Editing Educational research

{{short description|Collection and analysis of evidence in the field of education}}
{{educational research}}
{{distinguish|Education sciences|Instructional theory|Pedagogy}}
'''Educational research''' refers to the systematic collection and analysis of evidence and data related to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods<ref name="lodico">{{cite book |first1=Marguerite G. |last1=Lodico |first2=Dean T. |last2=Spaulding |first3=Katherine H. |last3=Voegtle |title=Methods in Educational Research: From Theory to Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/methodsineducati0000lodi |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley]] |isbn=978-0-470-58869-7}}</ref><ref name="anderson">{{cite book |first1=Garry |last1=Anderson |first2=Nancy |last2=Arsenault |title=Fundamentals of Educational Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t85N0Ka1nq8C |year=1998 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-97822-1}}</ref><ref name="yates">{{cite book |first=Lyn |last=Yates |title=What Does Good Educational Research Look Like?: Situating a Field and Its Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=auAas53WSt0C&pg=PP1 |year=2004 |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill International]] |isbn=978-0-335-21199-9 |series=Conducting Educational Research}}</ref> and various aspects of education including student learning, interaction, [[teaching methods]], teacher training, and classroom dynamics.<ref name="texas">{{cite web |title=IAR: Glossary. (n.d.) |date=21 September 2011 |work=Instructional Assessment Resources |publisher=[[University of Texas at Austin]] |url=http://www.utexas.edu/academic/ctl/assessment/iar/glossary.php |access-date=17 November 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121213001014/http://www.utexas.edu/academic/ctl/assessment/iar/glossary.php |archive-date=13 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous and systematic.<ref name="anderson" /><ref name="texas" /> However, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria and research procedures.<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="kincheloe">{{cite book |first=Joe |last=Kincheloe |title=Rigour and Complexity in Educational Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khliqOuJrLIC |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill International |isbn=978-0-335-22604-7}}</ref> As a result, the value and quality of educational research has been questioned.  Educational researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines including [[psychology]], [[economics]], [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], and [[philosophy]].<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="yates" /> Methods may be drawn from a range of disciplines.<ref name="yates" /><ref name="kincheloe" /> Conclusions drawn from an individual research study may be limited by the characteristics of the participants who were studied and the conditions under which the study was conducted.<ref name="yates" />

==General characteristics==

Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research:<ref name="anderson" />

* Attempt to discover cause and effect.
* Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
* Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
* Research demands accurate observation and description.
* Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
* Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.
* Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.
* Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.
* Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or ques

==Approaches==
There are different approaches to educational research. One is a basic approach,<ref name="lodico" /> also referred to as an academic research approach.<ref name="anderson" /> Another approach is applied research<ref name="lodico" /> or a contract research approach.<ref name="anderson" /> These approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research.

===Basic approach===
Basic, or academic research focuses on the search for truth<ref name="anderson" /> or the development of educational [[theory]].<ref name="lodico" /> Researchers with this background "design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop theories".<ref name="lodico" /> Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.

===Applied approach===
The pursuit of information that can be directly applied to practice is aptly known as applied or contractual research.<ref name="lodico" /> Researchers in this field are trying to find solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian and pragmatic as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice.<ref name="anderson" /> The goal of applied research is "to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings".<ref name="lodico" /> Contractual research is commissioned by a sponsor.<ref name="anderson" /> 

===Comparison of basic and applied research===
The following are several defining characteristics written by Gary Anderson to compare basic (academic) and applied (contract) research.<ref name="anderson" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Basic Research !! Applied Research
|-
                       
|1 ||Is sponsored by an agency committed to the general advancement of knowledge.|| Is sponsored by an agency with a interest in application.
|-                        
|2 || Results are the property of society and the research community.|| Results become the property of the sponsor.
|-                        
|3 || Studies rely on the established reputations of the researchers and are totally under their control.|| Studies follow explicit terms of reference developed by the sponsor to serve the sponsor's needs.
|-                        
|4 || Budget allocations are generally based on global proposals and accounting is left to the researchers.|| Budget accountability is directly related to the sponsor and relates to agreed terms of reference, time frames and methodologies.
|-                        
|5 ||The conduct of research is based on 'good faith' between funder and researcher.|| The work is contractual between sponsor and researcher.
|-                        
|6 ||The research produces findings and conclusions, but rarely recommendations except those related to further research needs.|| The research can include applied recommendations for action.
|-                        
|7 ||Academic research tends to extend an identifiable scholarly discipline.|| Contract research can be interdisciplinary.
|-                        
|8 ||Academic research is typically focused on a single set of testable hypotheses.|| Contract research frequently analyzes the consequences of alternative policy options.	
|-                        
|9 ||Decision-rules relate to theoretically-based tests of statistical significance.|| Decision-rules relate to predetermined conventions and agreements between the sponsor and the researcher.	
|-                        
|10 ||Research reports are targeted to other specialized researchers in the same field.|| Research reports can be intended to be read and understood by lay persons.
|}

==Methodology==
{{See also|Evidence-based education}}
The basis for educational research is the [[scientific method]].<ref name="lodico" /> The scientific method uses directed questions and manipulation of [[Variable (research)|variables]] to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process.<ref name="lodico" /> In this scenario questions are answered by the analysis of data that is collected specifically for the purpose of answering these questions.<ref name="anderson" /> Hypotheses are written and subsequently proved or disproved by data which leads to the creation of new [[hypotheses]]. The two main types of data that are used under this method are [[Qualitative data|qualitative]] and [[quantitative research|quantitative]].<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="kincheloe" /><ref name="scott">{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Scott |first2=Robin |last2=Usher |title=Understanding Educational Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cErS8xH7bZYC |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-13192-3 |orig-year=1996}}</ref>

===Qualitative research===
[[Qualitative research]] uses the data which is descriptive in nature. Tools that educational researchers use in collecting qualitative data include: observations, conducting interviews, conducting document analysis, and analyzing participant products such as journals, diaries, images or blogs.<ref name="lodico" />

Types of qualitative research include:
* [[Case study]]<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="anderson" />
* [[Ethnography]]<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="anderson" /> 
* [[Phenomenological research]]<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="anderson" /> 
* [[Narrative research]]<ref name="lodico" />
* Historical research<ref name="anderson" />

===Quantitative research===
[[Quantitative research]] uses data that is numerical and is based on the assumption that the numbers will describe a single reality.<ref name="lodico" /> Statistics are often applied to find relationships between variables.

Types of quantitative research include:
* Descriptive survey research<ref name="lodico" />
* Experimental research<ref name="lodico" />
* Single-subject research<ref name="lodico" />
* Causal-comparative research<ref name="lodico" />
* Correlational research<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="anderson" />
* [[Meta-analysis]]<ref name="lodico" />

===Mixed methods (Pragmatic)===
There also exists a new school of thought that these derivatives of the scientific method are far too reductionist in nature.<ref name="kincheloe" /> Since educational research includes other disciplines such as [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], [[science]], and [[philosophy]]<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="yates" /> and refers to work done in a wide variety of contexts<ref name="yates" /> it is proposed that researchers should use "multiple research approaches and theoretical constructs."<ref name="kincheloe" />  This could mean using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods as well as common methodology from the fields mentioned above. In [[social research]] this phenomenon is referred to as [[triangulation (social science)]].<ref name="gorard">{{cite book |first1=Stephen |last1=Gorard |first2=Chris |last2=Taylor |title=Combining Methods in Educational and Social Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jy1sbkAGfCoC |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill International |isbn=978-0-335-22517-0}}</ref> This idea is well summarized by the work of Barrow in his text An introduction to philosophy of education:

{{Blockquote|Since educational issues are of many different kinds and logical types, it is to be expected that quite different types of research should be brought into play on different occasions. The question therefore is not whether research into teaching should be conducted by means of quantitative measures (on some such grounds as that they are more 'objective') or qualitative measures (on some such grounds as that they are more 'insightful'), but what kind of research can sensibly be utilized to look into this particular aspect of teaching as opposed to that.<ref name="barrow">{{cite book |first1=Ronald |last1=Woods |first2=Robin |last2=Barrow |title=An Introduction to Philosophy of Education |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ioOXDSw37jAC |year=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-96995-3}}</ref>}}

Types of mixed methods include:
* Action research<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.33524/cjar.v16i3.228  |url=http://journals.nipissingu.ca/index.php/cjar/article/view/228/113|title=Practicing What We Teach: Using Action Research to Learn About Teaching Action Research |year=2015 |last1=Brown |first1=Barb |last2=Dressler |first2=Roswita |last3=Eaton |first3=Sarah Elaine |last4=Jacobsen |first4=Michele |journal=The Canadian Journal of Action Research |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=61–78 |s2cid=58941990 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Improving schools through Action Research: A reflective practice approach|last=Hendricks|first=Cher|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2016|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=You and your action research project|last=McNiff|first=Jean|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|location=London, UK}}</ref><ref name="lodico" />
* Program evaluation<ref name="lodico" /><ref name="anderson" />

In analysis of mixed methods, the following ways might be used;
*''Explanatory mixed method'': starts with quantitative followed by qualitative data and results
*''Exploratory mixed method'': starts with qualitative followed by quantitative data and results
*''Triangulation mixed method'': all data and results are concurrently analysed<ref>{{Cite book|title=Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators |last=Mertler |first=Craig A. |publisher=SAGE |isbn=9781452244426|edition= 4th|location=Los Angeles|oclc=855491780|date = 2013-09-10}}</ref>

==Discipline-based==
'''Discipline-based education research''' ('''DBER''') is an [[interdisciplinary]] [[academic research|research]] enterprise that "investigates [[learning]] and [[teaching]] in a [[academic discipline|discipline]] [normally from the [[STEM fields]]] from a perspective that reflects the discipline's priorities, worldview, knowledge, and practices."<ref>[[National Research Council (United States)|National Research Council]]. Discipline-Based Education Research: Understanding and Improving Learning in Undergraduate Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2012. Available at [http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13362]</ref>
Examples include:
* [[Astronomy education|Astronomy education research]] (AER)
* [[Biology education research]] (BER)
* [[Chemistry education|Chemistry education research]] (CER)
* [[Computer science education research]] (CSER), also [[computing education research]]
* [[Engineering education research]] (EER)
* [[Geoscience education research]] (GER)
* [[Mathematics education research]] (MER)
* [[Physics Education Research|Physics education research]] (PER)

Educational research can also be organized by '''the subject or object of focus''', as in school, teacher, student, etc., the '''relationship between actors''' such as student-teacher, teacher-principal, school-home, etc. by educational outcomes, such as motivation, learning of core subjects, learning of 21st century skills, attitudes, etc.

== Results ==
In response to [[Replication crisis|increased attention to the replicability of experimental findings in the sciences and medicine]], in 2014, ''[[Educational Researcher]]'' published a [[Literature review|review]] of the entire publication history of the 100 education [[Academic journal|journals]] with the highest five-year [[impact factor]]s that found that out of 164,589 articles published only 221 articles (or 0.13 percent) were attempted [[Reproducibility|replications]] of previous studies. Only 28.5 percent of the replication studies were direct replications rather than conceptual replications (i.e. usage of a different [[Experiment|experimental method]] to test the same [[hypothesis]]). 48.2 percent of the replications were performed by the same research team as produced the original study, and when the same research team published the replication studies in the same journals, 88.7 percent of replications were successful while only 70.6 percent were successful when published in a different journal. When different researchers attempted to replicate the findings, only 54 percent of replications were successful.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tyson|first=Charlie|title=Failure to Replicate|journal=[[Inside Higher Ed]]|date=14 August 2014|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/08/14/almost-no-education-research-replicated-new-article-shows|access-date=19 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.3102/0013189X14545513 |title=Facts Are More Important Than Novelty |journal=Educational Researcher |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=304–316 |year=2014 |last1=Makel |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Plucker |first2=Jonathan A. |s2cid=145571836 }}</ref>

{{as of|2021|December}}, among more than 300 other psychology and medical journals, the ''[[British Journal of Developmental Psychology]]'', the ''[[British Journal of Educational Psychology]]'', the ''[[Canadian Journal of School Psychology]]'', ''[[Exceptional Children]]'', ''[[Frontiers Media#List of journals|Frontiers in Education]]'', the ''[[Gifted Child Quarterly]]'', the ''[[Journal for the Education of the Gifted]]'', the ''[[Journal of Advanced Academics]]'', the ''[[Journal of Cognition and Development]]'', the ''[[Journal of Educational Psychology]]'', the ''[[Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition]]'', ''[[Journal of Medical Internet Research|JMIR Medical Education]]'', the ''Journal of Numerical Cognition'', the ''[[Journal of Research in Reading]]'', ''[[Language Learning (journal)|Language Learning]]'', ''Learning and Instruction'', ''[[Mind, Brain, and Education]]'', and ''[[Society for the Scientific Study of Reading|Scientific Studies of Reading]]'' have adopted [[Scholarly peer review#Result-blind peer review|result-blind peer review]] (i.e. where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their statistical analysis techniques before data collection or analysis is done) as part of an initiative organized by the [[Center for Open Science]] in response to concerns about [[publication bias]] and [[Data dredging|''p''-hacking]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Aschwanden|first=Christie|author-link=Christie Aschwanden |title=Psychology's Replication Crisis Has Made The Field Better|website=[[FiveThirtyEight]]|date=6 December 2018|access-date=19 December 2018|url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/psychologys-replication-crisis-has-made-the-field-better/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Registered Reports|publisher=[[Center for Open Science]]|url=https://www.cos.io/initiatives/registered-reports|access-date=May 20, 2021}}</ref> Early analysis of such reforms in psychology journals has estimated that 61 percent of result-blind studies have led to [[null result]]s, in contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 percent in earlier psychological research.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Allen | first1=Christopher | last2=Mehler | first2=David M. A. | title=Open science challenges, benefits and tips in early career and beyond | journal=  PLOS Biology| volume=17 | issue=5 | year=2019 | issn=1545-7885 | doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000246 | doi-access=free | s2cid=240061030 | page=e3000246| pmid=31042704 | pmc=6513108 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Scholastic Aptitude Test]] (SAT)
* [[Online credentials for learning]]

;Related fields
* [[Education theory]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
** [[School psychology]]
* [[Educational technology]]
* [[Scholarship of teaching and learning]]
* [[Science education#Research|Research in science education]]

;Educational research communities and organizations
* [[American Educational Research Association]]
* [[American Institutes for Research]]
* [[Education Resources Information Center]]
* [[Educational Testing Service]]
* [[Institute of Education Sciences]]
* [[WestEd]]
* [[International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite journal |author=Barry, W.J. |title=Challenging the Status Quo Meaning of Educational Quality: Introducing Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory© |journal=Educational Journal of Living Theories |volume=4 |pages=1–29 |year=2012 |url=http://ejolts.net/node/191 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241209153748/https://ejolts.net/node/191 |archive-date= Dec 9, 2024 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Hsieh, P.-H. |author2=Acee, T. |author3=Chung, W.-H. |author4=Hsieh, Ya-P. |author5=Kim, H. |author6=Thomas, G.D. |author7=You, Ji-in |author8=Levin, J.R. |author9=Robinson, D.H. |title=Is Educational Intervention Research on the Decline? |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=523–9 |date=November 2005 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263936471_Is_Educational_Intervention_Research_on_the_Decline |via=ResearchGate  |doi=10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.523 }}  
*Furlong, J. and Oancea, A. (2008) "[https://www.routledge.com/Assessing-quality-in-applied-and-practice-based-research-in-education/Furlong-Oancea/p/book/9780415448017 Assessing Quality in Applied and Practice Based Research. Continuing the Debate]". London, Routledge.

{{Education}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Educational Research}}
[[Category:Educational research| ]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]