Editing Early modern Britain

{{short description|Period of history of the island of Great Britain}}

'''Early modern Britain''' is the history of the island of [[Great Britain]] roughly corresponding to the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Major historical events in early modern British history include numerous wars, especially with France, along with the [[English Renaissance]], the [[English Reformation]] and [[Scottish Reformation]], the [[English Civil War]], the Restoration of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], the [[Glorious Revolution]], the [[Treaty of Union]], the [[Scottish Enlightenment]] and the formation and the collapse of the [[First British Empire]].

== England during the Tudor period (1485–1603) ==
{{Main|Tudor period}}

=== English Renaissance ===
{{Main|English Renaissance}}
The term, "[[English Renaissance]]" is used by many historians to refer to a cultural movement in England in the 16th and 17th centuries that was heavily influenced by the [[Italian Renaissance]]. This movement is characterised by the flowering of English music (particularly the English adoption and development of the madrigal), notable achievements in drama (by William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson), and the development of English epic poetry (most famously Edmund Spenser's ''The Faerie Queene'').<ref>Dennis Austin Britton, "Recent Studies in English Renaissance Literature." ''English Literary Renaissance'' 45#3 (2015): 459-478.</ref>

The idea of the Renaissance has come under increased criticism by many cultural historians, and some have contended that the "English Renaissance" has no real tie with the artistic achievements and aims of the northern Italian artists ([[Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Donatello]]) who are closely identified with the [[Renaissance]]. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

Other cultural historians have countered that, regardless of whether the name "renaissance" is apt, there was undeniably an artistic flowering in England under the [[House of Tudor]], culminating in Shakespeare and his contemporaries. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

=== The rise of the Tudors ===
Some scholars date the beginning of Early Modern Britain to the end of the [[Wars of the Roses]] and the crowning of [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]] in 1485 after his victory at the [[battle of Bosworth Field]].  Henry VII's largely peaceful reign ended decades of civil war and brought the peace and stability to England needed for art and commerce to thrive.  A major war on English soil would not occur again until the [[English Civil War]] of the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Tudor England |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-299-9 |editor-last=Wagner |editor-first=John A. |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |editor-last2=Schmid |editor-first2=Susan Walters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Guy |first=John |title=Tudor England |date=2000-02-24 |publisher=Oxford University Press, U.S.A. |isbn=978-0-19-285213-7 |edition=Revised |location=Oxford |language=English}}</ref><ref>Wallace McCaffrey,  "Recent Writings on Tutor History", in Richard Schlatter, ed., ''Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966'' (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 1–34</ref> The Wars of the Roses claimed an estimated 105,000 dead.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clodfelter|first1=Micheal|title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th ed|date=2017|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-7470-7|page=51}}</ref>

During this period Henry VII and his son [[Henry VIII]] greatly increased the power of the English monarchy. A similar pattern was unfolding on the continent as new technologies, such as [[gunpowder]], and social and ideological changes undermined the power of the feudal nobility and enhanced that of the sovereign. Henry VIII also [[English Reformation|made use]] of the [[Protestant Reformation]] to seize the power of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Dissolution of the monasteries|confiscating the property of the monasteries]] and declaring himself the [[Acts of Supremacy|head]] of the new [[Anglican Church]]. Under the Tudors, the English state was centralized and rationalized as a bureaucracy built up and the government became run and managed by educated functionaries. The most notable new institution was the [[Star Chamber]].
[[Image:Family of Henry VIII, an Allegory of the Tudor Succession.png|thumb|''Allegory of the [[Tudor dynasty]]'' (detail), attributed to [[Lucas de Heere]], {{circa}} 1572: left to right, [[Philip II of Spain]], [[Mary I of England|Mary]], [[Henry VIII]], [[Edward VI]], [[Elizabeth I]]]]
The new power of the monarch was given a basis by the notion of the [[divine right of kings]] to rule over their subjects. [[James VI and I|James I]] was a major proponent of this idea and wrote extensively on it. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

The same forces that had reduced the power of the traditional aristocracy also served to increase the power of the commercial classes. The rise of trade and the central importance of money to the operation of the government gave this new class great power, but power that was not reflected in the government structure. This would lead to a long contest during the 17th century between the forces of the monarch and parliament. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

=== Elizabethan era (1558–1603) ===
{{Main|Elizabethan era}}
The '''Elizabethan Era''' is the reign of [[Elizabeth I|Queen Elizabeth I]] and is known to be a [[Golden Age|golden age]] in [[History of England|English history]]. It was the height of the [[English Renaissance]] and saw the flowering of [[English literature]] and [[English poetry|poetry]]. This was also the time during which [[Elizabethan theatre]] was famous and [[William Shakespeare]], among others, composed plays that broke away from England's past style of plays and theatre. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad, while at home the [[Protestant Reformation]] became entrenched in the national mindset.<ref>John A. Wagner, ''Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World: Britain, Ireland, Europe, and America'' (1999) [https://www.questia.com/read/8999727/historical-dictionary-of-the-elizabethan-world-britain online edition]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Penry |title=The Later Tudors: England, 1547-1603 |date=1998-05-21 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-288044-4 |location=Oxford |language=English}}</ref>

The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly because of the contrasts with the periods before and after. It was a brief period of largely internal peace between the [[English Reformation]] and the battles between [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and [[Catholicism|Catholics]] and the battles between [[Parliament of England|parliament]] and the [[monarchy]] that engulfed the 17th century. The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]], and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also well-off compared to the other nations of Europe. The [[Italian Renaissance]] had come to an end under the weight of foreign domination of the peninsula. France was embroiled in its own religious battles that would only be settled in 1598 with the [[Edict of Nantes]]. In part because of this, but also because the English had been expelled from their last outposts on the continent, the centuries long conflict between France and England was largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

The one great rival was [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]], with which England conflicted both in Europe and the [[Americas]] in skirmishes that exploded into the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)]]. The conflict might be said to be the first world war, in that it was fought on two continents (Europe and the Americas) and two oceans (the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and, just barely, the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bucholz |first1=Robert |last2=Key |first2=Newton |title=Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |page=144}}</ref>

England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government, largely a result of the reforms of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and [[Henry VIII]]. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade.

== Scotland from 15th century to 1603 ==
Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the 15th century with the founding of the [[University of St Andrews]] in 1413, the [[University of Glasgow]] in 1450 and the [[University of Aberdeen]] in 1495, and with the passing of the [[Education Act 1496]].<ref>Keith M. Brown, "Early Modern Scottish History – A Survey", ''Scottish Historical Review'' (April 2013 Supplement), Vol. 92, pp. 5–24.</ref><ref>Michael Lynch, ed., ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199234825 excerpt].</ref>

In 1468 the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when [[James III of Scotland|James III]] married [[Margaret of Denmark, Queen of Scotland|Margaret of Denmark]], receiving the [[Orkney Islands]] and the [[Shetland Islands]] in payment of her dowry. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

After the death of James III in 1488, during or after the Battle of Sauchieburn, his successor [[James IV of Scotland|James IV]] successfully ended the quasi-independent rule of the [[Lord of the Isles]], bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time. In 1503, he married [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s daughter, [[Margaret Tudor]], thus laying the foundation for the 17th century [[Union of the Crowns]]. James IV's reign is often considered to be a period of cultural flourishing, and it was around this period that the European [[Renaissance]] began to infiltrate Scotland. James IV was the last Scottish king known to speak [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]], although some suggest his son could also. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

In 1512, under a treaty extending the Auld Alliance, all nationals of Scotland and France also became nationals of each other's countries, a status not repealed in France until 1903 and which may never have been repealed in Scotland.  However a year later, the Auld Alliance had more disastrous effects when James IV was required to launch an invasion of England to support the French when they were attacked by the English under [[Henry VIII]]. The invasion was stopped decisively at the [[battle of Flodden]] during which the King, many of his nobles, and over 10,000 troops—''The Flowers of the Forest''—were killed. The extent of the disaster impacted throughout Scotland because of the large numbers killed, and once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents. The song ''[[Flowers of the Forest|The Flooers o' the Forest]]'' commemorated this, an echo of the poem ''[[Y Gododdin]]'' on a similar tragedy in about 600. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

When [[James V]] finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents with the aid of his redoubtable mother in 1528, he once again set about subduing the rebellious Highlands, Western and Northern isles, as his father had had to do. He married the French noblewoman [[Mary of Guise]]. His reign was fairly successful, until another disastrous campaign against England led to defeat at the [[battle of Solway Moss]] (1542). James died a short time later. The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who became [[Mary, Queen of Scots]]. James is supposed to have remarked in [[Scots language|Scots]] that ''"it cam wi a lass, it will gang wi a lass"''—referring to the House of Stewart which began with Walter Stewart's marriage to the daughter of Robert the Bruce. Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent, James Hamilton, Earl of Arran. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

=== Mary, Queen of Scots ===
{{Main|Mary, Queen of Scots}}
Within two years, the [[Rough Wooing]], Henry VIII's military attempt to force a marriage between Mary and his son, Edward, had begun. There was border skirmishing and in May 1544, [[Burning of Edinburgh|a large English army burnt Edinburgh]]. In 1547, after the death of Henry VIII forces under the English regent [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]] were victorious at the [[Battle of Pinkie]], the climax of the Rough Wooing, and followed up by [[Siege of Haddington|occupying Haddington]]. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

Mary was sent to France at the age of five, as the intended bride of the heir to the French throne. Her mother, [[Mary of Guise]], stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of Mary and of France, while the [[James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault|Earl of Arran]] continued to act as Regent. Mary returned to Scotland after the death of her husband, [[Francis II of France]]. {{cn|date=February 2025}}

Mary lost control of Scotland after seven years and was imprisoned for a time in [[Lochleven Castle]] and forced to abdicate. She eventually escaped and attempted to regain the throne by force. After her defeat at the [[Battle of Langside]] in 1568 she took refuge in England, leaving her young son, [[James VI and I|James VI]], in the hands of regents. In England she became a focal point for Catholic conspirators and was eventually executed on the orders of her kinswoman [[Elizabeth I]].

=== Protestant Reformation ===
{{Main|Scottish Reformation}}
[[File:John Knox.jpg|thumb|upright|In 1559 [[John Knox]] returned from ministering in [[Geneva]] to lead the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] reformation in Scotland.]]

During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a [[Protestant Reformation]]. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first [[Martin Luther]] and then [[John Calvin]] began to influence Scotland. The execution of a number of Protestant preachers, most notably the Lutheran influenced [[Patrick Hamilton (martyr)|Patrick Hamilton]] in 1528 and later the proto-Calvinist [[George Wishart]] in 1546 who was burnt at the stake in St. Andrews by [[Cardinal Beaton]] for heresy, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Beaton was assassinated shortly after the execution of George Wishart.

The eventual Reformation of the Scottish Church followed a brief civil war in 1559–60, in which English intervention at the [[siege of Leith]] on the Protestant side was decisive. A Reformed confession of faith was adopted by [[Scottish Reformation Parliament|Parliament in 1560]], while the young [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], was still in France. The most influential figure was [[John Knox]], who had been a disciple of both John Calvin and George Wishart. [[Roman Catholicism]] was not eliminated, and remained strong particularly in parts of the highlands.

The Reformation remained somewhat precarious through the reign of Queen Mary, who remained Roman Catholic but tolerated Protestantism. Following her deposition in 1567, her infant son [[James VI and I|James VI]] was raised as a Protestant. In 1603, following the death of the childless Queen [[Elizabeth I]], the crown of England passed to James. He took the title [[James I of England]] and James VI of Scotland, thus unifying these two countries under his personal rule. For a time, this remained the only political connection between two independent nations, but it foreshadowed the eventual 1707 union of Scotland and England under the banner of the Great Britain.

==Early Stuart era: 1603–1660==
{{Main|Stuart period|Union of the Crowns|Jacobean era|Caroline era|English Civil War|English Interregnum|English Restoration}}

=== Union of the Crowns ===

[[File:James I of England by Daniel Mytens.jpg|thumb|upright|[[James I of England]] by [[Daniël Mijtens]] (1621)]]

The [[Union of the Crowns]] refers to the accession of [[James VI of Scotland|James VI]], [[King of Scots]], to the throne as King [[James I of England]] while remaining King James VI of Scotland. One man ruled two separate kingdoms with separate governments and cabinets. The two countries remained distinct and separate until the [[Acts of Union 1707]]. Within eight hours of the death of Elizabeth, James was proclaimed king in London, the news received without protest or disturbance.<ref>Croft, p 49; Willson, p 158.</ref>

The '''[[Jacobean era]]''' refers to the years of the reign of James I in England, 1603–1625. The Jacobean era succeeds the [[Elizabethan era]] and precedes the [[Caroline era]], and specifically denotes a style of [[Jacobean architecture|architecture]], [[visual arts]], [[decorative arts]], and [[English literature#Jacobean literature|literature]] that is predominant of that period.

The '''[[Caroline era]]''' refers to the years of the reign of King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] over both countries, 1625–1642. It was followed by the [[English Civil War]] (1642–1651) and the [[English Interregnum]] (1651–1660), when there was no king.

=== English Civil War ===

The '''[[English Civil War]]''' consisted of a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians (known as [[Roundhead]]s) and Royalists (known as [[Cavalier]]s) between 1642 and 1651. The [[First English Civil War|first]] (1642–1646) and [[Second English Civil War|second]] (1648–1649) [[civil war]]s pitted the supporters of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] against the supporters of the [[Long Parliament]], while the [[English Civil War#Third English Civil War (1649–1651)|third war]] (1649–1651) saw fighting between supporters of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] and supporters of the [[Rump Parliament]]. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on 3 September 1651. The ''[[Diggers]]'' were a group begun by [[Gerrard Winstanley]] in 1649 who attempted to reform the existing [[social order]] with an agrarian lifestyle based upon their ideas for the creation of small [[egalitarian]] rural communities. They were one of a number of [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconformist]] [[English Dissenters|dissenting groups]] that emerged around this time.
[[Image:The Arrival of William III.jpg|thumb|''The Arrival of William III'' by Sir [[James Thornhill]]. [[William III of England|William III]] landed in England on 5 November ([[Guy Fawkes Night]]) 1688.]] 
The '''English [[Interregnum]]''' was the period of [[parliamentary]] and [[military]] rule in the land occupied by modern-day [[England]] and [[Wales]] after the English Civil War. It began with the [[regicide]] of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] in 1649 and ended with the [[Stuart Restoration|restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1660.

===Protectorate 1653–1660===
{{main|British Interregnum}}
The Civil War led to the trial and [[execution of Charles I]], the exile of his son Charles II, and the replacement of the English monarchy with first the [[Commonwealth of England]] (1649–1653) and then with [[The Protectorate]] (1653–1659), under the personal rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Upon his death, his son took over, but proved a weak ruler with very little support. The military and religious elements that supported Cromwell began disputing with each other.

==Later Stuart era: 1660–1714==
===Restoration 1660–1688===
{{Further|Restoration (England)}}
In 1660, the remaining members of the [[Long Parliament]] (1640–1660) rejected the anarchy and confusion since Cromwell's death. Elite and popular opinion called for a restoration of the monarchy under the Stuarts. There was widespread revulsion against the intense moralism and high taxes of the [[Rule of the Major-Generals]] in 1657. Nostalgia for Royal traditionalism was strong. Gen. [[George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle|George Monck]], a former supporter of Cromwell, led the movement for a royal restoration. Charles II in exile paid close attention to the developments and readied himself to take the throne. From Breda in Holland he issued the [[Declaration of Breda]], promising generosity and indicating his willingness to leave the settlement to Parliament. The Convention Parliament, which had been elected to negotiate with the King, invited Charles to return, He landed at Dover amid great enthusiasm on May 26, 1660.<ref>Antonia Fraser, ''Royal Charles: Charles II and the Restoration'' (1979).</ref>
[[File:Great plague of london-1665.jpg|thumb|Collecting the dead for burial during the Great Plague]]

The new parliament, known as the [[Cavalier Parliament]] enacted the [[Clarendon Code]], designed to shore up the position of the re-established [[Church of England]]. Strict rules were set up such that only genuine members of the established Church could hold office. The major foreign policy issue was the trade rivalry with the Dutch, leading to the inconclusive [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] of 1665–67. The only positive result was the acquisition of [[New Netherland]], which became New York. Coincidental with the war with the Dutch, was the [[Great Plague of London]] of 1665–66, which at its worst cost 1000 deaths a day in London. On top of that, the [[Great Fire of London]] burned out the main commercial districts of London; it destroyed 13,000 buildings, but few lives were lost. In 1670, King Charles entered into the [[Secret Treaty of Dover]], an alliance with his first cousin King [[Louis XIV]]. Louis agreed to aid him in the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date; he did so on his deathbed. Charles attempted to introduce religious equality for Catholics and non-Anglican Protestant dissenters with his 1672 [[Declaration of Indulgence (1672)|Royal Declaration of Indulgence]]. Elite opinion rejected it and Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, [[Titus Oates]]'s highly exaggerated revelations of a supposed "[[Popish Plot]]" sparked the [[Exclusion Crisis]] when it was revealed that Charles's brother and heir ([[James, Duke of York]]) was a Catholic. The issue was whether or not to exclude James from succession to the throne. The crisis sparked the creation of the first political parties: the pro-exclusion [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig Party]] demanded that James never reach the throne. The anti-exclusion [[Tory|Tory party]] believed it was against God's will to interfere with the legitimate succession, and supported both the King and James. After the discovery of the failed 1683 [[Rye House Plot]] to murder Charles and James, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685.<ref>Ronald Hutton, ''Charles the Second, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland'' (1989) [https://www.questia.com/library/5541404/charles-the-second-king-of-england-scotland-and online]</ref><ref>George Clark, ''The Later Stuarts 1660–1714''  (2nd ed. 1956), pp 1-115.</ref><ref>Tim Harris, ''Restoration: Charles II and His Kingdoms 1660–1685'' (2005)</ref>

===Glorious Revolution 1688–89===
{{Main|Glorious Revolution}}
When Charles II died in 1685, his brother became [[James II of England|King James II]]; He ruled with the support of the Tory party. He forced a series of highly unpopular proposals that would restore Catholicism to England. The [[Monmouth Rebellion]] broke out in western areas that was brutally suppressed. Elite opinion strongly turned against the king, and in late 1688 the elites invited [[William III of England|William III]] and [[Mary II]] to govern.<ref>Steven Pincus, ''England's Glorious Revolution 1688–89: A Brief History with Documents'' (2005).</ref> James went into exile in France, where his claims to the English throne were promoted by King Louis XIV. In England the claims were upheld by the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] faction of Tories, who in alliance with France were a military threat to the throne for the next half-century.<ref>Clark, ''The Later Stuarts 1660–1714''  (1956), pp 116-44.</ref>

William III ruled 1689–1702, while his wife [[Mary II|Queen Mary II]] was the nominal co-ruler until her death in 1694. Constitutionally, the Glorious Revolution established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without the consent of Parliament, as enacted through the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, the passage of the [[Bill of Rights 1689|English Bill of Rights]], and the [[Act of Settlement 1701|Hanoverian succession]].<ref>Clark, ''The Later Stuarts 1660–1714''  (1956), pp 144-59, .</ref>

====Anglo-Dutch Wars====
The [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]] were a series of three wars which took place between the English and the Dutch from 1652 to 1674. The causes included political disputes and increasing competition from merchant shipping.<ref>Gijs Rommelse, "The role of mercantilism in Anglo‐Dutch political relations, 1650–74." ''Economic History Review'' 63#3 (2010): 591-611.</ref> Religion was not a factor, since both sides were Protestant. The British in the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars#First war: 1652–1654|first war]] (1652–54) had the naval advantage with larger numbers of more powerful "[[ship of the line|ships of the line]]" which were well suited to the naval tactics of the era. The British also captured numerous Dutch merchant ships. In the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars#Second war: 1665–1667|second war]] (1665–67) Dutch naval victories followed. This second war cost London ten times more than it had planned on, and the king sued for peace in 1667 with the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]]. It ended the fights over "mercantilism" (the use of force to protect and expand national trade, industry, and shipping). Meanwhile, the French were building up fleets that threatened both the Netherlands and Great Britain. In the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars#Third war: 1672–1674|third war]] (1672–74), the British counted on a new alliance with France but the outnumbered Dutch outsailed both of them, and King Charles II ran short of money and political support. The Dutch gained domination of sea trading routes until 1713. The British gained the thriving colony of [[New Netherland]], and renamed it New York.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=James R. |title=The Anglo-Dutch wars of the seventeenth century |date=1996 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-05630-5 |edition=1st publ |series=Modern wars in perspective |location=London}}</ref>

== 18th century ==
{{Main|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
{{Further|Georgian era|History of the United Kingdom}}
The 18th century was characterised by numerous major wars,<ref>J.H. Plumb, ''England in the Eighteenth Century'' (1950)</ref> especially with France, with the growth and collapse of the First British Empire, with the origins of the Second British Empire, and with steady economic and social growth at home.<ref>Roy Porter, ''English Society in the Eighteenth Century'' (2nd ed. 1990).</ref><ref>Paul Langford, ''Eighteenth-Century Britain: A Very Short Introduction'' (2005).</ref>

Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant that the two countries entered the [[Nine Years' War]] as allies, but the conflict – waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance – left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget on the costly land war in Europe.<ref>{{cite book| first =Pagden|last =Anthony |author-link=Anthony Pagden |title=The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|page=441}}</ref> The 18th century would see England (after 1707, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]) rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, and France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.<ref>{{cite book| first =Pagden|last =Anthony |title=Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest, from Greece to the Present |publisher=Modern Library |year=2003|page=90}}</ref>

In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the [[Holy Roman Empire]] against Spain and France in the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].  The conflict, which France and Spain were to lose, lasted until 1714. The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, gaining [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] and [[Acadia]], and from Spain, [[Gibraltar]] and [[Menorca]]. [[Gibraltar]], which is still part of the [[British Overseas Territories]] to this day, became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean.<ref>James Falkner, ''The War of the Spanish Succession 1701–1714'' (2015).</ref>

=== Treaty of Union ===
{{Main|Treaty of Union}}
The united [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] was born on May 1, 1707, shortly after the parliaments of [[Parliament of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Parliament of England|England]] had ratified the [[Treaty of Union]] of 1706 by each approving [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] combining the two parliaments and the two royal titles. Deeper political integration had been a key policy of [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (reigned 1702–14). Under the aegis of the Queen and her advisors a [[Treaty of Union]] was drawn up, and negotiations between England and Scotland began in earnest in 1706.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Bob |date=January 2010 |title=The Anglo-Scottish Treaty of Union, 1707 in 2007: Defending the Revolution, Defeating the Jacobites |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021937100015094/type/journal_article |journal=Journal of British Studies |language=en |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=28–46 |doi=10.1086/644529 |s2cid=146771566 |issn=0021-9371|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Scottish proponents of union believed that failure to accede to the Bill would result in the imposition of union under less favourable terms, and months of fierce debate in both capital cities and throughout both kingdoms followed. In Scotland, the debate on occasion dissolved into civil disorder, most notably by the notorious 'Edinburgh Mob'. The prospect of a union of the kingdoms was deeply unpopular among the Scottish population at large, and talk of an uprising was widespread.<ref>Karin Bowie, "Popular Resistance and the Ratification of the Anglo-Scottish Treaty of Union", ''Scottish Archives'', 2008, Vol. 14, pp 10–26</ref> However Scotland could not long continue. Following the financially disastrous [[Darien scheme]], the near-bankrupt [[Parliament of Scotland]] reluctantly accepted the proposals. Supposed financial payoffs to Scottish parliamentarians were later referred to by [[Robert Burns]] when he wrote "We're bought and sold for English gold, [[Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation]]!<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYM4AAAAIAAJ&q=Ye+Jacobites+hogg |title=The Jacobite Relics of Scotland: Being the Songs, Airs, and Legends, of the Adherents to the House of Stuart |date=1819 |publisher=W. Blackwood |language=en}}</ref> Recent historians, however, have emphasised the legitimacy of the vote.<ref>Allan I. Macinnes, "Treaty Of Union: Voting Patterns and Political Influence", ''Historical Social Research'', 1989, Vol. 14 Issue 3, pp 53–61</ref>

The Acts of Union took effect in 1707, uniting the separate Parliaments and crowns of England and Scotland and forming the single [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. Queen Anne (already Queen of both England and Scotland) became formally the first occupant of the unified British throne, with Scotland sending forty-five Members to join all existing Members from the parliament of England in the new [[House of Commons of Great Britain]], as well as 16 [[List of Scottish representative peers|Scottish representative peer]]s to join all existing peers from the parliament of England in the new [[House of Lords]].

===Jacobite risings===
{{Main|Jacobite risings}}
Dynastic security was a factor in Britain, as, indeed, it was in other countries. The [[House of Stuart]] had abdicated the throne when King James II (1633–1701) fled to France in 1688. However he and his son [[James Francis Edward Stuart]] claimed to be the legitimate kings, and had the support of important elements in England, as well as [[Louis XIV|King Louis XIV]]. The main issue was religion; the Stuarts had the support of Catholic Europe, while the Whigs in Britain were staunch opponents of Catholicism. The great majority of Tories refused to support the Jacobites publicly, although there were numerous quiet supporters.<ref>Eveline Cruickshanks, "Jacobites, Tories and ''James III''", ''Parliamentary History'', (2002) 21#2 pp 247-53</ref> After the death of King William III (1702) and Queen Anne (1714), the succession went to the Protestant [[House of Hanover]], starting with King George I in 1714. They were Germans who were not especially popular in Britain. The island nation was vulnerable only to a seaborne invasion, which the Jacobites plotted and attempted. The major attempts were the [[Jacobite rising of 1715]] and the [[Jacobite rising of 1745]]. Both failed to rally significant popular support, and the Jacobite defeat at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746 ending any realistic hope of a Stuart restoration.<ref>Bruce Lenman, ''The Jacobite Risings in Britain, 1689–1746'' (1980)</ref> Historian [[Basil Williams (historian)|Basil Williams]] says, "there was never any serious danger to the dynasty."<ref>{{cite book|author=Basil Williams|title=The Whig supremacy, 1714-1760|publisher=Clarendon Press|url=https://archive.org/details/whigsupremacy1710000will|url-access=registration|year=1962}}</ref>

===Overseas trade===
The era was prosperous as entrepreneurs extended the range of their business around the globe. By the 1720s Britain was one of the most prosperous countries in the world, and [[Daniel Defoe]] boasted:
:We are the most "diligent nation in the world. Vast trade, rich manufactures, mighty wealth, universal correspondence, and happy success have been constant companions of England, and given us the title of an industrious people."<ref>[[Julian Hoppit]], ''A Land of Liberty?: England 1689–1727'' (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 344</ref>

While the other major powers were primarily motivated toward territorial gains, and protection of their dynasties (such as the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, and the [[House of Hohenzollern]]), Britain had a different set of primary interests. Its main diplomatic goal (besides protecting the homeland from invasion)  was building a worldwide trading network for its merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers. This required a hegemonic [[Royal Navy]] so powerful that no rival could sweep its ships from the world's trading routes, or invade the British Isles. The London government enhanced the private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across the world. Each was given a monopoly of trade to the specified geographical region. The first enterprise was the [[Muscovy Company]] set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included the [[East India Company]], and the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] in Canada.

The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it was reestablished as the [[Royal African Company]] in 1672 and focused on the slave trade. British involvement in the [[Triangular trade|triangular slave trade]] paid off handsomely in terms of its profits. Even the loss of the 13 colonies was made up by a very favorable trading relationship with the new United States of America.  British gained dominance in the trade with India, and largely dominated the highly lucrative slave, sugar, and commercial trades originating in West Africa and the West Indies. China would be next on the agenda. Other powers set up similar monopolies on a much smaller scale; only the Netherlands emphasized trade as much as England.<ref>Eric J. Evans, ''The forging of the modern state: early industrial Britain, 1783–1872'' (1996) p 31.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carlos |first1=Ann M. |last2=Nicholas |first2=Stephen |date=1988 |title="Giants of an Earlier Capitalism": The Chartered Trading Companies as Modern Multinationals |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3115542 |journal=The Business History Review |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=398–419 |doi=10.2307/3115542 |jstor=3115542 |issn=0007-6805|url-access=subscription }}</ref> British exports soared from £6.5 million in 1700, to £14.7 million in 1760 and £43.2 million in 1800.<ref>E. Lipson, ''The Economic History of England'' (1931) p 188; pp 184-370 gives capsule histories of 10 major trading companies: The Merchant Adventurers, the East India Company, the Eastland Company, the Russia Company, the Levant Company, the African Company, the Hudson's Bay Company, the French Company, the Spanish Company, and the South Sea Company.</ref>

There was one major fiasco that caused heavy losses. The [[South Sea Bubble]] was a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. The [[South Sea Company]] was a private business corporation supposedly set up much like the other trading companies, with a focus on South America. Its actual purpose was to renegotiate previous high-interest government loans amounting to £31 million through [[market manipulation]] and speculation. It issued stock four times in 1720 that reached about 8,000 investors. Prices kept soaring every day, from £130 a share to £1,000, with insiders making huge paper profits. The Bubble collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes had reached into high places—even to the king.  His chief minister [[Robert Walpole]] managed to wind it down with minimal political and economic damage, although some losers fled to exile or committed suicide.<ref>Hoppit, ''A Land of Liberty?: England 1689–1727'' (2000) pp 334–38</ref><ref>Julian Hoppit, "The Myths of the South Sea Bubble", ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' (1962), 12#1 pp 141–165</ref>

===Slave trade===
An important result of the [[Peace of Utrecht|Treaty of Utrecht]] was the enlarging of Britain's role in the slave trade.<ref>David A.G. Waddel, "Queen Anne's Government and the Slave Trade." ''Caribbean Quarterly'' 6.1 (1960): 7-10.</ref>  Of special importance was the successful secret negotiation with France to obtain thirty-year monopoly on the Spanish slave trade, known as the ''[[Asiento de Negros]]''. Anne also allowed colonies like Virginia to make laws that promoted black slavery. Anne had secretly negotiated with France to get its approval regarding the ''Asiento.''<ref>Edward Gregg. ''Queen Anne'' (2001), pp. 341, 361.</ref> She boasted to Parliament of her success in taking the ''Asiento'' away from France and London celebrated her economic coup.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hugh Thomas|title=The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440 - 1870|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmPFnzXU7o0C&pg=PA236|year=1997|page=236|publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9780684835655}}</ref> Most of the slave trade involved sales to Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, and to Mexico, as well as sales to British colonies in the Caribbean and in North America.<ref>Richard B. Sheridan, "Africa and the Caribbean in the Atlantic slave trade." ''American Historical Review'' 77.1 (1972): 15-35.</ref> Historian Vinita Ricks says the agreement allotted Queen Anne "22.5% (and King Philip V, of Spain 28%) of all profits collected for her personal fortune." Ricks concludes that the Queen's "connection to slave trade revenue meant that she was no longer a neutral observer. She had a vested interest in what happened on slave ships."<ref>{{cite book|author=Vinita Moch Ricks|title=Through the Lens of the Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKtZDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT77|isbn=978-1-4835-1364-5|page=77|date=2013-08-01|publisher=BookBaby}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>  In addition to sales to the Spanish colonies, Britain had its own sugar islands in the Caribbean, especially Jamaica,  Barbados, Nevis, and Antigua, which provided a steady flow of profits from the slave labor that produced the sugar.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard B. Sheridan|title=Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623-1775|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QUV98bwrqscC&pg=PA415|year=1974|publisher=Canoe Press|pages=415–26|isbn=9789768125132}}</ref>

===Warfare and finance===
From 1700 to 1850, Britain was involved in 137 wars or rebellions. Apart from losing the [[American Revolutionary War]], it was generally successful in warfare, and was especially successful in financing its military commitments. France and Spain, by contrast, went bankrupt. Britain maintained a relatively large and expensive [[Royal Navy]], along with a small standing army. When the need arose for soldiers it hired mercenaries or financed allies who fielded armies. The rising costs of warfare forced a shift in government financing from the income from royal agricultural estates and special imposts and taxes to reliance on customs and excise taxes and, after 1790, an income tax. Working with bankers in the City, the government raised large loans during wartime and paid them off in peacetime. The rise in taxes amounted to 20% of national income, but the private sector benefited from the increase in economic growth. The demand for war supplies stimulated the industrial sector, particularly naval supplies, munitions and textiles, which gave Britain an advantage in international trade during the postwar years.<ref>Robert M. Kozub, "Evolution of Taxation in England, 1700–1850: A Period of War and Industrialization", ''Journal of European Economic History'', Fall 2003, Vol. 32 Issue 2, pp 363–388</ref><ref>John Brewer, ''The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783'' (1990)</ref><ref>Paul Kennedy, ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers'' (1989) pp 80–84</ref>

=== British Empire ===
{{Main|British Empire|Historiography of the British Empire}}
[[Image:Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey.jpg|thumb|[[Lord Clive]] meeting with [[Mir Jafar]] after the [[Battle of Plassey]], by [[Francis Hayman]] ({{circa|1762}})]]
The [[Seven Years' War]], which began in 1756, was the first war waged on a global scale, fought in Europe, India, North America, the Caribbean, the Philippines and coastal Africa. The signing of the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]] had important consequences for Britain and its empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power there was effectively ended with the ceding of [[New France]] to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]] to Spain. Spain ceded [[Spanish Florida|Florida]] to Britain.  In India, the [[Carnatic Wars#Third Carnatic War (1757–1763)|Carnatic War]] had left France still in control of its [[French India|enclaves]] but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, effectively leaving the future of India to Britain.  The [[Great Britain in the Seven Years' War|British victory over France]] in the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's dominant colonial power.<ref>{{cite book| first =Pagden|last =Anthony |title=Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest, from Greece to the Present |publisher=Modern Library |year=2003|page=91}}</ref>

During the 1760s and 1770s, relations between the [[Thirteen Colonies]] and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's ability to tax American colonists without their consent.<ref>{{cite book| first=Ferguson |last =Niall |title=Empire |publisher=Penguin|year=2004|page=73}}</ref>  Disagreement turned to violence and in 1775 the [[American Revolutionary War]] began. The following year, the colonists [[United States Declaration of Independence|declared the independence of the United States]] and with economic and naval assistance from France, would go on to win the war in 1783. The [[Peace of Paris (1783)|Treaties of Versailles]] were signed, also ending war with the [[Anglo-French War (1778–1783)|French]] and [[Anglo-Spanish War (1779–1783)|Spanish]]. The [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] ended the following year.

The loss of the United States, at the time Britain's most populous colony, is seen by historians as the event defining the transition between the "first" and "second" empires,<ref>{{cite book| first =Pagden|last =Anthony |title=The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|page=92}}</ref> in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that [[free trade]] should replace the old [[mercantilist]] policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783<ref>{{cite book |last= James |first= Lawrence |title=The Rise and Fall of the British Empire |year=2001 |publisher=Abacus |page=119}}</ref> confirmed Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.

During its 1st century of operation, the focus of the [[British East India Company]] had been trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the British East India Company struggled with its French counterpart, ''[[French Indies Company|La Compagnie française des Indes orientales]]'', during the [[Carnatic Wars]] of the 1740s and 1750s. The [[Battle of Plassey]], which saw the British, led by [[Robert Clive]], defeat the French and their Indian allies, left the Company in control of [[Bengal]] and a major military and political power in India.  In the following decades it gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or indirectly via local puppet rulers under the threat of force of the [[Indian Army]], 80% of which was composed of native Indian [[sepoys]].

In 1770, [[James Cook]] became the first European to visit the eastern coast of Australia whilst on a scientific [[First voyage of James Cook|voyage]] to the South Pacific. In 1778, [[Joseph Banks]], Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of [[Botany Bay]] for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of [[Convicts in Australia|convicts]] set sail, arriving in 1788.

At the threshold to the 19th century, Britain was challenged again by France under [[Napoleon]], in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations.<ref>{{cite book |last= James |first= Lawrence |title=The Rise and Fall of the British Empire |year=2001 |publisher=Abacus |page=152}}</ref> 
It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was threatened: Napoleon threatened invasion of Britain itself, and with it, a fate similar to the countries of continental Europe that his armies had overrun. The [[Napoleonic Wars]] were therefore ones that Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the [[Royal Navy]], which won a decisive victory over the French fleet at [[Battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]] in 1805.

=== Growth of state power ===
Recently historians have undertaken a deeper exploration of the growth of state power. They especially look at the ''long 18th century'', from about 1660 to 1837 from four fresh perspectives.<ref>Simon Devereaux,  "The Historiography of the English State During 'The Long Eighteenth Century' Part Two – Fiscal-Military and Nationalist Perspectives." ''History Compass'' (2010) 8#8 pp 843-865.</ref> The first approach, developed by [[Oliver MacDonagh]], presented an expansive and centralized administrative state while deemphasizing the influence of Benthamite utilitarianism.<ref>Oliver MacDonagh, "The Nineteenth-Century Revolution in Government: A Reappraisal." ''The Historical Journal'' 1#1 (1958): 52-67.</ref>

The second approach, as developed by Edward Higgs, conceptualizes the state as an information-gathering entity, paying special attention to local registrars and the census. He brings in such topics as spies, surveillance of Catholics, the 1605 Gunpowder Plot led by Guy Fawkes to overthrow the government, and the Poor Laws, and demonstrates similarities to the surveillance society of the 21st century.<ref>Edward Higgs, ''Identifying the English: a history of personal identification 1500 to the present '' (2011)</ref>

John Brewer introduced the third approach with his depiction of the unexpectedly powerful, centralized 'fiscal-military' state during the eighteenth century.<ref>John Brewer,  ''The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783'' (1990)</ref><ref>Aaron Graham, ''The British Fiscal-military States, 1660-c. 1783'' (2015).</ref> Finally, there have been numerous recent studies that explore the state as an abstract entity capable of commanding the loyalties of those people over whom it rules.

== See also ==
{{Portal|England|Scotland|Wales|History}}
* [[British colonization of the Americas]]
* [[Caroline era]], 1625–1642
* [[Company rule in India]]
* [[Early Modern English literature]]
* [[Early modern period]]
* [[Elizabethan era]], 1558–1603 
* [[English Civil War]], 1642–1651
* [[Territorial evolution of the British Empire]]
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[Historiography of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Historiography of the British Empire]]
* [[International relations (1648–1814)]]
* [[Interregnum (England)]], 1649–1660
* [[Jacobean era]], 1603–1625 in England, 1567–1625 in Scotland
* [[Witchcraft in early modern Britain]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|35em}}

==Further reading==
{{colbegin|colwidth=26em}}
* [[Mark Kishlansky|Kishlansky, Mark A]]. ''A Monarchy Transformed: Britain, 1603–1714'' (Penguin History of Britain)  (1997), a standard scholarly survey; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0140148272/  excerpt and text search]
* [[Roger Lockyer|Lockyer, Roger]]. ''Tudor and Stuart Britain: 1485–1714'' (3rd ed. 2004), 576 pp [https://www.amazon.com/Tudor-Stuart-Britain-Roger-Lockyer/dp/0582771889/ excerpt]
* [[John Morrill (historian)|Morrill, John]], ed. ''The Oxford illustrated history of Tudor & Stuart Britain'' (1996) [https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00john online]
* Leong, Elaine, ''Recipes and Everyday Knowledge: Medicine, Science, And The Household in Early Modern England'' University of Chicago Press (2018), [http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/R/bo28911252.html online]

===Tudors===
* [[J. B. Black|Black, J. B.]] ''The Reign of Elizabeth, 1558–1603'' (Oxford History of England) (1959) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198217013/ excerpt and text search]
* [[John Guy (historian)|Guy, John]]. ''Tudor England'' (1988), a standard scholarly survey
* [[John Duncan Mackie|Mackie, J. D.]] ''The Earlier Tudors: 1485–1558'' (The Oxford History of England) (1957).
* Palliser, D. M. ''The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603'' (2nd ed. 1992), primarily social & economic history.
* [[Penry Williams (historian)|Williams, Penry]]. ''The Later Tudors: England, 1547–1603'' (New Oxford History of England)  (1995), a standard scholarly survey

===Stuarts===
* {{Citation|last=Ashley |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Ashley (historian) |title=Charles I and Cromwell |publisher=Methuen|location=London |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-413-16270-0}}
* Braddick, Michael J., ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of the English Revolution'' (Oxford UP, 2015). [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-English-Revolution-Handbooks/dp/019969589X/ excerpt] 672pp; 33 essays by experts on main topics.
* [[George Norman Clark|Clark, George]]. ''The Later Stuarts, 1660–1714'' (Oxford History of England) (2nd ed. 1956), standard scholarly survey.
* [[Barry Coward|Coward, Barry]], and Peter Gaunt. ''The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714'' (5th ed. 2017), standard scholarly survey. [https://books.google.com/books?id=GjElDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 excerpt]
* [[Godfrey Davies|Davies, Godfrey]]. ''The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660'' (Oxford History of England) (1959).
* [[Godfrey Davies|Davies, Godfrey]]. ''The Restoration of Charles II, 1658-1660'' (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1955).
* [[Godfrey Davies|Davies, Godfrey]]. ''Essays on the Later Stuarts'' (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1958).
* [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner|Gardiner, Samuel Rawson.]] ''The first two Stuarts and the Puritan revolution, 1603–1660'' (1895); Gardiner's 18-volume history of the era remains a major secondary source. [https://archive.org/details/firsttwostuartsp00gard online]
* [[Timothy J. G. Harris|Harris, Tim]]. ''Politics under the later Stuarts: party conflict in a divided society 1660–1715'' (Routledge, 2014).
* {{Citation|last=Hibbard|first=Caroline M.|year=1983|title=Charles I and the Popish Plot|location=Chapel Hill|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-1520-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/charlesipopishpl0000hibb}}
* Hoppit, Julian. ''A Land of Liberty?: England 1689–1727'' (New Oxford History of England) (2002), standard scholarly survey; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199251002/  excerpt]
* [[Richard Lodge|Lodge, Richard]]. ''The History of England from the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702)''  (1910) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201778 online free] detailed political narrative
* Montague, F.C. ''The History of England from the Accession of James 1st to the Restoration (1603–1660)'' (1907) [https://archive.org/details/politicalhistor06unkngoog online free] detailed political narrative. 
* Morrill, John. ''The nature of the English Revolution'' (Routledge, 2014).
* [[David Ogg (historian)|Ogg, David]]. ''England in the Reigns of James II and William III'' (2nd ed. 1957)
* Ogg, David. ''England in the Reign of Charles II'' (2 vol 2nd ed. 1955)
* [[Steve Pincus|Pincus, Steve]], ''1688: The First Modern Revolution'' (2009). 
* Quintrell, Brian. ''Charles I 1625–1640'' (Routledge, 2014).
* {{Citation|last=Reeve |first=L. J.|title=Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-52133-8}}
* [[Kevin Sharpe (historian)|Sharpe, Kevin]]. ''Culture and politics in early Stuart England'' (Stanford UP,  1993)
* {{Citation|last=Wedgwood |first=Cicely Veronica |author-link=Veronica Wedgwood|title=The Great Rebellion: The King's Peace, 1637–1641 |publisher=Collins|location=London |year=1955}}
* {{Citation|last=Wedgwood|first=Cicely Veronica |title=The Great Rebellion: The King's War, 1641–1647|location= London |publisher=Collins |year=1958}}
* {{Citation|last=Wedgwood|first=Cicely Veronica|title=A Coffin for King Charles: The Trial and Execution of Charles I |location= London |publisher=Macmillan |year=1964}}

===Hanoverians===
* Hunt, William. ''The History of England from the Accession of Georges III, to the Close of Pitt's First Administration (1760–1801)'' (1905);  detailed political narrative [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=lang_en|lang_fr&id=6nl1j3jKvykC&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=Hunt,+William.+The+History+of+England+from+the+Accession+of+Georges+III,+to+the+Close+of+Pitt%27s+First+Administration+(1760-1801).+Vol.+10.+1905.&ots=V_04fmiJpN&sig=W3AWxhoVrRvlV5gCnuDu08td6WI online free]
* [[Paul Langford|Langford, Paul]]. ''Eighteenth-Century Britain: A Very Short Introduction'' (2005).
* Langford, Paul. ''A Polite and Commercial People: England 1727–1783'' (New Oxford History of England) (1994), a standard scholarly survey; 803pp
* Leadam, I. S. ''The History of England from the Accession of Anne to the Death of George II, 1702–1760'' (1909) detailed political narrative;  [https://books.google.com/books?id=9CUJAAAAIAAJ&q=Political+History+Of+England+Leadam online free]
* [[Dorothy Marshall (historian)|Marshall, Dorothy]], ''Eighteenth Century England 1714–1784'' (1962)
* {{cite book|editor=Newman, Gerald|title=Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714-1837: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=PR11|year=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780815303961}} [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03612759909604247 online review]; 904pp; short articles by experts
* Roberts, Clayton and David F. Roberts. ''A History of England, Volume 2: 1688 to the present'' (2013) university textbook; [https://archive.org/details/historyofengland00robe 1985 edition online]
* [[Basil Williams (historian)|Williams, Basil]] and C. H. Stuart. ''The Whig Supremacy, 1714–1760'' (Oxford History of England) (2nd ed. 1962), a standard scholarly survey
* [[John Steven Watson|Watson, J. Steven]]. ''The Reign of George III, 1760–1815'' (Oxford History of England) (1960), a standard scholarly survey
* [[Robert K. Webb|Webb, R.K.]] ''Modern England: from the 18th century to the present'' (1968) [https://archive.org/details/modernenglandfro00webb online] university textbook for American audience

===Historiography===
{{Further|British Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies}}
* [[Stephen B. Baxter|Baxter, Stephen B.]]  ''The Later Stuarts: 1660–1714" in Richard Schlatter, ed., ''Recent views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1966'' (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 141-66.
* [[Michael Braddick|Braddick, Michael]]. "State Formation and the Historiography of Early Modern England." ''History Compass'' 2.1 (2004).
* Burgess, Glenn. "On revisionism: an analysis of early Stuart historiography in the 1970s and 1980s." ''Historical Journal'' 33.3 (1990): 609-627.
* Coward, Barry, and Peter Gaunt. ''The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714'' (5th ed. 2017), pp 54-97 on social history.
* Devereaux, Simon. "The historiography of the English state during ‘the Long Eighteenth Century’: Part I–Decentralized perspectives." ''History Compass'' 7.3 (2009): 742-764.
* [[Geoffrey Elton|Elton, G.R.]] ''Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969'' (1970) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415576679/ excerpt], highly useful bibliography of 490+ scholarly books, articles and book reviews published before 1970 that deal with 1485–1815.
* Holmes, Clive.  "The County Community in Stuart Historiography", ''Journal of British Studies'' 19#1 (1980): 54-73. 
* {{Citation|last=Kishlansky |first=Mark A.|author-link=Mark Kishlansky |year=2005 |title=Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity|journal=Past and Present|issue=189|pages=41–80 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gti027|s2cid=162382682}}
* Lake, Peter. "From Revisionist to Royalist History; or, Was Charles I the First Whig Historian." ''Huntington Library Quarterly'' 78.4 (2015): 657-681.
* Lee, Maurice, Jr. "James I and the Historians: Not a Bad King after All?," ''Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies'' 16#2  (1984): 151-63. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4049286 in JSTOR]
* Miller, John. ''The Glorious Revolution'' (2nd ed 2014)
* Richardson, Roger Charles. ''The debate on the English Revolution'' (Manchester UP,  1998).
* Sharp, David. ''England in Crisis 1640-60'' (2000), textbook.
* Tapsell, Grant.  "Royalism Revisited" ''The Historical Journal'' 53#3 (2011) 881-906. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23017275 in JSTOR]
* [[David Underdown|Underdown, David]]. "New ways and old in early Stuart history", in Richard Schlatter, ed., ''Recent views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1966'' (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 99-140.

===Primary sources===
* ''[[English Historical Documents]]'' partly online
** Coward, Barry and Peter Gaunt, eds. ''English Historical Documents, 1603–1660'' (2011). 1408pp
** Browning, Andrew, ed. ''English Historical Documents, 1660–1714'' (1953) 996pp
** Horn, D. B. and Mary Ransome, eds. ''English Historical Documents, 1714–1783'' (1957), 972pp

{{colend|colwidth=26em}}

{{History of the British Isles|bar=yes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Early Modern Britain}}
[[Category:Early modern history of Britain| ]]