Throughout his years as chief justice, Warren succeeded in keeping decisions concerning segregation unanimous. ''Brown'' applied only to schools, but soon, the Court enlarged the concept to other state actions by striking down racial classification in many areas. Warren compromised by agreeing to Frankfurter's demand for the Court to go slowly in implementing desegregation. Warren used Frankfurter's suggestion for a 1955 decision (''Brown II'') to include the phrase "all deliberate speed."<ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert L.|last=Carter|title=The Warren Court and Desegregation|journal=[[Michigan Law Review|Mich. L. Rev.]]|volume=67|issue=2|date=December 1968|pages=237–248|jstor=1287417|doi=10.2307/1287417|url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4901&context=mlr|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 1956, after the [[Montgomery bus boycott]], the Supreme Court [[Browder v. Gayle|affirmed a lower court's decision]] that segregated buses are unconstitutional.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=320}} Two years later, Warren assigned Brennan to write the Court's opinion in ''[[Cooper v. Aaron]]''. Brennan held that state officials were legally bound to enforce the Court's desegregation ruling in ''Brown''.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=345–348}}

In the 1956 term, the Warren Court received condemnation from [[right-wing politics|right-wingers]] such as US Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] by handing down a series of decisions, including ''[[Yates v. United States]]'', which struck down laws designed to suppress communists and later led to the decline of [[McCarthyism]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/43mam8fk9780252037009.html|title=UI Press {{!}} Robert M. Lichtman {{!}} The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions|last=Lichtman|first=Robert M.|website=www.press.uillinois.edu|language=en|access-date=September 19, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1370/earl-warren|title=Earl Warren|last=Pederson|first=William D.|website=www.mtsu.edu|language=en|access-date=September 15, 2019}}</ref> The Warren Court's decisions on those cases represented a major shift from the [[Vinson Court]], which had generally upheld such laws during the [[Second Red Scare]].<ref name=":6" />{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=320–322, 329–333}} That same year, Warren was elected to the [[American Philosophical Society]]. In 1957, he was elected to the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Earl Warren |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/earl-warren |access-date=January 10, 2023 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en}}</ref>

===1960s===
{{see also|Presidency of John F. Kennedy|Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson|History of the United States (1964–1980)}}
[[File:President & First Lady Kennedy with Chief Justice Earl Warren & Mrs. Warren, circa 1962.jpg|thumb|President Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy, Chief Justice Earl Warren, and Nina Elisabeth Meyers (Warren's wife), November 1963]]

After the Republican Party nominated Richard Nixon in the [[1960 United States presidential election|1960 presidential election]], Warren privately supported the Democratic nominee, [[John F. Kennedy]]. They became personally close after Kennedy was inaugurated. Warren later wrote that "no American during my long life ever set his sights higher for a better America or centered his attacks more accurately on the evils and shortcomings of our society than did [Kennedy]."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=368–369}} In 1962, Frankfurter retired and was replaced by Kennedy appointee [[Arthur Goldberg]], which gave the liberal bloc a majority on the Court.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=385–386, 403}} Goldberg left the Court in 1965 but was replaced by [[Abe Fortas]], who largely shared Goldberg's judicial philosophy.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=444–445}} With the liberal bloc firmly in control, the Warren Court handed down a series of momentous rulings in the 1960s.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=447}}

====Bill of Rights====
The 1960s marked a major shift in constitutional interpretation, as the Warren Court continued the process of the [[incorporation of the Bill of Rights]] in which the provisions of the first ten amendments to the US Constitution were applied to the states.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=530–531}}{{efn|The original Bill of Rights did not apply to the states, but the Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, contains the [[Due Process Clause]], which applies to state governments and has been used by the Court to incorporate the Bill of Rights. Some, including Douglas, favored the total incorporation of the Bill of Rights, but the Court has selectively incorporated various provisions of the Bill of Rights across numerous cases. The first major incorporation case was ''[[Gitlow v. New York]]'' (1925).{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=373–375, 405, 530}}}} Warren saw the Bill of Rights as a codification of "the natural rights of man" against the government and believed that incorporation would bring the law "into harmony with moral principles."{{Sfn|White|1981|pp=469–470}} When Warren took office, most of the provisions of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] already applied to the states, but the vast majority of the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government. The Warren Court saw the incorporation of the remaining provisions of the First Amendment as well as all or part of the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth]], [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth]], [[Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sixth]], and [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth]] Amendments. The Warren Court also handed down numerous other important decisions regarding the Bill of Rights, especially in the field of criminal procedure.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=530–531}}

In ''[[New York Times Co. v. Sullivan]]'', the Supreme Court reversed a libel conviction of the publisher of the ''New York Times''. In the majority opinion, Brennan articulated the [[actual malice]] standard for libel against public officials, which has become an enduring part of constitutional law.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=438–440}} In ''[[Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District]]'', the Court reversed the suspension of an eighth-grade student who wore a black armband in protest of the [[Vietnam War]]. Fortas's majority opinion noted that students did not "shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=490–491}} The Court's holding in ''[[United States v. Seeger]]'' expanded those who could be classified as [[conscientious objectors]] under the [[Selective Service System]] by allowing nonreligious individuals with ethical objections to claim conscientious objector status.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=481–483}} Another case, ''[[United States v. O'Brien]]'', saw the Court uphold a prohibition against [[draft-card burning|burning draft-cards]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=485–487}} Warren dissented in ''[[Street v. New York]]'' in which the Court struck down a state law that prohibited the desecration of the [[American flag]]. When his law clerks asked why he dissented in the case, Warren stated, "Boys, it's the American flag. I'm just not going to vote in favor of burning the American flag."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=491–492}} In the 1969 case of ''[[Brandenburg v. Ohio]]'', the Court held that governments cannot punish speech unless it is "directed to inciting or producing [[imminent lawless action]] and is likely to incite or produce such action."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=502–503}}

[[File:Impeach Warren.png|thumb|right|An "Impeach Earl Warren sign", posted in San Francisco in October 1958]]

In 1962, ''[[Engel v. Vitale]]'' held that the [[Establishment Clause]] prohibits mandatory prayer in public school.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=386–387}} The ruling sparked a strong backlash from many political and religious leaders, some of whom called for the impeachment of Warren. Warren became a favored target of right-wing groups, such as the [[John Birch Society]], as well as the [[1964 United States presidential election|1964 Republican presidential nominee]], [[Barry Goldwater]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=387–391, 435}} ''Engel'', the criminal procedure cases, and the persistent criticism of conservative politicians like Goldwater and Nixon contributed to a decline in the Court's popularity in the mid- and the late 1960s.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=498}} ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' had the Court strike down a state law designed to restrict access to [[contraception]], and it established a constitutional [[right to privacy]]. ''Griswold'' later provided an important precedent for the case of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'', which disallowed many laws designed to restrict access to [[abortion in the United States|abortion]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=447–449}}

====Criminal procedure====
In the early 1960s, the Court increasingly turned its attention to criminal procedure, which had traditionally been primarily a domain of the states. In ''[[Elkins v. United States]]'' (1960), Warren joined with the majority in striking down the "Silver Platter Doctrine," a loophole to the [[exclusionary rule]] that had allowed federal officials to use evidence that had been illegally gathered by state officials. The next year, in ''[[Mapp v. Ohio]]'', the Court held that the Fourth Amendment's prohibition on "unreasonable searches and seizures" applied to state officials.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=372–376}} Warren wrote the majority opinion in ''[[Terry v. Ohio]]'' (1968) in which the Court established that police officers may frisk a criminal suspect if they have a [[reasonable suspicion]] that the suspect is committing or is about to commit a crime.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=466–468}} In ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]'' (1962), the Court held that the Sixth Amendment required states to furnish publicly funded attorneys to all criminal defendants accused of a [[felony]] and unable to afford counsel. Prior to ''Gideon'', criminal defendants had been guaranteed the right to counsel only in federal trials and [[capital punishment|capital]] cases.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=403–406}}

In ''[[Escobedo v. Illinois]]'' (1964), the Court held that the Sixth Amendment guarantees criminal suspects the right to speak to their counsel during police interrogations. ''Escobedo'' was limited to criminal suspects who had an attorney at the time of their arrest and requested to speak with that counsel. In the landmark case of ''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'', Warren wrote the majority opinion, which established a right to counsel for every criminal suspect and required police to give criminal suspects what became known as a "[[Miranda warning]]" in which suspects are notified of their right to an attorney and their [[right to silence]]. Warren incorporated some suggestions from Brennan, but his holding in ''Miranda'' was most influenced by his past experiences as a district attorney. Unlike many of the other Warren Court decisions, including ''Mapp'' and ''Gideon'', ''Miranda'' created standards that went far beyond anything that had been established by any of the states. ''Miranda'' received a strong backlash from law enforcement and political leaders.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=456–460}} Conservatives angrily denounced what they called the "handcuffing of the police."<ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=Ronald|editor1-last=Kahn|editor2-first=Ken I.|editor2-last=Kersch|title=The Supreme Court and American Political Development|year=2006|url=https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0700614397?keywords=miranda%20%26%2334%3Bcrime%20rates%26%2334%3B&p=S04N&checkSum=%252FyIgYm2ybgibk6P%252BM%252FG9LcucFd6ieUBSkCM%252FVsFiLs0%253D|page=442|publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-1439-4 }}</ref>

====Reapportionment (one man, one vote)====
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--[[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] Earl Warren on [[Suffrage|the right to vote]] as the foundation of [[democracy]] in ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964).<ref>{{cite web |title=''Reynolds v. Sims'', 377 U.S. 533 (1964), at 555. |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/377/533/ |publisher=Justia US Supreme Court Center |access-date=January 5, 2021 |date=June 15, 1964}}</ref>
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In 1959, several residents dissatisfied with Tennessee's legislative districts brought suit against the state in ''[[Baker v. Carr]]''. Like many other states, Tennessee had state legislative districts of unequal populations,{{efn|The [[Vermont General Assembly]] provides one example of the disparity in populations. In 1961, one member of the Vermont General Assembly represented 33,000 people, and another member represented 49 people.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=380}}}} and the plaintiffs sought more equitable legislative districts. In ''[[Colegrove v. Green]]'' (1946), the Supreme Court had declined to become involved in legislative apportionment and instead left the issue as a matter for Congress and the states. In ''[[Gomillion v. Lightfoot]]'' (1960), the Court struck down a redistricting plan designed to disenfranchise African-American voters, but many of the justices were reluctant to involve themselves further in redistricting.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=379–381}} Frankfurter insisted that the Court should avoid the "political thicket" of apportionment and warned that the Court would never be able to find a clear formula to guide lower courts.<ref>{{cite journal|first=James A.|last=Gazell|title=One Man, One Vote: Its Long Germination|journal=[[The Western Political Quarterly]]|volume=23|issue=3|date=September 1970|pages=445–462|jstor=446565|doi=10.1177/106591297002300301|s2cid=154022059}}</ref> Warren helped convince Associate Justice [[Potter Stewart]] to join Brennan's majority decision in ''Baker v. Carr'', which held that redistricting was not a [[political question]] and so federal courts had jurisdiction over the issue. The opinion did not directly require Tennessee to implement redistricting but instead left it to a federal district court to determine whether Tennessee's districts violated the Constitution.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=381–385}} In another case, ''[[Gray v. Sanders]]'', the Court struck down Georgia's [[County Unit System]], which granted disproportional power to rural counties in party primaries.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=406–407}} In a third case, ''[[Wesberry v. Sanders]]'', the Court required states to draw congressional districts of equal population.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=433}}

In ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1963), the chief justice wrote what biographer Ed Cray terms "the most influential of the 170 majority opinions [Warren] would write." While eight of the nine justices had voted to require congressional districts of equal population in ''Wesberry'', some of the justices were reluctant to require state legislative districts to be of equal population. Warren indicated that the [[Equal Protection Clause]] required that state legislative districts be apportioned on an equal basis: "legislators represent people, not trees or acres. Legislators are elected by voters, not farms or cities or economic interests." His holding upheld the principle of "[[one man, one vote]]," which had previously been articulated by Douglas.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=432–435}} After the decision, the states reapportioned their legislatures quickly and with minimal troubles. Numerous commentators have concluded reapportionment was the Warren Court's great "success story."<ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert B.|last=McKay|title=Reapportionment: Success Story of the Warren Court|journal=[[Michigan Law Review|Mich. L. Rev.]]|volume=67|issue=2|date=December 1968|pages=223–236|jstor=1287416|doi=10.2307/1287416|url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4900&context=mlr|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

====Civil rights====
{{see also|Civil rights movement}}

Civil rights continued to be a major issue facing the Warren Court in the 1960s. In ''Peterson v. Greenville'' (1963), Warren wrote the Court's majority opinion, which struck down local ordinances that prohibited restaurants from serving black and white individuals in the same room.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=408–410}} Later that decade, the Court upheld the constitutionality of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] in ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States]]''. The Court held that the [[Commerce Clause]] empowered the federal government to prohibit racial segregation in [[public accommodations]] like hotels. The ruling effectively overturned the 1883 ''[[Civil Rights Cases]]'' in which the Supreme Court had held that Congress could not regulate racial discrimination by private businesses.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=441–442}} The Court upheld another landmark civil rights act, the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]], by holding that it was valid under the authority provided to Congress by the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth Amendment]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=469–470}}

In 1967, Warren wrote the majority opinion in the landmark case of ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' in which the Court struck down state [[Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States|laws banning interracial marriage]]. Warren was particularly pleased by the ruling in ''Loving'' since he had long regretted that the Court had not taken up the similar case of ''[[Naim v. Naim]]'' in 1955.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=449–452}} In ''[[Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections]]'' (1966), the Court struck down [[poll taxes in the United States|poll taxes]] in state elections.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=470–471}} In another case, ''[[Bond v. Floyd]]'', the Court required the Georgia legislature to seat the newly elected legislator [[Julian Bond]]; members of the legislature had refused to seat Bond because he opposed the [[Vietnam War]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=484–485}}

====Warren Commission====
{{main|Warren Commission}}
[[File:Lbj-wc.jpg|thumb|Earl Warren presents the Commission's report to President Johnson on September 24, 1964.]]

Shortly after the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]], the newly sworn-in president, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], convinced Warren to serve as the head of a bipartisan commission tasked with investigating the assassination.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Katzenbach, Nicholas deB. (Nicholas deBelleville), 1922-2012.|title=Some of it was fun : working with RFK and LBJ|date=October 17, 2008|isbn=978-0-393-07068-2|edition=First|location=New York|pages=135|oclc=915999588}}</ref>  From December 1963 to October 1964, Warren simultaneously served as chief justice of the United States and chairman of the [[Warren Commission]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=414–419}} Warren originally declined to head the Commission due to his belief that a sitting-Chief Justice should not be involved in non-judicial work, however when Johnson told him that he feared war would break out with the Soviet Union Warren changed his mind.<ref>{{cite news |title=Johnson Feared War At Kennedy Death, Earl Warren Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/12/09/archives/johnson-feared-war-at-kennedy-death-earl-warren-says.html |work=The New York Times |date=9 December 1972}}</ref>

At the start of the investigation, Warren decided to hire the commission's legal staff from outside the government to avoid any improper influence on their work.{{sfn|Willens|2013|p=37}}  Warren appointed [[J. Lee Rankin|Lee Rankin]] as general counsel and worked closely with Rankin and his assistants, [[Howard P. Willens]] and [[Norman Redlich]], to recruit staff lawyers, supervise their investigation and publish the Commission's report.{{sfn|Willens|2013|p=37}}  To avoid the confusion and duplication of parallel investigations, Warren convinced the Texas authorities to defer any local inquiry into the assassination.{{sfn|Willens|2013|loc=p. 30, citing Warren Commission, Executive Session Transcript, December 6, 1963, at 14-18}}

Warren was personally involved in several aspects of the investigation.  He supervised four days of testimony by Lee Harvey Oswald's widow, [[Marina Oswald Porter|Marina Oswald]], and was widely criticized for telling the press that, although her testimony would be publicly disclosed, "it might not be in your lifetime."{{sfn|Willens|2013|loc=p. 60, citing The Baltimore Sun, "The Whole Truth", February 5, 1964.}} He attended the closed-door interview of [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Kennedy]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Specter, Arlen.|title=Passion for truth : from finding JFK's single bullet to questioning Anita Hill to impeaching Clinton|date=2001|publisher=Perennial|others=Robbins, Charles.|isbn=0-06-095810-3|edition=1st Perennial|location=New York|pages=106–08|oclc=49301736}}</ref> and insisted on participating in the deposition of [[Jack Ruby]] in Dallas, where he visited the book depository.{{sfn|Willens|2013|pp=206-07}} Warren also participated in the investigation of Kennedy's medical treatment and autopsy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belin|first=David W.|title=November 22, 1963: You Are the Jury|publisher=Quadrangle|year=1973|pages=345–47}}</ref> At [[Robert F. Kennedy|Robert Kennedy]]'s insistence, Warren handled the unwelcome task of reviewing the autopsy photos alone.{{sfn|Willens|2013|p=94}}  Because the photos were so gruesome, Warren decided that they should not be included in the Commission's records.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bugliosi, Vincent.|title=Reclaiming history : the assassination of President John F. Kennedy|date=May 17, 2007|isbn=978-0-393-07212-9|edition=First|location=New York|pages=426–27|oclc=916036483}}</ref>

Warren closely supervised the drafting of the Commission's report. He wanted to ensure that Commission members had ample opportunity to evaluate the staff's work and to make their own judgments about important conclusions in the report.{{sfn|Willens|2013|p=219}} He insisted that the report should be unanimous and so he compromised on a number of issues to get all the members to sign the final version. Although a reenactment of the assassination "produced convincing evidence" supporting the single-bullet theory, the Commission decided not to take a position on the single-bullet theory.{{sfn|Willens|2013|p=270}}<ref>Bugliosi, ''Reclaiming History'', pp. 456-57.</ref> The Commission unanimously concluded that the assassination was the result of a single individual, [[Lee Harvey Oswald]], who acted alone.<ref>Newton, ''Justice for All'', pp. 415-23, 431-42.</ref>

The Warren Commission was an unhappy experience for the chief justice. As Willens recalled, "One can't say too much about the Chief's sacrifice. The work was a drain on his physical well-being."<ref>Cray, ''Chief Justice'', p. 429.</ref> However, Warren always believed that the Commission's primary conclusion, that Oswald acted alone, was correct. In his memoirs, Warren wrote that Oswald was incapable of being the key operative in a conspiracy, and that any high-level government conspiracy would inevitably have been discovered.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Warren|first=Earl|title=The memoirs of chief justice Earl Warren.|date=2001|publisher=Madison Books|isbn=1-56833-234-3|edition=1st Madison books|location=Lanham, Md.|pages=364–67|oclc=49302082}}</ref> ''Newsweek'' magazine quoted Warren saying that, if he handled the Oswald case as a district attorney, "I could have gotten a conviction in two days and never heard about the case again."<ref>Cray, ''Chief Justice'', p. 422.</ref> Warren wrote that "the facts of the assassination itself are simple, so simple that many people believe it must be more complicated and conspiratorial to be true."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|p=422}}  Warren told the Commission staff not to worry about [[John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories|conspiracy theories]] and other criticism of the report because “history will prove us right.”{{sfn|Willens|2013|p=11}}

===Retirement===
[[File:Richard Nixon 1969 inauguration.png|thumb|upright=1|Chief Justice Warren swears in President Nixon on January 20, 1969.]]

By 1968, Warren was ready to retire from the Court. He hoped to travel the world with his wife, and he wanted to leave the bench before he suffered a mental decline, something that he perceived in both Hugo Black and William Douglas. He also feared that Nixon would win the [[1968 United States presidential election|1968 presidential election]] and appoint a conservative successor if Warren left the Court later. On June 13, 1968, Warren submitted his letter of resignation to President Johnson (who made it official on June 21),<ref>[https://theconversation.com/filling-the-supreme-court-vacancy-lessons-from-1968-55010] and [https://slicethelife.com/2018/06/21/it-was-fifty-years-ago-today-june-21-1968-chief-justice-of-the-u-s-supreme-court-earl-warren-announces-his-retirement]</ref> effective upon the confirmation of a successor. In an election year, confirmation of a successor was not assured; after Warren announced his retirement, about half of the Senate Republican caucus pledged to oppose any Supreme Court appointment prior to the election.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=494–499}}

Johnson nominated Associate Justice Fortas, a personal friend and adviser to the president, as Warren's successor, and nominated federal appellate judge [[Homer Thornberry]] to succeed Fortas. Republicans and Southern Democrats joined to scuttle Fortas's nomination. Their opposition centered on criticism of the Warren Court, including many decisions that had been handed down before Fortas joined the Court, as well as ethical concerns related to Fortas's paid speeches and closeness with Johnson. Though the majority of the Senate may have favored the confirmation of Fortas, opponents conducted a [[filibuster in the United States Senate|filibuster]], which blocked the Senate from voting on the nomination, and Johnson withdrew the nomination.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=499–502}} In early 1969, Warren learned that Fortas had made a secret lifetime contract for $20,000 a year to provide private legal advice to [[Louis Wolfson]], a friend and financier in deep legal trouble. Warren immediately asked Fortas to resign, which he did after some consideration.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Artemus|last=Ward|title=An Extraconstitutional Arrangement: Lyndon Johnson and the Fall of the Warren Court|journal=White House Studies|year=2002|volume=2|issue=2|pages=171–183}}</ref>

Nixon defeated [[Hubert Humphrey]] in the 1968 presidential election and took office in January 1969. Though reluctant to be succeeded by a Nixon appointee, Warren declined to withdraw his letter of resignation. He believed that withdrawing the letter would be "a crass admission that he was resigning for political reasons." Nixon and Warren jointly agreed that Warren would retire in June 1969 to ensure that the Court would have a chief justice throughout the 1968 term and to allow Nixon to focus on other matters in the first months of [[presidency of Richard Nixon|his presidency]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=502–505}} Nixon did not solicit Warren's opinion regarding the next chief justice and ultimately appointed the conservative federal appellate judge [[Warren E. Burger]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=513–514}} Warren later regretted his decision to retire and reflected, "If I had ever known what was going to happen to this country and this Court, I never would have resigned. They would have had to carry me out of there on a plank."{{sfn|Hutchinson|1983|p=928n23}} In addition, he later remarked on his retirement and on the Warren Court, "I would like the Court to be remembered as the people's court."<ref name=":10" />

==Final years and death==
[[File:Chief Justice Earl Warren (18974663660).jpg|thumb|Grave at Arlington National Cemetery]]

After stepping down from the Court, Warren began working on his memoirs and took numerous speaking engagements. He also advocated for an end to the Vietnam War and the elimination of poverty.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=515–516}} He avoided publicly criticizing the [[Burger Court]], but was privately distressed by the Court's increasingly conservative holdings.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=518–520}} He closely followed investigations into the [[Watergate scandal]], a major political scandal that stemmed from a break-in of the [[Democratic National Committee]]'s headquarters and the Nixon administration's subsequent attempts to cover up that break-in. Warren continued to hold Nixon in low regard, privately stating that Nixon was "perhaps the most despicable president that this country has ever had."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=521–522}}

Five years into retirement, Warren died due to [[cardiac arrest]] at [[MedStar Georgetown University Hospital|Georgetown University Hospital]] in Washington, D.C., at 8:10&nbsp;p.m. on July 9, 1974, at the age of 83.<ref name=":21">{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/archives/la-me-earl-warren-19740710-story.html|title=From the Archives: Earl Warren Dies at 83; Chief Justice for 16 Years|date=July 10, 1974|work=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|access-date=October 6, 2019}}</ref> He had been hospitalized since July 2 due to [[congestive heart failure]] and [[coronary insufficiency]].<ref name=":21" /> On that same day, he was visited by Justices Brennan and Douglas, until 5:30&nbsp;p.m.<ref name=":21" /> Warren could not resist asking his friends whether the Court would order President Nixon to release the sixty-four tapes demanded by the Watergate investigation. Both justices assured him that the court had voted unanimously in ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'' for the release of the tapes. Relieved, Warren died just a few hours later, safe in the knowledge that the Court he had so loved would force justice on the man who had been his most bitter foe.{{sfn|Newton|2006|page=514}}{{efn|Facing [[Federal impeachment in the United States|impeachment]], Nixon resigned from office on August 9, 1974. He was succeeded by [[Gerald Ford]].{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=528–529}}}}

Warren had his wife and one of his daughters, Nina Elizabeth Brien, at his bedside when he died.<ref name=":21" /> After he [[Lying in state#United States|lay in repose]] in the Great Hall of the [[United States Supreme Court Building]], his funeral was held at [[Washington National Cathedral]], and he was interred at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].{{Sfn|Woodward|Armstrong|1979|p=385}}  The only other former governor of California whose final funeral services did not take place in California would be [[Ronald Reagan]], who became [[President of the United States]] and whose [[Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan|final funeral service]] also took place at Washington National Cathedral.

==Legacy==
===Historical reputation===
[[File:14 Earl Warren bust, US Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|Warren bust, [[U.S. Supreme Court]]]]
Warren is generally considered to be one of the most influential U.S. Supreme Court justices,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/12/the-100-most-influential-figures-in-american-history/305384/|title=The 100 Most Influential Figures in American History|date=December 1, 2006|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=September 1, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/12/they-made-america/305385/|title=They Made America|last=Douthat|first=Ross|date=December 1, 2006|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=September 1, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/09/15/how-americas-supreme-court-became-so-politicised|title=How America's Supreme Court became so politicised|date=September 15, 2018|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=October 4, 2019|issn=0013-0613}}</ref> as well as political leaders in the history of the United States.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0319.html|title=Earl Warren, 83, Who Led High Court In Time of Vast Social Change, Is Dead|website=archive.nytimes.com|access-date=September 1, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2731&context=californialawreview|title=Earl Warren--A Tribute|last=Truman|first=Harry|website=University of California, Berkeley}}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.californiamuseum.org/inductee/earl-warren|title=Earl Warren|website=California Museum|date=February 17, 2012 |language=en|access-date=September 1, 2019}}</ref> The [[Warren Court]] has been recognized by many to have created a [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] "Constitutional Revolution",<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swindler|first=William F.|date=1970|title=The Warren Court: Completion of a Constitutional Revolution|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf|journal=Vanderbilt Law Review|volume=23|access-date=September 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003223936/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf|archive-date=October 3, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> which embodied a deep belief in equal justice, [[freedom]], [[democracy]], and [[human rights]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Horwitz|first=Morton J.|date=Winter 1993|title=The Warren Court And The Pursuit Of Justice|url=https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1814&context=wlulr|journal=Washington and Lee Law Review|volume=50}}</ref>{{sfn|Driver|2012}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Warren Court and American Politics|last=Powe|first=Lucas A. Jr.|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2002}}</ref> In July 1974, after Warren died, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' commented that "Mr. Warren ranked with [[John Marshall]] and [[Roger Taney]] as one of the three most important chief justices in the nation's history."<ref name=":21"/> In December 2006, ''[[The Atlantic]]'' cited Earl Warren as the 29th most influential person in the history of the United States and the second most influential Chief Justice, after John Marshall.<ref name=":1"/> In September 2018, ''[[The Economist]]'' named Warren as "the 20th century's most consequential American jurist" and one of "the 20th century's greatest liberal jurists".<ref name=":9"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/09/15/americas-highest-court-needs-term-limits|title=America's highest court needs term limits|date=September 15, 2018|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=October 4, 2019|issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

President [[Harry S. Truman]] wrote in his tribute to Warren, which appeared in the ''[[California Law Review]]'' in 1970, "[t]he Warren record as Chief Justice has stamped him in the annals of history as the man who read and interpreted the [[Constitution]] in relation to its ultimate intent. He sensed the call of the times-and he rose to the call."<ref name=":0" /> Supreme Court Associate Justice [[William O. Douglas]] wrote, in the same article, "in my view [Warren] will rank with [[John Marshall|Marshall]] and [[Charles Evans Hughes|Hughes]] in the broad sweep of United States history".<ref name=":0" /> According to biographer Ed Cray, Warren was "second in greatness only to [[John Marshall]] himself in the eyes of most impartial students of the Court as well as the Court's critics."{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=530–531}} [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner [[Anthony Lewis]] described Warren as "the closest thing the United States has had to a [[Philosopher king|Platonic Guardian]]".{{sfn|Hutchinson|1983|p=924}} In 1958, [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] sent one copy of his newly published book, ''[[Stride Toward Freedom]]'', to Chief Justice Earl Warren, writing on the first free end page:<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hakes.com/Auction/ItemDetail/98714/MARTIN-LUTHER-KING-JRS-FIRST-BOOK-SIGNED-AND-INSCRIBED-TO-CHIEF-JUSTICE-EARL-WARREN|title=Hake's - MARTIN LUTHER KING JR'S FIRST BOOK SIGNED AND INSCRIBED TO CHIEF JUSTICE EARL WARREN.|website=www.hakes.com|access-date=September 22, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://observer.com/2015/07/pop-culture-auction-house-sells-1-2m-in-memorabilia/|title=First Edition MLK Book Belonging to Earl Warren Leads $1.2M Pop Collectibles Sale|date=July 28, 2015|website=Observer|language=en|access-date=September 22, 2019}}</ref> "To: Justice Earl Warren. In appreciation for your genuine good-will, your great humanitarian concern, and your unswerving devotion to the sublime principles of our American democracy. With warm Regards, Martin L. King Jr." The book remained with Warren's family until 2015, when it was auctioned online for [[US$]]49,335 (including the [[buyer's premium]]).<ref name=":7"/>

Warren's critics found him a boring person. [[Dennis J. Hutchinson]] wrote: "Although Warren was an important and courageous figure and although he inspired passionate devotion among his followers...he was a dull man and a dull judge."{{sfn|Hutchinson|1983|p=930}} [[Conservatism in the United States|Conservatives]] attacked the Warren Court's rulings as inappropriate and have called for courts to be deferential to the elected political branches.{{sfn|Urofsky|2001|p=xii}}{{sfn|Powe|2000|p=101|}} In his 1977 book ''[[Government by Judiciary]]'', [[originalist]] and legal scholar [[Raoul Berger]] accuses the Warren Court of overstepping its authority by interpreting the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th Amendment]] in a way contrary to the original intent of its draftsmen and framers in order to achieve results that it found desirable as a matter of [[public policy]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Raoul Berger |url=https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/berger-government-by-judiciary-the-transformation-of-the-fourteenth-amendment |title=Government by Judiciary: The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment |publisher=Online Library of Liberty |access-date=April 13, 2019}}</ref>

Overall, law professor Justin Driver divides interpretations of the Warren Court into three main groups: conservatives such as [[Robert Bork]] who attack the Court as "a legislator of policy...that was not theirs to make", liberals such as [[Morton Horwitz]] who strongly approve of the Court, and liberals such as [[Cass Sunstein]] who largely approve of the Court's overall legacy but believe that it went too far in making policy in some cases.{{sfn|Driver|2012}} Driver offers a little-known fourth view, arguing that the Warren Court took overly conservative stances in such cases as ''[[Powell v. Texas]]'' and ''[[Hoyt v. Florida]]''.{{Sfn|Driver|2012|pp=1103–1107}} As for the legacy of the Warren Court, Chief Justice Burger, who succeeded Earl Warren in 1969, proved to be quite ineffective at consolidating conservative control over the Court, so the Warren Court legacy continued in many respects until about 1986, when [[William Rehnquist]] became chief justice and took firmer control of the agenda.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Stephen L.|last=Wasby|title=Civil Rights and the Supreme Court: A Return of the Past|journal=[[National Political Science Review]]|date=July 1993|volume=4|pages=49–60}}</ref> Even the more conservative [[Rehnquist Court]] refrained from expressly overturning major Warren Court cases such as ''Miranda'', ''Gideon'', ''Brown v. Board of Education'', and ''Reynolds v. Sims''.{{Sfn|Cray|1997|pp=529–530}} On occasion, the Rehnquist Court expanded Warren Court precedents, such as in ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'', where the Rehnquist Court applied the principles of 1960s voting rights cases to invalidate Florida's recount in the [[2000 U.S. presidential election]].<ref>{{cite web|author=E. Joshua Rosenkranz |url=https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/high-courts-misuse-past |title=High Court's Misuse of the Past |publisher=Brennan Center for Justice |date=January 15, 2001 |access-date=April 13, 2019}}</ref>

===Memorials and honors===
[[File:Earl Warren Hall Mongolian Oak.jpg|thumb|Earl Warren Hall, [[University of California, Berkeley]]|alt=]]
[[File:Earl Warren Building (San Francisco).JPG|thumb|[[Earl Warren Building]], headquarters of [[California Supreme Court]] ([[San Francisco]])]]

Earl Warren was awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] posthumously in 1981. He was also honored by the [[United States Postal Service]] with a 29¢ [[Great Americans series]] postage stamp.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Smithsonian Postal Museum|title=29-cent Warren|url=http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&mode=1&tid=2037014|access-date=February 19, 2014|archive-date=February 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228035559/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&mode=1&tid=2037014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In December 2007, Warren was inducted into the [[California Hall of Fame]].<ref>[http://www.californiamuseum.org/Exhibits/Hall-of-Fame/inductees.html Warren inducted into California Hall of Fame] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411170029/http://www.californiamuseum.org/Exhibits/Hall-of-Fame/inductees.html |date=April 11, 2008 }}, California Museum, Accessed 2007</ref> An extensive collection of Warren's papers, including case files from his Supreme Court service, is located at the Manuscript Division of the [[Library of Congress]] in Washington, D.C. Most of the collection is open for research.

On the campus of the [[University of California, Berkeley]], Warren's [[alma mater]], "Earl Warren Hall" is named after him.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dac.berkeley.edu/warren-hall-2195-hearst-ave|title=Warren Hall (2195 Hearst Ave.) {{!}} Disability Access & Compliance|website=dac.berkeley.edu|access-date=September 27, 2019}}</ref> In addition, the [[UC Berkeley School of Law]] has established "The Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Race, Ethnicity and Diversity", or "Warren Institute" for short, in memory of Earl Warren, while the "Warren Room" inside the Law Building was also named in his honor.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Race, Ethnicity and Diversity at the University of California, Berkeley School of Law|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/warreninstitute|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.berkeley.edu/venue/warren-room-boalt-295/|title=Warren Room, Boalt 295|website=Berkeley Law|language=en-US|access-date=September 27, 2019}}</ref>

In 2016 the [[United States Navy]] named the support ship {{USNS|Earl Warren}} in his honour.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.navaltoday.com/2016/12/15/us-secnav-names-three-vessels/|title=US SECNAV names three vessels|publisher=navaltoday.com |date=December 15, 2016|access-date=April 10, 2023}}</ref>

A number of governmental and educational institutions have been named for Warren:
* The [[Earl Warren Building]], the headquarters of the [[Supreme Court of California]] in [[San Francisco]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.courts.ca.gov/3013.htm|title=Contact Us - supreme_court|website=www.courts.ca.gov|access-date=September 27, 2019}}</ref>
* The Earl Warren chapter of the [[American Inns of Court]], [[Alameda County, California]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlwarreninn.org/about.html|title=About|website=Earl Warren American Inn of Court|language=en|access-date=September 27, 2019|archive-date=September 27, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927035005/http://www.earlwarreninn.org/about.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The Warren Freeway, the controlled-access portion of [[California State Route 13]] in Alameda County[[File:Earl Warren College 5 2017-10-19.jpg|thumb|[[Earl Warren College]], [[University of California, San Diego]]|alt=|200x200px]]
* In 1977, Fourth College, one of the eight [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] colleges at the [[University of California, San Diego]], was renamed [[Earl Warren College]] in his honor, and the [[Earl Warren Bill of Rights Project]] at UCSD is also named in his honor.<ref name=":8" />
* [[Warren High School (Downey, California)|Warren High School]], [[Downey, California]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dusd.net/warren/|title=Warren High - Home of the Bears|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024211703/http://www.dusd.net/warren/|archive-date=October 24, 2015}}</ref>
* [[Earl Warren High School]], [[San Antonio, Texas]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nisd.net/warren/about-us|title=About Us {{!}} Warren High School|website=nisd.net|language=en|access-date=October 3, 2019|archive-date=October 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002031342/https://nisd.net/warren/about-us|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Warren Hall, [[Bakersfield High School]] (the high school Warren attended)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bakersfield.com/bakersfield_life/history-growing-up-and-headed-for-college/article_85ee05f8-c53a-52e5-9374-79cb3158453b.html|title=History: Growing up and headed for college|last=Hooper|first=Ken|website=The Bakersfield Californian|date=June 28, 2013 |language=en|access-date=September 27, 2019}}</ref>
* Warren Junior High School, [[Bakersfield, California]] (Warren's hometown)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Warren Junior High|url=https://ca01902269.schoolwires.net/domain/2092|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106220157/https://www.pbvusd.k12.ca.us/warren|archive-date=January 6, 2014|access-date=October 3, 2019|website=Panama-Buena Vista Union School District|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Earl Warren Middle School]], [[Solana Beach, California]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ew.sduhsd.net/Campus-Info/About-EWMS/index.html|title=Earl Warren Middle School - About EWMS|website=ew.sduhsd.net|access-date=October 3, 2019}}</ref>
* Warren Elementary School, [[Garden Grove, California]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warren.ggusd.us/|title=Home {{!}} Warren Elementary School|website=warren.ggusd.us|access-date=October 3, 2019}}</ref>
* Earl Warren Elementary School, [[Lake Elsinore, California]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ewe.leusd.k12.ca.us/|title=Earl Warren Elementary School|website=ewe.leusd.k12.ca.us|access-date=October 3, 2019}}</ref>
* The Earl Warren Showgrounds in [[Santa Barbara, California]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://santabarbaraca.com/businesses/earl-warren-showgrounds/|title=Earl Warren Showgrounds|website=Visit Santa Barbara|language=en-US|access-date=October 3, 2019}}</ref>

==Electoral history==
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'''California Republican presidential primary, 1936''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA US President - R Primary Race - May 05, 1936 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=35539 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 350,917 (57.43%)
* [[Alf Landon]]&nbsp;– 260,170 (42.58%)

'''[[1936 United States presidential election|1936 Republican presidential primaries]]''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - US President - R Primaries Race - Feb 01, 1936 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55177 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* [[William Edgar Borah]]&nbsp;– 1,478,676 (44.48%)
* [[Alf Landon]]&nbsp;– 729,908 (21.96%)
* [[Frank Knox]]&nbsp;– 527,054 (15.85%)
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 350,917 (10.56%)
* [[Stephen A. Day]]&nbsp;– 155,732 (4.69%)
* [[Warren Green]]&nbsp;– 44,518 (1.34%)

'''Republican primary for [[Governor of California]], 1942''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA Governor - R Primary Race - Aug 25, 1942 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=379493 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 635,230 (94.23%)
* [[Nathan T. Porter]]&nbsp;– 15,604 (2.32%)
* [[William E. Riker]]&nbsp;– 10,004 (1.48%)
* [[Fred Dyster]]&nbsp;– 9,824 (1.46%)
* [[Culbert Olson]] (inc.) ([[Write-in candidate|write-in]])&nbsp;– 3,504 (0.52%)

'''Democratic primary for Governor of California, 1942''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA Governor - D Primary Race - Aug 25, 1942 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=379494 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* [[Culbert Olson]] (inc.)&nbsp;– 513,244 (51.98%)
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 404,778 (41.00%)
* [[Roy G. Owens]]&nbsp;– 50,780 (5.14%)
* [[Nathan T. Porter]]&nbsp;– 11,302 (1.15%)
* [[Alonzo J. Riggs]]&nbsp;– 7,231 (0.73%)

'''[[California gubernatorial election, 1942]]''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA Governor Race - Nov 03, 1942 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=121646 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren (R)&nbsp;– 1,275,237 (57.07%)
* [[Culbert Olson]] (D) (inc.)&nbsp;– 932,995 (41.75%)

'''California Republican presidential primary, 1944'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA US President - R Primary Race - May 16, 1944 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=35767 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 594,439 (100.00%)

'''[[1944 United States presidential election|1944 Republican presidential primaries]]''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - US President - R Primaries Race - Feb 01, 1944 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55184 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* [[Douglas MacArthur]]&nbsp;– 662,127 (28.94%)
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 594,439 (25.99%)
* [[John W. Bricker]]&nbsp;– 366,444 (16.02%)
* [[Thomas E. Dewey]]&nbsp;– 278,727 (12.18%)
* [[W. Chapman Revercomb]]&nbsp;– 91,602 (4.00%)
* Unpledged&nbsp;– 87,834 (3.84%)
* [[Harold Stassen]]&nbsp;– 67,508 (2.95%)
* [[Riley A. Bender]]&nbsp;– 37,575 (1.64%)
* [[Charles A. Christopherson]]&nbsp;– 33,497 (1.46%)
* [[Wendell Willkie]]&nbsp;– 27,097 (1.19%)

'''Republican primary for Governor of California, 1946''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA Governor - R Primary Race - Jun 05, 1946 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=311940 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren (inc.)&nbsp;– 774,302 (91.10%)
* [[Robert W. Kenny]]&nbsp;– 70,331 (8.27%)

'''Democratic primary for Governor of California, 1946''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA Governor - D Primary Race - Jun 05, 1946 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=311939 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren (inc.)&nbsp;– 593,180 (51.93%)
* [[Robert W. Kenny]]&nbsp;– 530,968 (46.49%)

'''[[California gubernatorial election, 1946]]''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA Governor Race - Nov 05, 1946 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=121645 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren (R, D) (inc.)&nbsp;– 2,344,542 (91.64%)
* [[Henry R. Schmidt]] (Prohibition)&nbsp;– 180,579 (7.06%)
* Archie Brown (Communist)&nbsp;– 22,606 (0.88%)
* [[James Roosevelt]] (D) ([[Write-in candidate|write-in]])&nbsp;– 3,210 (0.13%)

'''[[1948 United States presidential election|1948 Republican presidential primaries]]''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - US President - R Primaries Race - Feb 01, 1948 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55187 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 771,295 (26.99%)
* [[Harold Stassen]]&nbsp;– 627,321 (21.96%)
* [[Robert A. Taft]]&nbsp;– 464,741 (16.27%)
* [[Thomas E. Dewey]]&nbsp;– 330,799 (11.58%)
* [[Riley A. Bender]]&nbsp;– 324,029 (11.34%)
* [[Douglas MacArthur]]&nbsp;– 87,839 (3.07%)
* [[Leverett Saltonstall]]&nbsp;– 72,191 (2.53%)
* [[Herbert E. Hitchcock]]&nbsp;– 45,463 (1.59%)
* [[Edward Martin (Pennsylvania politician)|Edward Martin]]&nbsp;– 45,072 (1.58%)
* Unpledged&nbsp;– 28,854 (1.01%)
* [[Arthur H. Vandenberg]]&nbsp;– 18,924 (0.66%)
* [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]&nbsp;– 5,014 (0.18%)
* [[Harry S. Truman]]&nbsp;– 4,907 (0.17%)
* [[Henry A. Wallace]]&nbsp;– 1,452 (0.05%)
* [[Joseph William Martin Jr.]]&nbsp;– 974 (0.03%)
* [[Alfred E. Driscoll]]&nbsp;– 44 (0.00%)
* Others&nbsp;– 5,939 (0.21%)

'''[[1948 Republican National Convention]] (Presidential tally)'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - US President - R Convention Race - Jun 21, 1948 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=57983 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* [[Thomas E. Dewey]]&nbsp;– 1,094 (60.74%)
* [[Robert A. Taft]]&nbsp;– 274 (15.21%)
* [[Harold Stassen]]&nbsp;– 157 (8.72%)
* [[Arthur H. Vandenberg]]&nbsp;– 62 (3.44%)
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 59 (3.28%)
* [[Dwight H. Green]]&nbsp;– 56 (3.11%)
* [[Alfred E. Driscoll]]&nbsp;– 35 (1.94%)
* [[Raymond E. Baldwin]]&nbsp;– 19 (1.06%)
* [[Joseph William Martin Jr.]]&nbsp;– 18 (1.00%)
* [[B. Carroll Reece]]&nbsp;– 15 (0.83%)
* [[Douglas MacArthur]]&nbsp;– 11 (0.61%)
* [[Everett Dirksen]]&nbsp;– 1 (0.06%)

'''[[1948 Republican National Convention]] (Vice Presidential tally)''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - US Vice President - R Convention Race - Jun 21, 1948 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=60069 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 1,094 (100.00%)

'''[[1948 United States presidential election]]'''
* [[Harry S. Truman]]/[[Alben W. Barkley]] (D)&nbsp;– 24,179,347 (49.6%) and 303 electoral votes (28 states carried)
* [[Thomas E. Dewey]]/Earl Warren (R)&nbsp;– 21,991,292 (45.1%) and 189 electoral votes (16 states carried)
* [[Strom Thurmond]]/[[Fielding L. Wright]] ([[Dixiecrat]])&nbsp;– 1,175,930 (2.4%) and 39 electoral votes (4 states carried)
* [[Henry A. Wallace]]/[[Glen H. Taylor]] (Progressive)&nbsp;– 1,157,328 (2.4%)

'''[[California gubernatorial election, 1950]]''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA Governor Race - Nov 07, 1950 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=121644 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* Earl Warren (R) (inc.)&nbsp;– 2,461,754 (64.85%)
* [[James Roosevelt]] (D)&nbsp;– 1,333,856 (35.14%)

'''[[1952 United States presidential election|1952 Republican presidential primaries]]''':<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - US President - R Primaries Race - Feb 01, 1952 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55194 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>
* [[Robert A. Taft]]&nbsp;– 2,794,736 (35.84%)
* [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]&nbsp;– 2,050,708 (26.30%)
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 1,349,036 (17.30%)
* [[Harold Stassen]]&nbsp;– 881,702 (11.31%)
* [[Thomas H. Werdel]]&nbsp;– 521,110 (6.68%)
* [[George T. Mickelson]]&nbsp;– 63,879 (0.82%)
* [[Douglas MacArthur]]&nbsp;– 44,209 (0.57%)
* [[Grant A. Ritter]]&nbsp;– 26,208 (0.34%)
* [[Edward C. Slettedahl]]&nbsp;– 22,712 (0.29%)
* [[Riley A. Bender]]&nbsp;– 22,321 (0.29%)
* [[Mary E. Kenny]]&nbsp;– 10,411 (0.13%)
* [[Wayne Morse]]&nbsp;– 7,105 (0.09%)
* [[Perry J. Stearns]]&nbsp;– 2,925 (0.04%)
* [[William R. Schneider]]&nbsp;– 580 (0.01%)

'''[[1952 Republican National Convention]] (1st ballot)'''
* [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]&nbsp;– 595
* [[Robert A. Taft]]&nbsp;– 500
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 81
* [[Harold Stassen]]&nbsp;– 20
* [[Douglas MacArthur]]&nbsp;– 10

'''[[1952 Republican National Convention]] (2nd ballot)'''
* [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]&nbsp;– 845
* [[Robert A. Taft]]&nbsp;– 280
* Earl Warren&nbsp;– 77
* [[Douglas MacArthur]]&nbsp;– 4

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==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|California|United States|Politics}}
* [[List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States]]
* [[List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)]]
* [[List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office]]
* [[List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court|United States Supreme Court cases during the Warren Court]]
{{Clear}}

==Explanatory notes==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== General bibliography ==
=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book |last=Abraham |first=Henry J. |title=Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_f0e8|url-access=registration |year=1992 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-506557-2 |edition=3rd}}
* {{cite book |last=Belknap |first=Michael |title=The Supreme Court Under Earl Warren, 1953–1969 |year=2005 |publisher=The University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-57003-563-0 }}
* {{cite book|title=Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren|last=Cray|first=Ed|year=1997|publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-80852-9}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Driver |first1=Justin |title=The Constitutional Conservatism of the Warren Court |journal=California Law Review |date=2012 |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=1101–1167 |jstor=23408735}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hutchinson|first1=Dennis J.|title=Hail to the Chief: Earl Warren and the Supreme Court|journal=[[Michigan Law Review]]|date=1983|volume=81|issue=4|pages=922–983|url=http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2526&context=journal_articles|access-date=July 30, 2016|doi=10.2307/1288417|jstor=1288417|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Daniel J. B. |title=Earl Warren's California Health Insurance Plan: What Might Have Been |journal=Southern California Quarterly |date=2003 |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=205–228 |jstor=41172162|doi=10.2307/41172162 }}
* {{cite book |last=Newton |first=Jim |title=Justice for All: Earl Warren and the Nation He Made |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trsJuWHaLewC&pg=PA72 |year=2006 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1594482700 }}
* {{cite book |last=Patterson |first=James T. |title=Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy |url=https://archive.org/details/brownvboardofedu2001patt |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195156324 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last=Powe |first=Lucas A. |title=The Warren Court and American Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/warrencourtameri00powe|url-access=registration |year=2000 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0674006836 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schwartz |first1=Bernard |title=Super Chief: Earl Warren and His Supreme Court, A Judicial Biography |date=1983 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=9780814778265}}
* {{cite book|first=Melvin I.|last=Urofsky|title=The Warren Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576071601}}
* {{cite journal |last1=White |first1=G. Edward |title=Earl Warren as Jurist |journal=Virginia Law Review |date=1981 |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=461–551 |jstor=1072897|doi=10.2307/1072897 }}
* {{cite book |last=White |first=G. Edward |title=Earl Warren, a Public Life |url=https://archive.org/details/earlwarrenpublic00whit |year=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-503121-8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Woodward |first1=Robert |author-link1=Bob Woodward |last2=Armstrong |first2=Scott |author-link2=Scott Armstrong (journalist) |title=The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court |year=1979 |isbn=978-0743274029 |title-link=The Brethren (non-fiction) |publisher=Simon & Schuster }} {{ISBN|978-0-380-52183-8}}. {{ISBN|978-0-671-24110-0}}.
{{refend}}

===Primary sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Earl |year=1977 |title=The Memoirs of Earl Warren |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofearlwar0000warr |location=Garden City, N.Y. |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0385128353 }} Goes only to 1954.
* {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Earl |year=1959 |editor-last=Christman |editor-first=Henry M. |title=The Public Papers of Chief Justice Earl Warren |url=https://www.questia.com/read/6131221 |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |oclc=184375 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Speeches and decisions, 1946–1958.
* {{Cite book|last=Willens |first=Howard P. |title=History will prove us right : inside the Warren Commission report on the assassination of John F. Kennedy |date=October 31, 2013 |isbn=978-1-4683-0917-1 |location=New York, NY |oclc=863152345}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Horwitz |first=Morton J. |title=The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice |url=https://archive.org/details/warrencourtpursu00mort |year=1999 |publisher=Hill and Wang Critical Issues |isbn=978-0809016259 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Anthony |title=The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions |chapter=Earl Warren |editor1-first=Leon |editor1-last=Friedman |editor2-first=Fred L. |editor2-last=Israel |volume=4 |chapter-url=https://www.questia.com/read/99223171 |year=1997 |isbn=978-0791013779 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/justicesofunited0000unse/page/1373 1373–1400] |url=https://archive.org/details/justicesofunited0000unse/page/1373 |publisher=New York : Chelsea House Publishers }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moke |first1=Paul |title=Earl Warren and the Struggle for Justice |date=2015 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1498520133}}
* {{Cite book|date=1981|first1=Warren|last1=Olney III|first2=Herbert|last2=Brownell|url=http://archive.org/details/enforcementjudi00olnerich|title= "Law Enforcement and Judicial Administration in the Earl Warren Era," an oral history conducted 1970 through 1977 by Miriam F. Stein and Amelia R. Fry|publisher=Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley|quote=The Earl Warren Oral History Project,[...] was inaugurated in 1969 to produce tape-recorded interviews with persons prominent in the arenas of politics, governmental administration, and criminal Justice during the Warren Era in California. Focusing on the years 1925-1953, the interviews were designed not only to document the life of Chief Justice Warren "but to gain new information on the social and political changes of a state in the throes of a depression, then a war, then a postwar boom".}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rawls |first1=James J. |year=1987 |title=The Earl Warren Oral History Project: an Appraisal |journal=[[Pacific Historical Review]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=87–97 |doi=10.2307/3638827 |jstor=3638827 }}
* {{cite book |last=Scheiber |first=Harry N. |title=Earl Warren and the Warren Court: The Legacy in American and Foreign Law |year=2006 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0739116357}}
* {{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Bernard |title=The Warren Court: A Retrospective |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195104394 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schwartz |first1=Bernard |title=Chief Justice Earl Warren: Super Chief in Action |journal=[[Journal of Supreme Court History]] |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5818.1998.tb00128.x |url= https://digitalcommons.law.utulsa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2131&context=tlr|year=1998 |s2cid=144488598 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simon |first1=James F. |title=Eisenhower vs. Warren: The Battle for Civil Rights and Liberties |date=2018 |publisher=Liveright Publishing |isbn=9780871407665}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Smemo |first1=Kristoffer |title=The Little People's Century: Industrial Pluralism, Economic Development, and the Emergence of Liberal Republicanism in California, 1942-1946 |journal=Journal of American History |date=2005 |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=1166–1189|doi=10.1093/jahist/jav143 }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=J. Douglas |title=On Democracy's Doorstep: The Inside Story of How the Supreme Court Brought "One Person, One Vote" to the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/ondemocracysdoor0000smit |year=2014 |publisher=Hill and Wang |isbn=978-0809074235 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stone |first1=Irving |title=Earl Warren: A Great American Story |author-link=Irving Stone |date=1948 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=New York }}
* {{cite book |last=Tushnet |first=Mark |title=The Warren Court in Historical and Political Perspective |year=1996 |publisher=University of Virginia Press |isbn=978-0813916651 }}

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Earl Warren |sopt=t}}
* {{FJC Bio|2506|nid=1389396|name=Earl Warren<!--(1891–1974)-->}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011127105107/http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/oralhistory.hom/warren-e/warren-e.asp |title=Oral History Interview with Earl Warren, from the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library |date=November 27, 2001}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106125504/http://www.msana.com/emapr06.asp |title=More information on Earl Warren and his Masonic Career. |date=January 6, 2007}}
* [https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/earlwarrenjfkeulogy.htm Earl Warren's Eulogy for John F. Kennedy]
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613184833/http://hoohila.stanford.edu/commonwealth/programView.php?programID=24 |title="California 1946," (Dec 21, 1945) |date=June 13, 2011}}. A speech by Earl Warren from the [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt3g5032c1&brand=oac Commonwealth Club of California Records] at the [http://www.hoover.org/hila/ Hoover Institution Archives]
* {{Internet Archive film clip|id=gov.archives.arc.95746|description="Longines Chronoscope with Earl Warren (April 11, 1952)"}}
* {{YouTube|Y3iGNU-h504|Comedy Clip Earl Warren & Gracie Allen – November 15, 1952}}
* [http://uscivilliberties.org/biography/4688-warren-earl-18911974.html Biography Earl Warren (1891–1974)] author Melvin I. Urofsky

{{Navboxes
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{{s-ttl|title=[[California Attorney General|Attorney General of California]]|years=1939–1943}}
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{{s-ttl|title=Keynote Speaker of the [[Republican National Convention]]|years=[[1944 Republican National Convention|1944]]}}
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