Editing Egyptian language

{{Short description|Extinct language in ancient Egypt}}
{{About|the languages spoken in ancient Egypt|the language spoken in modern Egypt|Egyptian Arabic}}
{{Redirect|Egyptian grammar|the book by Alan Gardiner|Egyptian Grammar (book){{!}}''Egyptian Grammar'' (book)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Egyptian
| nativename       = {{center|<hiero>r:Z1-n-km-m-t:O49</hiero>}} {{transliteration|egy|r n km.t}}<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:{{Italics correction/calc|t}}"></span>{{sfn|Erman|Grapow|1926–1961}}{{NoteTag|Whence the designation Kemic for Egypto-Coptic with {{Transliteration|egy|km.t}} */kū́m˘t/ "black land, Egypt", as opposed to {{Transliteration|egy|ṭšr.t}} "red land, desert". Proposed by {{Harvcoltxt|Schenkel|1990|p=1}}. Note that the name ''[[wikt:r n kmt|r n km.t]]'' is only attested in versions of the ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'' and appears to have been a literary invention.}}
| image            = G. Ebers (ed.), Papyros Ebers, 1875 Wellcome L0016592.jpg
| imagecaption     = ''[[Ebers Papyrus]]'' detailing treatment of [[asthma]] (written in [[hieratic]])
| region           = Originally, throughout [[Ancient Egypt]] and parts of [[Nubia]] (especially during the times of the [[Nubian kingdoms]])<ref name="ancientsudan">{{cite web |title=Ancient Sudan~ Nubia: Writing: The Basic Languages of Christian Nubia: Greek, Coptic, Old Nubian, and Arabic |website=ancientsudan.org |access-date=2017-03-09 |url=https://www.ancientsudan.org/writing_03_old_nubian_&_arabic.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105185615/https://ancientsudan.org/writing_03_old_nubian_%26_arabic.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=5 January 2009}}</ref>
| ethnicity        = [[Ancient Egypt]]ians
| era              = Late fourth millennium BC – 19th century AD{{NoteTag|name=extinct}} (with the extinction of [[Coptic language|Coptic]]); still used as the [[liturgical language]] of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]] and [[Coptic Catholic Church]]es
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| dia1             = ?Upper{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=2}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=8}} {{extinct}}
| dia2             = ?Lower{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=2}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=8}} {{extinct}}
| dia3             = [[Coptic language#Dialects|Coptic dialects]] {{extinct}}
| script           = [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Hieroglyphs]], [[cursive hieroglyphs]], [[Hieratic]], [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]] and [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] (later, occasionally, [[Arabic script]] in government translations and [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]] in scholars' transliterations and several hieroglyphic dictionaries<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary |year=1920 |last=Budge |first= E. A. Wallis |publisher=Harrison and sons |location=London |url=https://www.um.es/cepoat/egipcio/wp-content/uploads/egyptianhierogly.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212031453/http://www.um.es/cepoat/egipcio/wp-content/uploads/egyptianhierogly.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-12 |url-status=live}}</ref>)
| iso2             = egy
| iso3             = egy
| iso3comment      = (also [[iso639-3:cop|cop]] for [[Coptic language|Coptic]])
| lingua           = 11-AAA-a
| iso2comment      = (also {{ISO 639-2|cop}} for [[Coptic language|Coptic]])
| glotto           = egyp1246
| glottorefname    = Egyptian (Ancient)
}}
{{Contains special characters|Coptic}}

The '''Egyptian language''', or '''Ancient Egyptian''' ({{transliteration|egy|[[wikt:r n kmt|r n kmt]]}};{{sfn|Erman|Grapow|1926–1961}}{{NoteTag|The name ''r n km.t'' is only attested in versions of the ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'' and appears to have been a literary invention.}} {{gloss|speech of Egypt}}), is an [[Extinct language|extinct branch]] of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic languages]] that was spoken in [[ancient Egypt]]. It is known today from a large [[Text corpus|corpus]] of surviving texts, which were made accessible to the modern world following the [[decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts|decipherment of the ancient Egyptian scripts]] in the early 19th century.

Egyptian is one of the [[List of languages by first written accounts|earliest known written languages]], first recorded in the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic script]] in the late [[4th millennium BC]]. It is also the longest-attested human language, with a written record spanning over 4,000 years.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grossman |first1=Eitan |last2=Richter |first2=Tonio Sebastian |date=2015 |title=Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective |chapter=The Egyptian-Coptic language: its setting in space, time and culture |quote=The Egyptian-Coptic language is attested in a vast corpus of written texts that almost uninterruptedly document its lifetime over more than 4,000 years, from the invention of the hieroglyphic writing system in the late 4th millennium BCE, up to the 14th century CE. Egyptian is thus likely to be the longest-attested human language known. |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |page=70 |isbn=9783110346510 |doi=10.1515/9783110346510.69}}</ref> Its [[classical language|classical]] form, known as "[[Middle Egyptian]]," served as the [[vernacular]] of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] and remained the literary language of Egypt until the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]].

By the time of [[classical antiquity]], the spoken language had evolved into [[Demotic Egyptian language|Demotic]], and by the [[Roman Egypt|Roman era]], diversified into various [[Coptic language|Coptic dialects]]. These were eventually supplanted by [[Arabic]] after the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]], although Bohairic Coptic remains in use as the [[liturgical language]] of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Church]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Layton |first=Benjamin |title=Coptic in 20 Lessons: Introduction to Sahidic Coptic with Exercises & Vocabularies |publisher=Peeters Publishers |date=2007 |page=1 |isbn=9789042918108 |quote=The liturgy of the present day Coptic Orthodox Church in Egypt is written in a mixture of Arabic, Greek, and Bohairic Coptic, the ancient dialect of the Delta and the great monasteries of the Wadi Natrun. Coptic is no longer a living language. |url={{google books URL|Y83UUpkdOMMC}}}}</ref>{{NoteTag|name=extinct|The language may have survived in isolated pockets in [[Upper Egypt]] as late as the 19th century, according to {{cite journal |first=James Edward |last=Quibell |title=When did Coptic become extinct? |journal=Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde |volume=39 |year=1901 |page=87}} In the village of Pi-Solsel (Az-Zayniyyah, El Zenya or Al Zeniya north of [[Luxor]]), [[Passive speaker (language)|passive speakers]] were recorded as late as the 1930s, and traces of traditional vernacular Coptic reported to exist in other places such as [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] and [[Dendera]], see {{cite journal |first=Werner |last=Vycichl |title=Pi-Solsel, ein Dorf mit koptischer Überlieferung |trans-title=Pi-Solsel, a village with Coptic tradition |journal=Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo |volume=6 |year=1936 |pages=169–175 |language=de |url=https://copticsounds.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/pi-solsel-ein-dorf-mit-koptischer-uberlieferung1.pdf}}}}

==Classification==
The Egyptian language branch belongs to the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic language family]].{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Rubin|2013}} Among the [[typology (linguistics)|typological]] features of Egyptian that are typically Afroasiatic are its [[Fusional language|fusional]] morphology, [[nonconcatenative morphology]], a series of [[emphatic consonant]]s, a three-vowel system {{IPA|/a i u/}}, a nominal feminine suffix *''-at'', a nominal prefix ''m-'', an adjectival suffix ''-ī'' and characteristic personal verbal affixes.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=1}} Of the other Afroasiatic branches, linguists have variously suggested that the Egyptian language shares its greatest affinities with [[Berber languages|Berber]]<ref>{{Cite book |url={{google books URL|uIeEPQAACAAJ}} |title=The Afroasiatic Languages |last1=Frajzyngier |first1=Zygmunt |last2=Shay |first2=Erin |date=2012-05-31 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521865333 |page=102 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]{{sfn|Rubin|2013}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allan |first1=Keith |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics |date=2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0199585847 |page=264 |url={{google books URL|BzfRFmlN2ZAC|p=264}} |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> languages, particularly [[Arabic]]{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=51}} (which is spoken in Egypt today) and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].{{sfn|Rubin|2013}} However, other scholars have argued that the Egyptian language shared closer linguistic ties with northeastern African regions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Egypt in Africa |date=1996 |publisher=Indianapolis Museum of Art |location=Indianapolis, Ind. |isbn=0-936260-64-5 |pages=25–27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Morkot |first1=Robert |title=The Egyptians: an introduction |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0415271045 |pages=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mc Call |first1=Daniel F. |title=The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? |journal=Current Anthropology |date=1998 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=139–144 |doi=10.1086/204702 |jstor=10.1086/204702 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/204702 |issn=0011-3204|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

There are two theories that seek to establish the cognate sets between Egyptian and Afroasiatic, the traditional theory and the ''[[neuere Komparatistik]]'', founded by [[Semiticist]] Otto Rössler.{{sfn|Takács|2011|p=13-14}}
According to the {{lang|de|neuere Komparatistik}}, in Egyptian, the [[Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic]] voiced consonants {{IPA|*/d z ð/}} developed into [[Pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] {{angbr|ꜥ}} {{IPA|/ʕ/}}: Egyptian {{Transliteration|egy|ꜥr.t}} 'portal', Semitic {{lang|sem|dalt}} 'door'. The traditional theory instead disputes the values given to those consonants by the {{lang|de|neuere Komparatistik}}, instead connecting {{angbr|ꜥ}} with Semitic {{IPA|/ʕ/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}}.{{sfn|Takács|2011|p=8}} Both schools agree that Afroasiatic {{IPA|*/l/}} merged with Egyptian {{angbr|n}}, {{angbr|r}}, {{angbr|ꜣ}}, and {{angbr|j}} in the dialect on which the written language was based, but it was preserved in other Egyptian varieties. They also agree that original {{IPA|*/k g ḳ/}} palatalise to {{angbr|ṯ j ḏ}} in some environments and are preserved as {{angbr|k g q}} in others.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=31}}{{sfn|Takács|2011|p=8-9}}

The Egyptian language has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian is probably more conservative, and Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=52}}

Although Egyptian is the oldest Afroasiatic language documented in written form, its [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] repertoire is very different from that of the rest of the [[Afroasiatic]] languages in general, and [[Semitic languages]] in particular. There are multiple possibilities: perhaps Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from [[Proto-Afroasiatic]] before it was recorded; or the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semitocentric approach; or, as G. W. Tsereteli suggests, Afroasiatic is a [[sprachbund]], rather than a true [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic]] language family.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=51}}

==History==
The Egyptian language can be grouped thus:<ref name="Bard">Compiled and edited by Kathryn A. Bard with the editing assistance of Steven Blage Shubert.  {{cite book |last=Bard |first=Kathryn A. |author-link=Kathryn A. Bard |author2=Steven Blake Shubert |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-18589-9 |page=274f. (in the section ''Egyptian language and writing'')}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kupreyev |first=Maxim N. |title=Deixis in Egyptian: The Close, the Distant, and the Known |year=2022 |orig-year=copyright: 2023 |publisher=Brill |page=3}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
* Egyptian
** Earlier Egyptian, Older Egyptian, or Classical Egyptian
*** Old Egyptian
**** Early Egyptian, Early Old Egyptian, Archaic Old Egyptian, Pre-Old Egyptian, or archaic Egyptian
**** standard Old Egyptian
*** Middle Egyptian
** Later Egyptian
*** Late Egyptian
*** Demotic Egyptian
*** [[Coptic language|Coptic]]
{{tree list/end}}

The Egyptian language is conventionally grouped into six major [[chronological]] divisions:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-11 |title=What Is the Egyptian Language? |url=https://gattours.com/blog/egypt-culture/what-is-the-egyptian-language/ |access-date=2023-10-15 |website=GAT Tours |language=en-US}}</ref>
*Archaic Egyptian (before {{circa|2600 BC}}), the [[reconstructed language]] of the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic Period]],
*Old Egyptian ({{circa|2600|2000 BC}}), the language of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]],
*Middle Egyptian ({{circa|2000|1350 BC}}), the language of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] to early [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] and continuing on as a [[literary language]] into the 4th century AD,
*Late Egyptian ({{circa|1350|700 BC}}), [[Amarna period]] to [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]],
*Demotic Egyptian ({{circa|700 BC|400 AD}}), the vernacular of the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]], [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] and early [[Roman Egypt]],
*[[Coptic language|Coptic]] (after {{circa|200 AD}}), the vernacular at the time of [[Copts#History|Christianisation]], and the liturgical language of [[Egyptian Christianity]].

Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using both the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic]] and [[hieratic]] scripts. 
[[Demotic script|Demotic]] is the name of the script derived from the hieratic beginning in the 7th century BC.

The [[Coptic alphabet]] was derived from the [[Greek alphabet]], with adaptations for Egyptian phonology. It was first developed in the [[Ptolemaic period]], and gradually replaced the Demotic script in about the 4th to 5th centuries of the Christian era.

[[File:Egyptian lects.svg|thumb|center|upright=4.1|Diagram showing the use of the various [[lect]]s of Egyptian by time period and linguistic [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]]]

===Old Egyptian===
[[File:Peribsen2.JPG|thumb|right|Seal impression from the tomb of [[Seth-Peribsen]], containing the oldest known complete sentence in Egyptian]]

The term "Archaic Egyptian" is sometimes reserved for the earliest use of hieroglyphs, from the late fourth through the early third millennia BC. At the earliest stage, around 3300 BC,{{sfn|Mattessich|2002}} hieroglyphs were not a fully developed [[writing system]], being at a transitional stage of [[proto-writing]]; over the time leading up to the 27th century BC, grammatical features such as [[Nisba (suffix)|nisba]] formation can be seen to occur.{{sfn|Mattessich|2002}}{{sfn|Allen|2013|p=2f.}}

Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, including a [[finite verb]], which has been found. Discovered in the tomb of [[Seth-Peribsen]] (dated {{Circa|2690 BC}}), the seal impression reads:

{{clear}}
:{| cellpadding=5
|-
| <hiero>d:D n:f</hiero> || <hiero>N19:n</hiero> || <hiero>G38:f</hiero> || <hiero>M23*L2:t*t</hiero> || <hiero>O1:F34 s:n</hiero>
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|dmḏj|d(m)ḏ.n}}{{wikt-lang|egy|.f}} || {{wikt-lang|egy|tꜣwj|tꜣ-wj}} {{wikt-lang|egy|n}} || {{wikt-lang|egy|zꜣ}}{{wikt-lang|egy|.f}} || {{wikt-lang|egy|nswt-bjtj|nsw.t-bj.t(j)}} || {{wikt-lang|egy|pr}}-{{wikt-lang|egy|jb}}''.sn(j)''
|-
|unite.{{gcl|PRF}}.he<ref>{{cite journal |last=Werning |first=Daniel A. |year=2008 |title=Aspect vs. Relative Tense, and the Typological Classification of the Ancient Egyptian {{Transliteration|egy|sḏm.n⸗f}} |journal=Lingua Aegyptia |volume=16 |page=289}}</ref>  || land.two for || son.his || [[He of the Sedge and Bee|sedge-bee]] || house-[[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul#Ib (heart)|heart]].their
|-
|colspan=6 | "He has united [[Upper and Lower Egypt|the Two Lands]] for his son, [[nsw-bjt|Dual King]] [[Seth-Peribsen|Peribsen]]."<ref name="c">{{Harvcoltxt|Allen|2013|p=2}} citing [[Jochem Kahl]], Markus Bretschneider, ''Frühägyptisches Wörterbuch'', Part 1 (2002), p. 229.</ref>
|}

Extensive texts appear from about 2600 BC.{{sfn|Allen|2013|p=2f.}} An early example is the [[Diary of Merer]]. The [[Pyramid Texts]] are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of [[ideogram]]s, phonograms, and [[determinative]]s to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from Middle Egyptian, the classical stage of the language, though it is based on a different dialect.

In the period of the 3rd dynasty ({{Circa|2650|2575 BC}}), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the third and fourth centuries), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2,000 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hieroglyph {{!}} writing character |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/265009/hieroglyph |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=5 December 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

===Middle Egyptian===
Middle Egyptian was spoken for about 700 years, beginning around 2000 BC, during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and the subsequent [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]].{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=5}} As the classical variant of Egyptian, Middle Egyptian is the best-documented variety of the language, and has attracted the most attention by far from [[Egyptology]]. While most Middle Egyptian is seen written on monuments by hieroglyphs, it was also written using a [[cursive hieroglyphs|cursive variant]], and the related [[hieratic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html|title=Earliest Egyptian Glyphs – Archaeology Magazine Archive}}</ref>

Middle Egyptian first became available to modern scholarship with the [[Decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs|decipherment of hieroglyphs]] in the early 19th century. The first grammar of Middle Egyptian was published by [[Adolf Erman]] in 1894, surpassed in 1927 by [[Alan Gardiner]]'s work. Middle Egyptian has been well-understood since then, although certain points of the [[Egyptian verb|verb]]al inflection remained open to revision until the mid-20th century, notably due to the contributions of [[Hans Jakob Polotsky]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Polotsky |first=H. J. |title=Études de syntaxe copte |publisher=Société d'Archéologie Copte |location=Cairo |date=1944}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Polotsky |first=H. J. |title=Egyptian Tenses |publisher=Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities |volume=2 |number=5 |year=1965}}</ref>

The Middle Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 14th century BC, giving rise to Late Egyptian. This transition was taking place in the later period of the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt]] (known as the [[Amarna Period]]).{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

====Egyptien de tradition====
{{main|Egyptien de tradition}}
Original Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian texts were still used after the 14th century BCE. And an emulation of predominately Middle Egyptian, but also with characteristics of Old Egyptian, Late Egyptian and Demotic, called "{{lang|fr|Égyptien de tradition}}" or "Neo-Middle Egyptian" by scholars, was used as a literary language for new texts since the later [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] in official and religious [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic]] and hieratic texts in preference to Late Egyptian or Demotic. ''Égyptien de tradition'' as a religious language survived until the Christianisation of [[Roman Egypt]] in the 4th century.

===Late Egyptian===
Late Egyptian was spoken for about 650 years, beginning around 1350 BC, during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]]. Late Egyptian succeeded but did not fully supplant [[Middle Egyptian language|Middle Egyptian]] as a [[literary language]], and was also the language of the New Kingdom administration.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=7}}<ref>Meyers, ''op. cit.'', p. 209.</ref>

Texts written wholly in Late Egyptian date to the [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt]] and later. Late Egyptian is represented by a large body of religious and secular [[Ancient Egyptian literature|literature]], comprising such examples as the ''[[Story of Wenamun]]'', the love poems of the Chester–Beatty I  papyrus, and the ''[[Instruction of Any]]''. [[Sebayt|Instructions]] became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, which took the form of advice on proper behavior. Late Egyptian was also the language of New Kingdom administration.<ref>Loprieno, ''op.cit.'', p.7</ref><ref>Meyers, ''op.cit.'', p. 209</ref>

Late Egyptian is not completely distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase.<ref>Haspelmath, ''op.cit.'', p.1743</ref> However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than the difference between Middle and Old Egyptian. Originally a [[synthetic language]], Egyptian by the Late Egyptian phase had become an [[analytic language]].<ref>Bard, ''op.cit.'', p.275</ref> The relationship between Middle Egyptian and Late Egyptian has been described as being similar to that between Latin and Italian.<ref>Christidēs et al. ''op.cit.'', p.811</ref> 
* Written Late Egyptian was seemingly a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond: weak consonants ''ꜣ, w, j'', as well as the feminine ending {{Transliteration|egy|.t}} were increasingly dropped, apparently because they stopped being pronounced.
* The demonstrative pronouns  {{Transliteration|egy|pꜣ}} (masc.), {{Transliteration|egy|tꜣ}} (fem.), and {{Transliteration|egy|nꜣ}} (pl.) were used as definite articles. 
* The old form {{Transliteration|egy|sḏm.n.f}} (he heard) of the verb was replaced by {{Transliteration|egy|sḏm-f}} which had both prospective (he shall hear) and perfective (he heard) aspects. The past tense was also formed using the auxiliary verb {{Transliteration|egy|jr}} (make), as in {{Transliteration|egy|jr.f saḥa.f}} (he has accused him).
* Adjectives as attributes of nouns are often replaced by nouns.

The Late Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 8th century BC, giving rise to Demotic.

===Demotic===
{{main|Demotic Egyptian language}}
[[Image:Funerary stele Thousei Louvre E27220.jpg|thumb|10th century stela with Coptic inscription, in the [[Louvre]]]]
Demotic is a later development of the Egyptian language written in the [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic script]], following Late Egyptian and preceding [[Coptic language|Coptic]], the latter of which it shares much with. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those texts written in the early Demotic script, it probably represented the spoken idiom of the time. However, as its use became increasingly confined to literary and religious purposes, the written language diverged more and more from the spoken form, leading to significant [[diglossia]] between the late Demotic texts and the spoken language of the time, similar to the use of classical Middle Egyptian during the Ptolemaic Period.

===Coptic===
{{main|Coptic language}}
[[Coptic language|Coptic]] is the name given to the late Egyptian vernacular when it was written in a Greek-based alphabet, the Coptic alphabet; it flourished from the time of [[Early Christianity|Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324)]], but Egyptian phrases written in the Greek alphabet first appeared during the [[Hellenistic period]] {{circa|3rd century BC}},{{sfn|Allen|2020|p=3}} with the first known Coptic text, still pagan ([[Old Coptic]]), from the 1st century AD.

Coptic survived into the medieval period, but by the 16th century was dwindling rapidly due to the persecution of Coptic Christians under the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]]. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]].

==Dialects==
Some evidence of dialectal variation in Egyptian is found in as early as the [[3rd millennium BC]], but because the hieroglyphic scripts inherent conservatism<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lambdin |first=Thomas Oden |title=Introduction to Sahidic Coptic |pages=viii-viii |language=en}}</ref> and that most hieroglyphic Egyptian texts are written in a literary [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige register]] rather than the [[vernacular]] [[Variety (linguistics)|speech variety]] of their author. As a result, dialectical differences are not apparent in written Egyptian until the adoption of the [[Coptic alphabet]].{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=2}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=8}} Nevertheless, it is clear that these differences existed before the Coptic period. In one [[Papyrus Anastasi I|Late Egyptian letter]] (dated {{Circa|1200 BC}}), a scribe jokes that his colleague's writing is incoherent like "the speech of a [[Bohairic|Delta]] man with a man of [[Akhmimic|Elephantine]]."{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=2}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=8}}

Recently, some evidence of internal dialects has been found in pairs of similar words in Egyptian that, based on similarities with later dialects of Coptic, may be derived from northern and southern dialects of Egyptian.{{sfn|Satzinger|2008|p=10}} Written Coptic has five major dialects, which differ mainly in graphic conventions, most notably the southern Saidic dialect, the main classical dialect, and the northern [[Bohairic Coptic|Bohairic dialect]], currently used in Coptic Church services.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=2}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=8}}

==Phonology==
{{Further|Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian}}
While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, the exact [[phonetics]] is unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. In addition, because Egyptian is recorded over a full 2,000 years, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates [[Old Latin]] from [[Italian language|Modern Italian]], significant phonetic changes must have occurred during that lengthy time frame.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipiński |first=E. (Edward) |url=https://worldcat.org/oclc/783059625|title=Semitic languages : outline of a comparative grammar|date=2001|publisher=Peeters|isbn=90-429-0815-7|oclc=783059625}}</ref>

Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants. Egyptian also contrasted voiceless and emphatic consonants, as with other Afroasiatic languages, but exactly how the emphatic consonants were realised is unknown. Early research had assumed that the opposition in stops was one of voicing, but it is now thought to be either one of [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]] and [[emphatic consonant]]s, as in many Semitic languages, or one of [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] and [[ejective consonant]]s, as in many [[Cushitic languages]].{{NoteTag|See {{Harvcoltxt|Peust|1999}}, for a review of the history of thinking on the subject; his reconstructions of words are nonstandard.}}

Since vowels were not written until Coptic, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain and rely mainly on evidence from Coptic and records of Egyptian words, especially proper nouns, in other languages/writing systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2020 |others=Interview with Bill Manley |title=Champollion, Hieroglyphs, and Coptic Magical Papyri |url=https://www.academia.edu/89126750 |journal=Antiqvvs |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=17}}</ref>

The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced.

===Old Egyptian===
====Consonants====
The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Early Egyptian consonants{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=33}}
|-
! colspan=2 |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[Plosive]]
! <small>[[voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
| ṯ {{IPAblink|c}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|q}}{{efn|name=unvoiced ejectives|Possibly unvoiced [[ejective consonant|ejectives]].}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}{{efn|name=unvoiced ejectives}}
|
| ḏ{{efn|name=unvoiced ejectives}} {{IPAblink|ɟ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}{{efn|name=unvoiced ejectives}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[Fricative]]
! <small> [[voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
| š {{IPAblink|ʃ}}
| ẖ {{IPAblink|ç}}
|
| ḫ {{IPAblink|χ}}
| ḥ {{IPAblink|ħ}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
| {{IPA link|z}}{{efn|name=unvoiced ejectives}}
|
|
|
| 
| ꜥ (ʿ) {{IPAblink|ʕ}}
|
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|w}}
| {{IPA link|l}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
| ꜣ (ȝ) {{IPAblink|ʀ}}
|
|
|}
{{notelist}}

{{IPAslink|l}} has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were {{IPAslink|n}} or {{IPAslink|r}}.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=33}} That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which {{IPAslink|l}} had merged with other sonorants.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=31}} Also, the rare cases of {{IPAslink|ʔ}} occurring are not represented. The phoneme {{IPAslink|j}} is written as {{angbr IPA|j}} in the initial position ({{angbr IPA|jt}} = {{IPA|*/ˈjaːtVj/}} 'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel ({{angbr IPA|bjn}} = {{IPA|*/ˈbaːjin/}} 'bad') and as {{angbr IPA|jj}} word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel ({{angbr|ḫꜥjjk}} = {{IPA|*/χaʕˈjak/}} 'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally ({{angbr IPA|jt}} = {{IPA|/ˈjaːtVj/}} 'father').{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=33}}

===Middle Egyptian===
In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, {{IPAslink|z}} and {{IPAslink|s}} had merged, and the graphemes {{angbr|s}} and {{angbr|z}} are used interchangeably.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=34}} In addition, {{IPAslink|j}} had become {{IPAslink|ʔ}} word-initially in an unstressed syllable ({{angbr IPA|jwn}} {{IPA|/jaˈwin/}} > {{IPA|*/ʔaˈwin/}} "colour") and after a stressed vowel ({{angbr|ḥjpw}} {{IPA|*/ˈħujpVw/}} > {{IPA|/ˈħeʔp(Vw)/}} '[the god] Apis').{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=35}}

===Late Egyptian===
In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes ''d ḏ g'' gradually merge with their counterparts ''t ṯ k'' ({{angbr|dbn}} {{IPA|*/ˈdiːban/}} > Akkadian transcription {{Transliteration|akk|ti-ba-an}} 'dbn-weight'). Also, ''ṯ ḏ'' often become {{IPA|/t d/}}, but they are retained in many [[lexeme]]s; ''ꜣ'' becomes {{IPAslink|ʔ}}; and {{IPA|/t r j w/}} become {{IPAslink|ʔ}} at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: {{angbr|pḏ.t}} {{IPA|*/ˈpiːɟat/}} > Akkadian transcription {{Transliteration|akk|-pi-ta}} 'bow'.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=38}}

===Demotic===
====Phonology====
The most important source of information about Demotic phonology is Coptic. The consonant inventory of Demotic can be [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] on the basis of evidence from the Coptic dialects.{{sfn|Allen|2020|p=[{{google books URL|09LQDwAAQBAJ|p=26}} 26]}} Demotic orthography is relatively [[Orthographic depth|opaque]]. The Demotic "alphabetical" signs are mostly inherited from the hieroglyphic script, and due to historical [[sound change]]s they do not always map neatly onto Demotic [[phoneme]]s. However, the Demotic script does feature certain orthographic innovations, such as the use of the sign {{Transliteration|egy|h̭}} for /{{IPA link|ç}}/,{{sfn|Allen|2020|p=[{{google books URL|09LQDwAAQBAJ|p=28}} 28]}} which allow it to represent sounds that were not present in earlier forms of Egyptian.

The Demotic consonants can be divided into two primary classes: [[obstruent]]s ([[Plosive|stops]], [[affricate]]s and [[fricative]]s) and [[sonorant]]s ([[approximant]]s, [[Nasal consonant|nasals]], and [[semivowel]]s).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Depuydt|first=Leo|date=1993|title=On Coptic Sounds|url=https://copticsounds.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/on-coptic-sounds.pdf|journal=Orientalia|publisher=Gregorian Biblical Press|volume=62|issue=4|pages=338–375}}</ref> [[Voice (phonetics)|Voice]] is not a contrastive feature; all obstruents are voiceless and all sonorants are voiced.{{sfn|Allen|2020|p=[{{google books URL|09LQDwAAQBAJ|p=76}} 76]}} Stops may be either [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] or [[Tenuis consonant|tenuis]] (unaspirated),{{sfn|Allen|2020|p=[{{google books URL|09LQDwAAQBAJ|p=74}} 74–75]}} although there is evidence that aspirates merged with their tenuis counterparts in certain environments.{{sfn|Peust|1999|p=85|loc=After the New Kingdom, confusion between both series of stops becomes very frequent in Egyptian writing. A phonetic merger of some kind is certainly the cause of this phenomenon.}}

The following table presents the consonants of Demotic Egyptian. The reconstructed value of a phoneme is given in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription, followed by a transliteration of the corresponding Demotic "alphabetical" sign(s) in angle brackets {{angbr| }}.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Demotic Egyptian consonants
|-
!colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalv.]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyng.]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}
|colspan=2| {{IPAslink|n}}
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Obstruent]]
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirate]]</small>
| {{IPAslink|pʰ}} {{angbr|p}}
|colspan=2| {{IPAslink|tʰ}} {{angbr|t ṯ}}
| {{IPAslink|t͡ʃʰ}} {{angbr|ṯ}}
| {{IPAslink|cʰ}} {{angbr|k}}
| {{IPAslink|kʰ}} {{angbr|k}}
|
| 
|-
! <small>[[Tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small>
|
|colspan=2| {{IPAslink|t}} {{angbr|d ḏ t ṯ ṱ}}
| {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} {{angbr|ḏ ṯ}}
| {{IPAslink|c}} {{angbr|g k q}}
| {{IPAslink|k}} {{angbr|q k g}}
|
|
|-
! <small>[[fricative]]</small>
| {{IPAslink|f}} {{angbr|f}}
|colspan=2| {{IPAslink|s}} {{angbr|s}}
| {{IPAslink|ʃ}} {{angbr|š}}
| {{IPAslink|ç}} {{angbr|h̭ ḫ}}
| {{IPAslink|x}} {{angbr|ẖ ḫ}}
| {{IPAslink|ħ}} {{angbr|ḥ}}
| {{IPAslink|h}} {{angbr|h}}
|-
!colspan=2| [[Approximant]]
| {{IPAslink|β}} {{angbr|b}}
| {{IPAslink|r}} {{angbr|r}}
| {{IPAslink|l}} {{angbr|l r}}
|
| {{IPAslink|j}} {{angbr|y ı͗}}
| {{IPAslink|w}} {{angbr|w}}
| {{IPAslink|ʕ}} {{angbr|ꜥ}}{{efn|/ʕ/ was lost near the end of the Ptolemaic period.{{sfn|Peust|1999|p=102|loc=In Roman Demotic {{angbr|ꜥ}} suddenly begins to be employed in a very inconsistent manner. It is often omitted or added without etymological justification. I take this as an indication that the phoneme /ʕ/ was lost from the spoken language.}}}}
|
|}
{{notelist}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Demotic–Coptic sound correspondences
|-
!rowspan=2| Demotic<br>spelling
!rowspan=2| Demotic<br>phoneme
!colspan=9| Coptic reflexes
|-
! [[Old Coptic]]{{efn|The term Old Coptic refers to any Coptic texts produced before the standardization of the Coptic alphabet and the emergence of the major literary dialects. These texts exhibit a variety of orthographic and dialectal features and notably make use of several letters of Demotic origin which are not found in the standard Coptic script. The minor dialects ''P'' and ''I'' are sometimes grouped under the Old Coptic umbrella, however, strictly speaking Dialect I is written with a modified version of the Sahidic alphabet which it shares with Akhmimic, rather than a genuine Old Coptic system.}}
! {{abbr|B|Bohairic}}
! {{abbr|F|Fayyumic}}
! {{abbr|M|Mesokemic}}
! {{abbr|S|Sahidic}}
! {{abbr|P|Dialect P (P.Bodmer VI)}}
! {{abbr|L|Lycopolitan}}
! {{abbr|I|Dialect I (Ascension of Isaiah)}}
! {{abbr|A|Akhmimic}}
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|m}}
| */{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
| {{coptic|ⲙ}} /{{IPA link|m}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|n}}
| */{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}}, {{coptic|ⲻ}}, {{coptic|ⲳ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}}, {{coptic|ⲻ}}, {{coptic|ⲳ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
| {{coptic|ⲛ}} /{{IPA link|n}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|p}}
| */{{IPA link|p}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲫ}} /{{IPA link|p}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|t}}, {{Transliteration|egy|ṯ}}
| */{{IPA link|t}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲑ}} /{{IPA link|t}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|ṯ}}
| */{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ⳗ}}, {{coptic|ⳙ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|k}}
| */{{IPA link|c}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|k}}
| */{{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ⲹ}}, {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲭ}} /{{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|ʰ}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲹ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|p}}
| *[{{IPA link|p}}]{{efn|[p] is an [[allophone]] of /pʰ/ in Demotic.}}
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
| {{coptic|ⲡ}} /{{IPA link|p}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|d}}, {{Transliteration|egy|ḏ}}, {{Transliteration|egy|t}}, {{Transliteration|egy|ṯ}}, {{Transliteration|egy|ṱ}}
| */{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
| {{coptic|ⲧ}} /{{IPA link|t}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|ḏ}}
| */{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ⳗ}}, {{coptic|ⳙ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|g}}, {{Transliteration|egy|k}}, {{Transliteration|egy|q}} 
| */{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ⳛ}}, {{coptic|ϭ}}, {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϫ}} /{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
| {{coptic|ϭ}} /{{IPA link|c}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|q}}, {{Transliteration|egy|k}}, {{Transliteration|egy|g}}
| */{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲹ}}, {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲹ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
| {{coptic|ⲕ}} /{{IPA link|k}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|f}}
| */{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
| {{coptic|ϥ}} /{{IPA link|f}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|s}}
| */{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
| {{coptic|ⲥ}} /{{IPA link|s}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|š}}
| */{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}}, {{coptic|ⳅ}}, {{coptic|ⳇ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|h̭}}, {{Transliteration|egy|ḫ}}
| */{{IPA link|ç}}/
| {{coptic|ⳓ}}, {{coptic|ⳋ}} /{{IPA link|ç}}~{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ⳋ}} /{{IPA link|ç}}/
| {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ⳃ}}, {{coptic|ϣ}} /{{IPA link|ç}}~{{IPA link|ʃ}}/
| {{coptic|ⳉ}} /{{IPA link|x}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|ẖ}}, {{Transliteration|egy|ḫ}}
| */{{IPA link|x}}/
| {{coptic|ϧ}} /{{IPA link|x}}/
| {{coptic|ϧ}} /{{IPA link|x}}/
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϧ}} /{{IPA link|x}}/
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ⳉ}} /{{IPA link|x}}/
| {{coptic|ⳉ}} /{{IPA link|x}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|ḥ}}
| */{{IPA link|ħ}}/
| {{coptic|ⳕ}}, {{coptic|ϩ}}, {{coptic|ⳍ}} /{{IPA link|ħ}}~{{IPA link|h}}/
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|h}}
| */{{IPA link|h}}/
| {{coptic|ⳏ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
| {{coptic|ϩ}} /{{IPA link|h}}/ 
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|b}}
| */{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
| {{coptic|ⲃ}} /{{IPA link|β}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|r}}
| */{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/, {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
| {{coptic|ⲣ}} /{{IPA link|r}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|l, r}}
| */{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
| {{coptic|ⲗ}} /{{IPA link|l}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|y, ı͗}}
| */{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲉ}}){{coptic|ⲓ}} /{{IPA link|j}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|w}}
| */{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
| ({{coptic|ⲟ}}){{coptic|ⲩ}} /{{IPA link|w}}/
|-
| {{Transliteration|egy|ꜥ}}
| */{{IPA link|ʕ}}/
| {{coptic|ⲵ}}, ∅ /{{IPA link|ʔ}}~{{IPA link|∅}}/
| ∅
| ∅
| ∅
| ∅
| ∅
| ∅
| ∅
| ∅
|}
{{notelist}}

===Coptic===
More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st or 3rd – c. 19th centuries AD). In Sahidic ''ẖ ḫ ḥ'' had merged into {{coptic|ϣ}} ''š'' (most often from ''ḫ'') and {{coptic|ϩ}} {{IPAslink|h}} (most often ''ẖ ḥ''). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative {{IPAslink|x}} ({{coptic|ϧ}} in Bohairic, {{coptic|ⳉ}} in Akhmimic).{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=41}} Pharyngeal ''*ꜥ'' had merged into glottal {{IPAslink|ʔ}} after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=46}} {{IPAslink|ʔ}} is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic {{coptic|ⳉⲟⲟⲡ}} {{IPA|/xoʔp/}}, Sahidic and Lycopolitan {{coptic|ϣⲟⲟⲡ}} ''šoʔp'', Bohairic {{coptic|ϣⲟⲡ}} ''šoʔp'' 'to be' < ''ḫpr.w'' *{{IPA|/ˈχapraw/}} 'has become'.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=41}}{{NoteTag|There is evidence of Bohairic having a phonemic glottal stop: {{Harvcoltxt|Loprieno|1995|p=44}}.}} The phoneme {{coptic|ⲃ}} {{IPAslink|b}} was probably pronounced as a fricative {{IPAblink|β}}, becoming {{coptic|ⲡ}} {{IPAslink|p}} after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian (compare {{coptic|ⲛⲟⲩⲃ}} < {{IPA|*/ˈnaːbaw/}} 'gold' and {{coptic|ⲧⲁⲡ}} < *{{IPA|/dib/}} 'horn').{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=41}} The phonemes {{IPA|/d g z/}} occur only in [[Greek language|Greek]] loanwords, with rare exceptions triggered by a nearby {{IPA|/n/}}: {{coptic|ⲁⲛⲍⲏⲃⲉ/ⲁⲛⲥⲏⲃⲉ}} < ''ꜥ.t n.t sbꜣ.w'' 'school'.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=41}}

{{Contains special characters|Coptic}}
Earlier ''*d ḏ g q'' are preserved as ejective ''t' c' k' k{{'}}'' before vowels in Coptic. Although the same graphemes are used for the pulmonic stops ({{angbr|{{coptic|ⲧ ϫ ⲕ}}}}), the existence of the former may be inferred because the stops {{angbr|{{coptic|ⲡ ⲧ ϫ ⲕ}}}} {{IPA|/p t c k/}} are allophonically aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ cʰ kʰ]}} before stressed vowels and [[sonorant]] consonants.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=42}} In Bohairic, the allophones are written with the special graphemes {{angbr|{{coptic|ⲫ ⲑ ϭ ⲭ}}}}, but other dialects did not mark aspiration: Sahidic {{coptic|ⲡⲣⲏ}}, Bohairic {{coptic|ⲫⲣⲏ}} 'the sun'.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=42}}{{NoteTag|In other dialects, the graphemes are used only for clusters of a stop followed by {{IPAslink|h}} and were not used for aspirates: see {{Harvcoltxt|Loprieno|1995|p=248}}.}}

Thus, Bohairic does not mark aspiration for reflexes of older ''*d ḏ g q'': Sahidic and Bohairic {{coptic|ⲧⲁⲡ}} {{IPA|*/dib/}} 'horn'.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=42}} Also, the definite article {{coptic|ⲡ}} is unaspirated when the next word begins with a glottal stop: Bohairic {{coptic|ⲡ + ⲱⲡ > ⲡⲱⲡ}} 'the account'.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=43}}

The consonant system of Coptic is as follows:
{| class="wikitable Unicode" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Coptic consonants{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|pp=40–42}}
|-
! colspan=2 |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Dental]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{coptic|ⲙ}}<br />{{IPA link|m}}
| {{coptic|ⲛ}}<br />{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[Plosive]]
! <small>[[voiceless]]</small>
| {{coptic|ⲡ (ⲫ)}}<br />{{IPA link|p}} ({{IPA link|pʰ}})
| {{coptic|ⲧ (ⲑ)}}<br />{{IPA link|t}} ({{IPA link|tʰ}})
| {{coptic|ϫ (ϭ)}}<br />{{IPA link|c}} ({{IPA link|cʰ}})
| {{coptic|ⲕ (ⲭ)}}<br />{{IPA link|k}} ({{IPA link|kʰ}})
| {{efn|Various orthographic representations; see above.}}<br />{{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>[[ejective]]</small>
|
| {{coptic|ⲧ}}<br />{{IPA link|tʼ}}
| {{coptic|ϫ}}<br />{{IPA link|cʼ}}
| {{coptic|ⲕ}}<br />{{IPA link|kʼ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
| {{coptic|ⲇ}}<br />{{IPA link|d}}
|
| {{coptic|ⲅ}}<br />{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[Fricative]]
! <small> [[voiceless]]</small>
| {{coptic|ϥ}}<br />{{IPA link|f}}
| {{coptic|ⲥ}}<br />{{IPA link|s}}
| {{coptic|ϣ}}<br />{{IPA link|ʃ}}
| {{coptic|(ϧ, ⳉ)}}<br />({{IPA link|x}})
| {{coptic|ϩ}}<br />{{IPA link|h}}
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{coptic|ⲃ}}<br />{{IPA link|β}}
| {{coptic|ⲍ}}<br />{{IPA link|z}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Approximant]]
| {{coptic|(ⲟ)ⲩ}}<br />{{IPA link|w}}
| {{coptic|ⲗ}}<br />{{IPA link|l}}
| {{coptic|(ⲉ)ⲓ}}<br />{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{coptic|ⲣ}}<br />{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|}
{{notelist}}

===Vowels===
Here is the vowel system reconstructed for earlier Egyptian:
{|class="wikitable"
|+Earlier Egyptian vowel system{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=35}}
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| {{IPA|a aː}}
|}
Vowels are always short in unstressed syllables ({{angbr|tpj}} = {{IPA|*/taˈpij/}} 'first') and long in open stressed syllables ({{angbr|rmṯ}} = {{IPA|*/ˈraːmac/}} 'man'), but they can be either short or long in closed stressed syllables ({{angbr|jnn}} = {{IPA|*/jaˈnan/}} 'we', {{angbr|mn}} = {{IPA|*/maːn/}} 'to stay').{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=36}}

In the Late [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]], after [[Ramses II]], around 1200 BC, {{IPA|*/ˈaː/}} changes to {{IPA|*/ˈoː/}} (like the [[Canaanite shift]]), {{angbr|ḥrw}} '(the god) Horus' {{IPA|*/ħaːra/}} > {{IPA|*/ħoːrə/}} (Akkadian transcription: {{Transliteration|akk|-ḫuru}}).{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=38}}{{sfn|Allen|2013}} {{IPA|*/uː/}}, therefore, changes to {{IPA|*/eː/}}: {{angbr|šnj}} 'tree' {{IPA|*/ʃuːn(?)j/}} > {{IPA|*/ʃeːnə/}} (Akkadian transcription: {{Transliteration|akk|-sini}}).{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=38}}

In the Early New Kingdom, short stressed {{IPA|*/ˈi/}} changes to {{IPA|*/ˈe/}}: {{angbr|mnj}} "[[Menes]]" {{IPA|*/maˈnij/}} > {{IPA|*/maˈneʔ/}} (Akkadian transcription: {{Transliteration|akk|ma-né-e}}).{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=38}} Later, probably 1000–800 BC, a short stressed {{IPA|*/ˈu/}} changes to {{IPA|*/ˈe/}}: {{angbr|ḏꜥn.t}} "[[Tanis]]" {{IPA|*/ˈɟuʕnat/}} was borrowed into Hebrew as *ṣuʕn but would become transcribed as {{angbr|ṣe-e'-nu/ṣa-a'-nu}} during the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=39}}

Unstressed vowels, especially after a stress, become {{IPA|*/ə/}}: {{angbr|nfr}} 'good' {{IPA|*/ˈnaːfir/}} > {{IPA|*/ˈnaːfə/}} (Akkadian transcription {{Transliteration|akk|-na-a-pa}}).{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=39}} {{IPA|*/iː/}} changes to {{IPA|*/eː/}} next to {{IPA|/ʕ/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}: {{angbr|wꜥw}} 'soldier' {{IPA|*/wiːʕiw/}} > {{IPA|*/weːʕə/}} (earlier Akkadian transcription: {{Transliteration|akk|ú-i-ú}}, later: {{Transliteration|akk|ú-e-eḫ}}).{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=39}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Egyptian vowel system {{circa|1000 BC}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=39}}
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA|iː}}
|
|
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA|e eː}}
| {{IPA|ə}}
| {{IPA|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="3"| {{IPA|a}}
|}

In Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic, Late Egyptian stressed {{IPA|*/ˈa/}} becomes {{IPA|*/ˈo/}} and {{IPA|*/ˈe/}} becomes {{IPA|/ˈa/}}, but are unchanged in the other dialects:
* {{angbr|sn}} {{IPA|*/san/}} 'brother'
*: Sahidic and Bohairic {{angbr|son}}
*: Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic {{angbr|san}}
* {{angbr|rn}} 'name' {{IPA|*/rin/}} > {{IPA|*/ren/}}
*: Sahidic and Bohairic {{angbr|ran}}
*: Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic {{angbr|ren}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=46}}

However, in the presence of guttural fricatives, Sahidic and Bohairic preserve {{IPA|*/ˈa/}}, and Fayyumic renders it as {{angbr|e}}:
* {{angbr|ḏbꜥ}} 'ten thousand' {{IPA|*/ˈbaʕ/}}
*: Sahidic, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan {{angbr|tba}}
*: Bohairic {{angbr|tʰba}}
*: Fayyumic {{angbr|tbe}}

In Akhmimic and Lycopolitan, {{IPA|*/ˈa/}} becomes {{IPA|/ˈo/}} before etymological {{IPA|/ʕ, ʔ/}}:
* {{angbr|jtrw}} 'river' {{IPA|*/ˈjatraw/}} > {{IPA|*/jaʔr(ə)/}}
*: Sahidic {{angbr|eioor(e)}}
*: Bohairic {{angbr|ior}}
*: Akhmimic {{angbr|ioore, iôôre}}
*: Fayyumic {{angbr|iaal, iaar}}

Similarly, the diphthongs {{IPA|*/ˈaj/}}, {{IPA|*/ˈaw/}}, which normally have reflexes {{IPA|/ˈoj/}}, {{IPA|/ˈow/}} in Sahidic and are preserved in other dialects, are in Bohairic {{angbr|ôi}} (in non-final position) and {{angbr|ôou}} respectively:
* "to me, to them"
*: Sahidic {{angbr|eroi, eroou}}
*: Akhmimic and Lycopolitan {{angbr|arai, arau}}
*: Fayyumic {{angbr|elai, elau}}
*: Bohairic {{angbr|eroi, erôou}}

Sahidic and Bohairic preserve {{IPA|*/ˈe/}} before {{IPA|/ʔ/}} (etymological or from lenited {{IPA|/t r j/}} or tonic-syllable coda {{IPA|/w/}}),: Sahidic and Bohairic {{angbr|ne}} {{IPA|/neʔ/}} 'to you (fem.)' < {{IPA|*/ˈnet/}} < {{IPA|*/ˈnic/}}. {{IPA|*/e/}} may also have different reflexes before [[sonorant]]s, near [[sibilant]]s and in diphthongs.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=47}}

Old {{IPA|*/aː/}} surfaces as {{IPA|/uː/}} after nasals and occasionally other consonants: {{angbr|nṯr}} 'god' {{IPA|*/ˈnaːcar/}} > {{IPA|/ˈnuːte/}} {{angbr|noute}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|pp=47–48}} {{IPA|/uː/}} has acquired phonemic status, as is evidenced by minimal pairs like 'to approach' {{angbr|hôn}} {{IPA|/hoːn/}} < {{IPA|*/ˈçaːnan/}} ẖnn vs. 'inside' {{angbr|houn}} {{IPA|/huːn/}} < {{IPA|*/ˈçaːnaw/}} ẖnw.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=48}} An etymological {{IPA|*/uː/}} > {{IPA|*/eː/}} often surfaces as {{IPA|/iː/}} next to {{IPA|/r/}} and after etymological pharyngeals: {{angbr|hir}} < {{IPA|*/χuːr/}} 'street' (Semitic loan).{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=48}}

Most Coptic dialects have two phonemic vowels in unstressed position. Unstressed vowels generally became {{IPA|/ə/}}, written as {{angbr|e}} or null ({{angbr|i}} in Bohairic and Fayyumic word-finally), but pretonic unstressed /a/ occurs as a reflex of earlier unstressed {{IPA|*/e/}} near an etymological pharyngeal, velar or sonorant ('to become many' {{angbr|ašai}} < ꜥšꜣ {{IPA|*/ʕiˈʃiʀ/}}) or an unstressed {{IPA|*/a/}}. Pretonic [i] is underlyingly {{IPA|/əj/}}: Sahidic 'ibis' {{angbr|hibôi}} < h(j)bj.w {{IPA|*/hijˈbaːj?w/}}.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=48}}

Thus, the following is the Sahidic vowel system c. AD 400:

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Sahidic vowel system {{circa|400 AD}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=46}}
!
! colspan="2" | Stressed
! Unstressed
|-
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA|iː}}
| {{IPA|uː}}
|
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA|e eː}}
| {{IPA|o oː}}
| {{IPA|ə}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="3"| {{IPA|a}}
|}

===Phonotactics===
Earlier Egyptian has the syllable structure CV(ː)(C) in which V is long in open stressed syllables and short elsewhere.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=36}} In addition, CVːC or CVCC can occur in word-final, stressed position.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=36}} However, CVːC occurs only in the infinitive of biconsonantal verbal roots, CVCC only in some plurals.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=36}}{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=39}}

In later Egyptian, stressed CVːC, CVCC, and CV become much more common because of the loss of final dentals and glides.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=39}}

===Stress===
Earlier Egyptian stresses one of the last two syllables. According to some scholars, that is a development from a stage in Proto-Egyptian in which the third-last syllable could be stressed, which was lost as open posttonic syllables lost their vowels: {{IPA|*/ˈχupiraw/}} > {{IPA|*/ˈχupraw/}} 'transformation'.{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=37}}

===Egyptological pronunciation===
As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in English: the consonants are given fixed values, and vowels are inserted according to essentially arbitrary rules. Two of these consonants known as alef and ayin are generally pronounced as the vowel {{IPA|/ɑː/}}. Yodh is pronounced {{IPA|/iː/}}, ''w'' {{IPA|/uː/}}. Between other consonants, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} is then inserted. Thus, for example, the Egyptian name [[Ramesses (Egyptian name)|Ramesses]] is most accurately transliterated as {{Wikt-lang|egy|rꜥ-ms-sw}} ("[[Ra]] is the one who bore him") and pronounced as {{IPA|/rɑmɛssu/}}.

In [[transcription (linguistics)|transcription]], {{angbr|a}}, {{angbr|i}}, and {{angbr|u}} all represent consonants. For example, the name [[Tutankhamun]] (1341–1323 BC) was written in Egyptian as {{Wikt-lang|egy|twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn}} ("living image of [[Amun]]"). Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience, which is an artificial pronunciation and should not be mistaken for how Egyptian was ever pronounced at any time. So although {{Transliteration|egy|twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn}} is pronounced {{IPAc-en|t|uː|t|ən|ˈ|k|ɑː|m|ə|n}} in modern Egyptological pronunciation, in his lifetime, it was likely to be pronounced something like *{{IPA|sem|təˈwaːtəʔ ˈʕaːnəχ ʔaˈmaːnəʔ|}},<ref>{{cite book|last=Fecht|first=Gerhard|title=Wortakzent und Silbenstruktur: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der ägyptischen Sprache|publisher=J. J. Augustin, Glückstadt–Hamburg–New York|year=1960|section=§§ 112 A. 194, 254 A. 395}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Vergote|first=Jozef|title=Grammaire Copte|others=two vols|publisher=[[Peeters (publishing company)|Peters, Louvain]]|year=1973–1983}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Osing|first=J.|title=Die Nominalbildung des Ägyptischen|publisher=Deutsches archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo|year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Schenkel|first=W.|title=Zur Rekonstruktion deverbalen Nominalbildung des Ägyptischen|publisher=Harrasowitz|location=Wiesbaden|year=1983|pages=212, 214, 247}}</ref>{{sfn|Vycichl|1983|pp=10, 224, 250}}{{sfn|Vycichl|1990|p=215}}{{Excessive citations inline|date=June 2024}} transliterable as {{Transliteration|egy|təwā́təʾ-ʿā́nəkh-ʾamā́nəʾ}}.

== Writing systems ==
Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are written on stone in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]]. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is {{Transliteration|egy|zẖꜣ n mdw-nṯr}} ("writing of the gods' words").<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiffman |first=Lawrence H. |url={{google books URL|4eZvdVOvaU4C|q="writing of the gods' words"}} |title=Semitic Papyrology in Context: A Climate of Creativity: Papers from a New York University Conference Marking the Retirement of Baruch A. Levine |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004128859 |language=en}}</ref>
In antiquity, most texts were written on the quite perishable medium of [[papyrus]] though a few have survived that were written in hieratic and (later) demotic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, Volume 1: Hieroglyphic Transliteration, Translation, and Commentary {{!}} Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures |url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oip/edwin-smith-surgical-papyrus-volume-1-hieroglyphic-transliteration |access-date=2024-07-18 |website=isac.uchicago.edu}}</ref> There was also a form of [[cursive hieroglyphs]], used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' of the [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth Dynasty]]; it was simpler to write than the hieroglyphs in stone inscriptions, but it was not as cursive as hieratic and lacked the wide use of [[typographic ligature#History|ligatures]]. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic, known as "lapidary hieratic".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6okIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1119 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Egyptology |last2=Bloxam |first2=Elizabeth |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780192596987 |page=1119 |access-date=June 14, 2024}}</ref>
In the language's final stage of development, the [[Coptic alphabet]] replaced the older writing system.

Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as [[ideogram]]s to represent the idea depicted by the pictures and, more commonly, as [[phonogram (linguistics)|phonograms]] to represent their [[phonetics|phonetic]] value.

As the phonetic realization of Egyptian cannot be known with certainty, Egyptologists use a system of [[Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian|transliteration]] to denote each sound that could be represented by a uniliteral hieroglyph.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=13}}

Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar noted that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African", reflecting the local wildlife of North Africa, the Levant and southern Mediterranean. In "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence [North] African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" that the geographical location of Egypt is, of course, in Africa.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184265 |title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa |date=1990 |publisher=J. Currey |isbn=0852550928 |edition=Abridged |volume=2 |location=London |pages=11–12}}</ref>

==Morphology==
Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that most of its vocabulary is built around a root of three consonants, though there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: {{Wikt-lang|egy|rꜥ|rꜥ(w)}} ({{IPA|sem|riːʕa|}}, "sun"—the {{IPA|[ʕ]}} is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: {{Wikt-lang|egy|sḫdḫd}} ("be upside-down").

Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, reconstructing the actual forms of words can be difficult. Thus, orthographic {{Wikt-lang|egy|stp}} ("to choose"), for example, can represent the [[stative]] (whose endings can be left unexpressed), the [[imperfective]] forms or even a [[verbal noun]] ("a choosing").

===Nouns===
Egyptian [[noun]]s can be masculine or feminine (the latter is indicated, as with other Afroasiatic languages, by adding a {{Wikt-lang|egy|-t}}) and singular or plural ({{Wikt-lang|egy|-w}} / {{Wikt-lang|egy|-wt}}), or dual ({{Wikt-lang|egy|-wj}} / {{Wikt-lang|egy|-tj}}).

[[Article (grammar)|Article]]s, both definite and indefinite, do not occur until Late Egyptian but are used widely thereafter.

===Pronouns===
Egyptian has three different types of [[personal pronoun]]s: suffix, [[clitic|enclitic]] (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent pronouns. A number of verbal endings can also be added to the [[infinitive]] to form the stative and are regarded by some linguists{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=65}} as a "fourth" set of personal pronouns. They bear close resemblance to their Semitic counterparts. The three main sets of personal pronouns are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan="3" |
! Suffix
! Dependent
! Independent
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br>person
! colspan="2" | singular
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.j}} or {{Transliteration|egy|.ı͗}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|wj}} or {{Transliteration|egy|wı͗}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|jnk}} or {{Transliteration|egy|ı͗nk}}
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.n}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|n}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|jnn}} or {{Transliteration|egy|ı͗nn}}
|-
! rowspan="3" | 2nd<br>person
! rowspan="2" | singular
! masc.
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.k}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ṯw}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ntk}}
|-
! fem.
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.ṯ}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ṯn}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ntṯ}}
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.ṯn}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ṯn}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ntṯn}}
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd<br>person
! rowspan="2" | singular
! masc.
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.f}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|sw}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ntf}}
|-
! fem.
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.s}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|sj}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|nts}}
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
| {{wikt-lang|egy|.sn}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|sn}}
| {{wikt-lang|egy|ntsn}}
|}

Demonstrative pronouns have separate masculine and feminine singular forms and common plural forms for both genders:

{| class="wikitable Unicode"
|+ Demonstrative pronouns
! colspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! rowspan="2" | Meaning
|-
! Masc.
! Fem.
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|pn}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|tn}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|nn}}
|this, that, these, those
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|pf}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|tf}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|nf}}
|that, those
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|pw}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|tw}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|nw}}
|this, that, these, those (archaic)
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|pꜣ}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|tꜣ}}
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|nꜣ}}
|this, that, these, those (colloquial [earlier] & Late Egyptian)
|}

Finally, interrogative pronouns bear a close resemblance to their Semitic and [[Berber language|Berber]] counterparts:

{| class="wikitable Unicode"
|+ Interrogative pronouns
!Pronoun
!Meaning
!Dependency
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|mj}} or {{Transliteration|egy|mı͗}}
|who / what
|Dependent
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|ptr}}
|who / what
|Independent
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|jḫ}}
|what
|Dependent
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|jšst}} or {{Transliteration|egy|ı͗šst}}
|what
|Independent
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|zy}}
|which
|Independent & Dependent
|}

===Verbs===
Egyptian verbs have finite and non-finite forms.

Finite verbs convey [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical tense|tense]]/[[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[Grammatical mood|mood]] and [[Grammatical voice|voice]]. Each is indicated by a set of [[affix]]al morphemes attached to the verb: For example, the basic conjugation is {{Wikt-lang|egy|sḏm}} ("to hear") is {{Transliteration|egy|sḏm.f}} ("he hears").

Non-finite verbs occur without a subject and are the infinitive, the [[participle]]s and the negative infinitive, which ''[[Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs]]'' calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: [[past tense|past]] and temporally-unmarked [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] and [[aorist]] forms. The latter are determined from their [[syntax|syntactic]] context.

===Adjectives===
[[Adjective]]s agree in [[Grammatical gender|gender]] and number with the nouns they modify:

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear |lang=egy |indent=2
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|z}} {{Wikt-lang|egy|nfr}}
|man good.MASC
|"[the] good man"
}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear |lang=egy |indent=2
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|zt}} {{Wikt-lang|egy|nfrt}}
|woman good.FEM
|"[the] good woman"
}}
{{columns-end}}

Attributive adjectives in phrases are after the nouns they modify: {{Wikt-lang|egy|nṯr}} {{Wikt-lang|egy|ꜥꜣ}} ("[the] great god").

However, when they are used independently as a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] in an [[adjectival phrase]], as {{Wikt-lang|egy|ꜥꜣ}} {{Wikt-lang|egy|nṯr}} ("[the] god [is] great", {{lit}} "great [is the] god"), adjectives precede the nouns they modify.

===Prepositions===
Egyptian makes use of [[preposition]]s.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|m}}
|"in, as, with, from"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|n}}
|"to, for"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|r}}
|"to, at"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|jn}} or {{Transliteration|egy|ı͗n}}
|"by"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|ḥnꜥ}}
|"with"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|mj#Etymology_3|mj}} or {{Transliteration|egy|mı͗}}
|"like"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|ḥr}}
|"on, upon"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|ḥꜣ}}
|"behind, around"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|ẖr}}
|"under"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|tp}}
|"atop"
|-
|{{wikt-lang|egy|ḏr}}
|"since"
|}

===Adverbs===
Adverbs, in Egyptian, may appear at the end of a sentence. For example:

{{interlinear |lang=egy |indent=2
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|zj|zı͗.n}} {{Wikt-lang|egy|nṯr}} '''{{Wikt-lang|egy|jm|ı͗m}}'''
|went god '''there'''
|"[the] god went there"
}}

Adverbs may also modify prepositions, in which case they precede the preposition they modify:{{sfn | Allen | 2014 | p=118}}

{{interlinear |lang=egy |indent=2
|'''{{lang|egy|ḥrw}}''' {{Wikt-lang|egy|r}}
|'''apart''' regarding
|"apart from"
}}

Adverbs may also appear after adjectives to modify them:{{sfn | Allen | 2014 | p=118}}

{{interlinear |lang=egy |indent=2
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|jqr|ı͗qr}} '''{{Wikt-lang|egy|wrt}}'''
|excellent '''very'''
|"very excellent"
}}

Here are some common Egyptian adverbs:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|jm}} or {{Transliteration|egy|ı͗m}}
|"there"
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|ꜥꜣ}}
|"here"
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|ṯnj}} or {{Transliteration|egy|ṯnı͗}}
|"where"
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|zy_nw|zy-nw}}
|"when" ({{lit}} "which moment")
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|mj_jḫ|mj-jḫ}} or {{Transliteration|egy|mı͗-ı͗ḫ}}
|"how" ({{lit}} "like-what")
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|r_mj|r-mj}} or {{Transliteration|egy|r-mı͗}}
|"why" ({{lit}} "for what")
|-
|{{Wikt-lang|egy|ḫnt}}
|"before"
|}

==Syntax==
Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian, and Middle Egyptian have [[verb-subject-object]] as the basic [[word order]]. For example, the equivalent of "he opens the door" would be {{Wikt-lang|egy|wn}} {{Wikt-lang|egy|s}} {{Wikt-lang|egy|ꜥꜣ}} ("opens he [the] door"). The so-called [[status constructus|construct state]] combines two or more nouns to express the [[genitive]], as in [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and [[Berber languages]]. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.

The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use {{Wikt-lang|egy|pꜣ}}, {{Wikt-lang|egy|tꜣ}} and {{Wikt-lang|egy|nꜣ}}.

As with other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. It also uses three grammatical numbers: singular, dual and plural. However, later Egyptian has a tendency to lose the dual as a productive form.

==Legacy==
{{further|Coptic language#Influence on other languages}}

The Egyptian language survived through the Middle Ages and into the early modern period in the form of the [[Coptic language]]. Coptic survived past the 16th century only as an isolated vernacular and as a [[liturgical language]] for the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]] and [[Coptic Catholic Church]]es. Coptic also had an enduring effect on [[Egyptian Arabic]], which replaced Coptic as the main daily language in Egypt; the [[Egyptian Arabic#Coptic substratum|Coptic substratum]] in Egyptian Arabic appears in certain aspects of syntax and to a lesser degree in vocabulary and phonology.

In antiquity, Egyptian exerted some influence on [[Classical Greek]], so that a number of Egyptian loanwords into Greek survive into modern usage. Examples include:
* {{wikt-lang|en|ebony}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|hbnj}}, via Greek and then Latin)
* {{wikt-lang|en|ivory}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|ꜣbw}}, via Latin)
* {{wikt-lang|en|natron}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|nṯrj}}, via Greek)
* {{wikt-lang|en|lily}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|ḥrrt}}, Coptic {{Wikt-lang|cop|ϩⲗⲏⲣⲓ|hlēri}}, via Greek)
* {{wikt-lang|en|ibis}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|hbj}}, via Greek)
* {{wikt-lang|en|oasis}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|wḥꜣt}}, via Greek)
* {{wikt-lang|en|barge}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|bꜣjr}}, via Greek))
* possibly {{wikt-lang|en|cat}}{{NoteTag|Possibly the precursor of Coptic {{Wikt-lang|cop|ϣⲁⲩ|šau}} ("tomcat") suffixed with feminine {{Wikt-lang|egy|-t}}, but some authorities dispute this, e.g. {{cite book |first=John |last=Huehnergard |chapter=Qiṭṭa: Arabic Cats |title=Classical Arabic Humanities in Their Own Terms |year=2007 |pages=407–418 |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004165731.i-612.89|isbn=978-90-04-16573-1 }}.}}
* {{wikt-lang|en|pharaoh}} (Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|pr_ꜥꜣ|pr ꜥꜣ}}, {{lit}} "great house", via Hebrew and Greek)

The Hebrew Bible also contains some words, terms, and names that are thought by scholars to be Egyptian in origin. An example of this is [[Zaphnath-Paaneah]], the Egyptian name given to [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]].

The etymological root of [[Name of Egypt|"Egypt"]] is the same as ''[[Copts]]'', ultimately from the Late Egyptian name of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], ''Hikuptah'', a continuation of Middle Egyptian {{Wikt-lang|egy|ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ}} ({{lit}} "temple of the [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|ka (soul)]] of [[Ptah]]").<ref>{{cite journal|last= Hoffmeier|first =James K|title =Rameses of the Exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. Royal Ramesside Residence|journal =[[Trinity Journal (theology)|Trinity Journal]]|page = 1|date = 1 October 2007|url=https://www.galaxie.com/article/13430}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae]]
*[[Ancient Egyptian literature]]
*[[Coptic language]]
*[[Egyptian Arabic]]
*[[Egyptian hieroglyphs]]
*[[Egyptian numerals]]
*[[Hieratic]]
*[[Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian]]

==Notes==
{{NoteFoot}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
 |last=Allen |first=James P. |author-link=James Peter Allen
 |year=2000
 |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |isbn=978-0-521-65312-1
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Allen | first=James P. |author-link=James Peter Allen
 |year=2014
 |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |isbn=978-1-107-66328-2
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Allen |first=James P. |author-link=James Peter Allen
 |year=2013
 |title=The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |isbn=978-1-107-66467-8
 |url={{google books URL|Gd6aAAAAQBAJ}}
}}
* {{cite book
 |first1=Anastasios-Phoivos |last1=Christidēs
 |first2=Maria |last2=Arapopoulou
 |first3=Maria |last3=Chritē
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 |title=A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity
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}}
* {{cite book
 |first=Martin |last=Haspelmath
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}}
* {{cite book
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 |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt
 |publisher=Routledge
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}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Callender |first=John B.
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 |title=Middle Egyptian
 |publisher=Undena Publications
 |isbn=978-0-89003-006-6
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Loprieno |first=Antonio
 |year=1995
 |title=Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |place=Cambridge
 |isbn=978-0-521-44384-5
 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianl0000lopr
}}
* {{cite book
 |first=Eric M. |last=Meyers
 |year=1997
 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East
}}
* {{cite news
 |last=Satzinger |first=Helmut
 |year=2008
 |title=What happened to the voiced consonants of Egyptian?
 |volume=2
 |publisher=Acts of the X International Congress of Egyptologists
 |pages=1537–1546
 |url=https://homepage.univie.ac.at/helmut.satzinger/Texte/VoicedStops.pdf
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815014539/http://homepage.univie.ac.at/helmut.satzinger/Texte/VoicedStops.pdf
 |archive-date=2014-08-15
 |url-status=live
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Schenkel |first=Wolfgang
 |year=1990
 |title=Einführung in die altägyptische Sprachwissenschaft
 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft
 |place=Darmstadt
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Schenkel |first=Wolfgang
 |year=2012
 |title=Tübinger Einführung in die klassisch-ägyptische Sprache und Schrift, 7th rev. ed.
 |publisher=Pagina
 |place=Tübingen
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Vycichl |first=Werner |author-link=Werner Vycichl
 |year=1983
 |title=Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte
 |place=Leuven 
 |isbn=9782-7247-0096-1
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Vycichl |first=Werner |author-link=Werner Vycichl
 |year=1990
 |title=La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne
 |publisher=IFAO
 |place=Cairo
 |isbn=9782-7247-0096-1
}}

* {{cite book
 |last=Takács |first=Gábor
 |year=2011
 |chapter=Semitic-Egyptian Relations
 |title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
 |editor-first=Stefan |editor-last=Weninger
 |publisher=de Gruyter Mouton
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Allen |first=James P. |author-link=James Peter Allen
 |date=2020
 |title=Ancient Egyptian Phonology
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |doi=10.1017/9781108751827
 |isbn=978-1-108-48555-5
 |s2cid=216256704
 |url={{google books URL|09LQDwAAQBAJ}}
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
 |author-last=Rubin |author-first=Aaron D. |author-link=Aaron D. Rubin
 |year=2013
 |title=Egyptian and Hebrew
 |editor1-last=Khan |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor1-link=Geoffrey Khan
 |editor2-last=Bolozky |editor2-first=Shmuel
 |editor3-last=Fassberg |editor3-first=Steven
 |editor4-last=Rendsburg |editor4-first=Gary A. |editor4-link=Gary A. Rendsburg
 |editor5-last=Rubin |editor5-first=Aaron D.
 |editor6-last=Schwarzwald |editor6-first=Ora R.
 |editor7-last=Zewi |editor7-first=Tamar
 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics
 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]]
 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]
 |doi=10.1163/2212-4241_ehll_EHLL_COM_00000721
 |isbn=978-90-04-17642-3
}}
* {{cite journal
 |first=Richard |last=Mattessich |author-link=Richard Mattessich
 |year=2002
 |title=The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt
 |journal=Accounting Historians Journal
 |volume=29
 |issue=1
 |pages=195–208
 |jstor=40698264
 |doi=10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195
 |s2cid=160704269
 |url=https://clio.lib.olemiss.edu/cdm/ref/collection/aah/id/19526
 |url-status=dead
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 |archive-date=31 December 2019
|url-access=subscription
 }}

==Literature==
===Overviews===
* Allen, James P., ''The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study'', Cambridge University Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-107-03246-0}} (hardback), {{ISBN|978-1-107-66467-8}} (paperback).
* Loprieno, Antonio, ''Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction'', Cambridge University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-521-44384-9}} (hardback), {{ISBN|0-521-44849-2}} (paperback).
* {{cite book
 |first=Carsten |last=Peust
 |date=1999
 |title=Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language
 |publisher=Peust & Gutschmidt
 |doi=10.11588/diglit.1167
 |isbn=3-933043-02-6
 |url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/peust1999
}}
* Vergote, Jozef, "Problèmes de la «Nominalbildung» en égyptien", ''Chronique d'Égypte'' 51 (1976), pp.&nbsp;261–285.
* Vycichl, Werner, ''La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne'', IFAO, Cairo, 1990. {{ISBN|9782-7247-0096-1}}.

===Grammars===
* [[James Peter Allen|Allen, James P.]], ''Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs'', first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-521-65312-6}} (hardback) {{ISBN|0-521-77483-7}} (paperback).
* Beylage, Peter, ''Middle Egyptian'', Eisenbrauns, 2018. {{ISBN|978-1575069777}}
*[[Joris Borghouts|Borghouts, Joris F.]], ''Egyptian: An Introduction to the Writing and Language of the Middle Kingdom'', two vols., Peeters, 2010. {{ISBN|978-9-042-92294-5}} (paperback).
* J. Cerny, S. Israelit-Groll, C. Eyre, ''A Late Egyptian Grammar'', 4th, updated edition – Biblical Institute; Rome, 1984
* Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, ''How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself'', British Museum Press ({{ISBN|0-7141-1910-5}}) and University of California Press ({{ISBN|0-520-21597-4}}), both 1998.
* [[Alan Gardiner|Gardiner, Sir Alan H.]], ''[[Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs]]'', Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. {{ISBN|0-900416-35-1}}.
* Hoch, James E., ''Middle Egyptian Grammar'', Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. {{ISBN|0-920168-12-4}}.
* Junge, Friedrich, ''Late Egyptian Grammar: An Introduction'', Griffith Institute, Oxford, 2005. {{ISBN|0-900416-858}}
* Selden, Daniel L., ''Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom'', University of California Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-520-27546-1}} (hardback).

===Dictionaries===
* {{cite book
|first1=Adolf |last1=Erman |author1-link=Adolf Erman
|first2=Hermann |last2=Grapow |author2-link=Hermann Grapow
|year=1926–1961
|title=[[Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache]]
|trans-title=Dictionary of the Egyptian Language
|language=de
|publisher=Akademie-Verlag
|location=Berlin
|isbn=978-3-05-002264-2
}}
* [[Raymond O. Faulkner|Faulkner, Raymond O.]], ''A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian'', Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. {{ISBN|0-900416-32-7}} (hardback).
* [[Leonard H. Lesko|Lesko, Leonard H.]], ''A Dictionary of Late Egyptian'', 2nd ed., 2 vols., B. C. Scribe Publications, [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], 2002 et 2004. {{ISBN|0-930548-14-0}} (vol.1), {{ISBN|0-930548-15-9}} (vol. 2).
* Shennum, David, ''English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian'', Undena Publications, 1977. {{ISBN|0-89003-054-5}}.
* Bonnamy, Yvonne and Sadek, Ashraf-Alexandre, ''Dictionnaire des hiéroglyphes: Hiéroglyphes-Français'', Actes Sud, Arles, 2010. {{ISBN|978-2-7427-8922-1}}.
* [[Werner Vycichl|Vycichl, Werner]], ''Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte'', Peeters, Leuven, 1984. {{ISBN|2-8017-0197-1}}.
* {{ill|de Vartavan, Christian|fr|Christian de Vartavan|vertical-align=sup}}, ''Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian (Open Access)'', Projectis Publishing, London, 2022. {{ISBN|978-1-913984-16-8}}. [Free PDF download: https://www.academia.edu/101048552/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Open_Access_]

===Online dictionaries===
* [https://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/er/beinlich/beinlich.html ''The Beinlich Wordlist''], an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German).
* [https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla ''Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae''], an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumental Altägyptisches Wörterbuch {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214101445/https://aaew.bbaw.de/ |date=14 December 2020 }} of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften ([[Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities]], Berlin, Germany).
* [https://rhbarnhart.net/VYGUS_Dictionary_2018.pdf Mark Vygus Dictionary 2018], a searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words, arranged by glyph.

'''Important Note:''' The old grammars and dictionaries of [[E. A. Wallis Budge]] have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase.

More book information is available at Glyphs and Grammars.

==External links==
{{wiktionary|Category:English terms derived from Egyptian}}
{{WikisourceWiki|Ancient Egyptian}}
*[https://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/ Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae: Dictionary of the Egyptian language]
*[https://homepage.univie.ac.at/helmut.satzinger/Texte/EgnSem01.pdf The Egyptian connection: Egyptian and the Semitic languages] by Helmut Satzinger
*[https://wikis.hu-berlin.de/interlinear_glossing/Ancient_Egyptian:Glossing_of_common_Earlier_Egyptian_forms Ancient Egyptian in the wiki ''Glossing Ancient Languages''] (recommendations for the [[Interlinear gloss|Interlinear Morphemic Glossing]] of Ancient Egyptian texts)

{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
{{Languages of Egypt}}
{{Portal bar|Ancient Egypt|Language}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Egyptian Language}}
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian language| ]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 27th century BC]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Africa]]
[[Category:Verb–subject–object languages]]
[[Category:Afroasiatic languages]]