Editing Election

{{Short description|Process by which a population chooses the holder of a public office}}
{{Redirect|Elect|other uses|-elect|and|Election (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Free election|the "free elections" of Polish kings|Royal elections in Poland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Election MG 3455.JPG|thumb|right|A [[ballot box]] used in [[2007 French presidential election|France]]]]
{{Elections}}
{{politics}}

An '''election''' is a formal [[group decision-making]] process whereby a [[population]] chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold [[Public administration|public office]].

Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern [[representative democracy]] has operated since the 17th century.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Manin |first=Bernard |title=The Principles of Representative Government |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780511659935 |pages=1–7}}</ref> Elections may fill offices in the [[legislature]], sometimes in the [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[judiciary]], and for [[local government| regional and local government]]. This process is also used in many other private and [[business]] organizations, from clubs to [[voluntary association]] and [[corporation]]s.

The global use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic [[archetype]], ancient [[History of Athens |Athens]], where the elections were considered an [[oligarchy |oligarchic]] institution and most political offices were filled using [[sortition]], also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.<ref name=":0" />

[[Electoral reform]] describes the process of introducing fair [[electoral system]]s where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. [[Psephology]] is the study of results and other [[statistics]] relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results). Election is the fact of electing, or being elected.

To ''elect'' means "to select or make a decision", and so sometimes other forms of ballot such as [[referendum]]s are referred to as elections, especially in the [[United States]] .  

==History==
{{see also|History of democracy}}
[[File:Roman Election.jpg|thumb|left|[[Roman coin]] depicting election]]
[[File: Cardiganshire Election ballot paper 1880.jpg|thumb|A British election campaign leaflet with an illustration of an example ballot paper, 1880]]
Elections were used as early in history as [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome]], and throughout the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]] to select rulers such as the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] (see [[imperial election]]) and the [[pope]] (see [[papal election]]).<ref name="Brit">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/182308/election "Election (political science)"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 August 2009</ref>

The [[Pala Empire|Pala]] King [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala]] (ruled {{Circa|750s}}&nbsp;– 770s CE) in early medieval [[Bengal]] was elected by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region.<ref name="Nitish2011">{{cite book | author=Nitish K. Sengupta | title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40 | date= 2011 | publisher=Penguin Books India | isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 | chapter = The Imperial Palas | pages=39–49 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Biplab Dasgupta | title=European Trade and Colonial Conquest | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341 | date=2005 | publisher=Anthem Press | isbn=978-1-84331-029-7 | pages=341–}}</ref> In the [[Chola Empire]], around 920 CE, in [[Uthiramerur]] (in present-day [[Tamil Nadu]]), palm leaves were used for selecting the village committee members. The leaves, with candidate names written on them, were put inside a mud pot. To select the committee members, a young boy was asked to take out as many leaves as the number of positions available. This was known as the ''Kudavolai'' system.<ref name="VKA_2010">{{cite book |title=Indian History |editor=VK Agnihotri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL2-PA62 |publisher=Allied |isbn=978-81-8424-568-4 |year=2010 |edition=26th |pages=B-62–B-65 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tnsec.tn.nic.in/historical/Pre%20Independence.html|title=Pre-Independence Method of Election |publisher=Tamil Nadu State Election Commission, India |access-date=3 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029004115/http://tnsec.tn.nic.in/historical/Pre%20Independence.html|archive-date=29 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first recorded popular elections of officials to public office, by majority vote, where all citizens were eligible both to vote and to hold public office, date back to the [[Ephors]] of [[Sparta]] in 754 BC, under the [[mixed government]] of the [[Spartan Constitution]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ephor|title = Ephor &#124; Spartan magistrate |website = [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Herodotus | title=The Histories | url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2707/2707-h/2707-h.htm | publisher=Project Gutenberg}}</ref> [[Athenian]] democratic elections, where all citizens could hold public office, were not introduced for another 247 years, until the reforms of [[Cleisthenes]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/ancient-greece-democracy|title=Ancient Greek Democracy |date=5 June 2023|website=[[History Channel]] }}</ref> Under the earlier [[Solonian Constitution]] ({{Circa|574 BC}}), all Athenian citizens were eligible to vote in the popular assemblies, on matters of law and policy, and as jurors, but only the three highest classes of citizens could vote in elections. Nor were the lowest of the four classes of Athenian citizens (as defined by the extent of their wealth and property, rather than by birth) eligible to hold public office, through the reforms of [[Solon]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://agathe.gr/democracy/solon_the_lawgiver.html|title = Birth of Democracy: Solon the Lawgiver |website = Agathe.gr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Aristotle | title=The Constitution of Athens | url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/26095/26095-h/26095-h.htm#part08 | publisher=Project Gutenberg}}</ref> The Spartan election of the Ephors, therefore, also predates the reforms of Solon in Athens by approximately 180 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solon|title = Solon &#124; Biography, Reforms, Importance, & Facts| date=9 November 2023 | website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] }}</ref>

[[File:Election of Paasikivi.jpg|thumb|In 1946 [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|Mannerheim]] resigned as president of Finland, and the [[parliament of Finland]] [[1946 Finnish presidential election|elected]] elected prime minister [[J. K. Paasikivi|Paasikivi]] to succeed him, with 159 votes.]]
Questions of [[suffrage]], especially suffrage for minority groups, have dominated the history of elections. Males, the dominant cultural group in North America and Europe, often dominated the [[wikt:electorate|electorate]] and continue to do so in many countries.<ref name = Brit/> Early elections in countries such as the [[Elections in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] and [[Elections in the United States|the United States]] were dominated by [[landed gentry|landed]] or [[ruling class]] males.<ref name = Brit/> By 1920 all Western European and North American democracies had universal adult male suffrage (except Switzerland) and many countries began to consider [[women's suffrage]].<ref name = Brit/> Despite legally mandated universal suffrage for adult males, political barriers were sometimes erected to prevent fair access to elections (see [[civil rights movement]]).<ref name = Brit/>

==Contexts==
Elections are held in a variety of political, organizational, and corporate settings. Many countries hold elections to select people to serve in their governments, but other types of organizations hold elections as well. For example, many corporations hold elections among [[shareholders]] to select a [[board of directors]], and these elections may be mandated by [[corporate law]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cai | first1 = J. | last2 = Garner | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Walkling | first3 = R. A. | year = 2009 | title = Electing Directors | journal = Journal of Finance | volume = 64 | issue = 5| pages = 2387–2419 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-6261.2009.01504.x| s2cid = 6133226 }}</ref> In many places, an election to the government is usually a competition among people who have already won a [[Partisan primary|primary election]] within a [[political party]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Giulia |last1=Sandri |first2=Antonella |last2=Seddone |year=2015 |title=Party Primaries in Comparative Perspective |publisher=Routledge |page=1 |isbn=9781472450388}}</ref> Elections within corporations and other organizations often use procedures and rules that are similar to those of governmental elections.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Amihai |last1=Glazer |first2=Debra G. |last2=Glazer |first3=Bernard |last3=Grofman |title=Cumulative Voting in Corporate Elections: Introducing Strategy into the Equation |journal=South Carolina Law Review |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=295–311 |year=1984}}</ref>

==Electorate==
===Suffrage===
The question of who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does not generally include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those who are under the age of majority from voting. All jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting.

In Australia, [[Aboriginal people]] were not given the right to vote until 1962 (see [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum entry]]) and in 2010 the federal government removed the rights of prisoners serving for three years or more to vote (a large proportion of whom were Aboriginal Australians).

Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country, though further limits may be imposed.

In the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not required. 
[[File:ElezioneMilano.jpg|thumb|right|Campaigners working on posters in [[Milan]], Italy, 2004]]
In some countries, voting is required by law. Eligible voters may be subject to punitive measures such as a fine for not casting a vote. In Western Australia, the penalty for a first time offender failing to vote is a $20.00 fine, which increases to $50.00 if the offender refused to vote prior.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elections.wa.gov.au/vote/failure-vote|title=Failure to Vote {{!}} Western Australian Electoral Commission|website=www.elections.wa.gov.au|access-date=26 November 2018}}</ref>

===Voting population===
Historically the size of eligible voters, the electorate, was small having the size of groups or communities of privileged men like [[aristocrats]] and men of a city ([[Citizens#History|citizens]]).

With the growth of the number of people with [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] citizen rights outside of cities, expanding the term citizen, the electorates grew to numbers beyond the thousands.
Elections with an electorate in the hundred thousands appeared in the final decades of the [[Elections in the Roman Republic|Roman Republic]], by extending voting rights to citizens outside of Rome with the [[Lex Julia#Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis et Sociis Danda (90 BC)|Lex Julia of 90 BC]], reaching an electorate of 910,000 and estimated [[voter turnout]] of maximum 10% in 70 BC,<ref name="Rachel Feig Vishnia pg. 125">Vishnia 2012, p. 125</ref> only again comparable in size to the [[1788–89 United States elections|first elections of the United States]]. At the same time the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] had in 1780 about 214,000 eligible voters, 3% of the whole population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/struggle_democracy/getting_vote.htm|title=Exhibitions > Citizenship > The struggle for democracy > Getting the vote > Voting rights before 1832|publisher=The National Archives|access-date=11 June 2020}}</ref> [[Naturalization]] can reshape the electorate of a country.<ref name="r054">{{cite web | last=Jordan | first=Miriam | title=Immigrants Are Becoming U.S. Citizens at Fastest Clips in Years | website=The New York Times | date=12 August 2024 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/12/us/immigration-us-citizenship-rates.html | access-date=13 August 2024}}</ref>

==Candidates==
A [[representative democracy]] requires a procedure to govern nomination for political office. In many cases, nomination for office is mediated through [[preselection]] processes in organized political parties.<ref>Reuven Hazan, 'Candidate Selection', in Lawrence LeDuc, Richard Niemi and Pippa Norris (eds), ''Comparing Democracies 2'', Sage Publications, London, 2002 {{ISBN?}}</ref>

Non-partisan systems tend to be different from partisan systems as concerns nominations. In a [[direct democracy]], one type of [[non-partisan democracy]], any eligible person can be nominated. Although elections were used in ancient Athens, in Rome, and in the selection of popes and Holy Roman emperors, the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the gradual emergence of representative government in Europe and North America beginning in the 17th century. In some systems no nominations take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting—with some possible exceptions such as through a minimum age requirement—in the jurisdiction. In such cases, it is not required (or even possible) that the members of the electorate be familiar with all of the eligible persons, though such systems may involve [[indirect election]]s at larger geographic levels to ensure that some first-hand familiarity among potential electees can exist at these levels (i.e., among the elected delegates).

==Systems==
{{main|Electoral system}}
[[File:Electoral_systems_map_simplified.svg|thumb|400x400px|Map showing the main types electoral systems used to elect candidates to the [[Lower house|lower]] or sole ([[Unicameralism|unicameral]]) house of national legislatures, {{As of|2022|1|lc=y}}: {{legend|#FF0000|[[Majoritarian representation]] (winner-take-all)}}  {{legend|#0066FF|[[Proportional representation]]}}{{legend|#FF00CC|[[Mixed-member majoritarian representation]]}} {{legend|#5A2CA0|[[Mixed-member proportional representation]]}}{{legend|#FFD42A|[[Semi-proportional representation]] (non-mixed)}}{{legend|#000000|No election (e.g. Monarchy)}}]]
Electoral systems are the detailed constitutional arrangements and voting systems that convert the vote into a political decision. 

The first step is for voters to cast the [[Ballot|ballots]], which may be simple single-choice ballots, but other types, such as multiple choice or [[Ranked voting|ranked ballots]] may also be used. Then the votes are tallied, for which various [[vote counting systems]] may be used. and the voting system then determines the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems can be categorized as either [[Proportional representation|proportional]], [[majoritarian]] or [[Mixed electoral system|mixed]]. Among the proportional systems, the most commonly used are [[party-list proportional representation]] (list PR) systems, among majoritarian are [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post]] electoral system (single winner [[plurality voting]]) and different methods of majority voting (such as the widely used [[two-round system]]). [[Mixed electoral system|Mixed systems]] combine elements of both proportional and majoritarian methods, with some typically producing results closer to the former ([[Mixed-member proportional representation|mixed-member proportional]]) or the other (e.g. [[parallel voting]]). 

Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as [[approval voting]], [[single transferable vote]], [[Instant-runoff voting|instant runoff voting]] or a [[Condorcet method]]; these methods are also gaining popularity for lesser elections in some countries where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods.

While openness and [[accountability]] are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception. The [[secret ballot]] is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most [[free and fair election]]s, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation.

==Campaigns==
{{main|Political campaign}}
When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns.  Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize [[campaign advertising]]. It is common for political scientists to attempt to predict elections via [[political forecasting]] methods.

The most expensive election campaign included US$7 billion spent on the [[2012 United States presidential election]] and is followed by the US$5 billion spent on the [[2014 Indian general election]].<ref>{{Cite web |url = http://www.ndtv.com/elections/article/election-2014/india-s-spend-on-elections-could-challenge-us-record-report-493685 |title = India's spend on elections could challenge US record: report |website = NDTV.com |access-date = 25 February 2016}}</ref>

==Timing==
The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their [[mandate (politics)|mandate]] to continue in office. For that reason, most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In the United States, elections for public offices are typically held between every two and six years in most states and at the federal level, with exceptions for elected judicial positions that may have longer terms of office. There is a variety of schedules, for example, presidents: the [[President of Ireland]] is elected every seven years, the [[President of Russia]] and the [[President of Finland]] every six years, the [[President of France]] every five years, [[President of the United States]] every four years.

Predetermined or fixed election dates have the advantage of fairness and predictability. They tend to greatly lengthen campaigns, and make [[dissolution of parliament|dissolving the legislature]] (parliamentary system) more problematic if the date should happen to fall at a time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g. when war breaks out). Other states (e.g., the [[United Kingdom]]) only set maximum time in office, and the executive decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls. In practice, this means the government remains in power for close to its full term, and chooses an election date it calculates to be in its best interests (unless something special happens, such as a [[motion of no-confidence]]). This calculation depends on a number of variables, such as its performance in opinion polls and the size of its majority.

'''Rolling elections''' are elections in which all [[Representative democracy|representatives]] in a body are elected, but these elections are spread over a period of time rather than all at once. Examples are the presidential [[primaries]] in the [[United States]], [[Elections to the European Parliament]] (where, due to differing election laws in each member state, elections are held on different days of the same week) and, due to logistics, general elections in [[Elections in Lebanon|Lebanon]] and [[Elections in India|India]]. The voting procedure in the [[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic]] are also a classical example.

In rolling elections, voters have information about previous voters' choices. While in the first elections, there may be plenty of hopeful candidates, in the last rounds consensus on one winner is generally achieved. In today's context of rapid communication, candidates can put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of latter stages.

==Undemocratic or unfair==
[[File: The Presidential Election in Argentina, the Polling-Station at the Church of La Merced, Buenos Ayres.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Buenos Aires]] 1892: "The rival voters were kept back by an armed force of police out of sight to others. Only batches of two or three were allowed to enter the polling office at a time. Armed sentries guarded the gates and the doors." [[Godefroy Durand]], ''[[The Graphic]]'', 21 May 1892.]]
{{main|Unfair election}}
In many of the countries with weak [[rule of law]], the most common reason why elections do not meet international standards of being "free and fair" is interference from the incumbent government. [[Dictator]]s may use the powers of the executive (police, martial law, censorship, physical implementation of the election mechanism, etc.) to remain in power despite popular opinion in favour of removal. Members of a particular faction in a legislature may use the power of the majority or supermajority (passing criminal laws, and defining the electoral mechanisms including eligibility and district boundaries) to prevent the balance of power in the body from shifting to a rival faction due to an election.<ref name="Brit" />

Non-governmental entities can also interfere with elections, through physical force, verbal intimidation, or fraud, which can result in improper casting or counting of votes. Monitoring for and minimizing electoral fraud is also an ongoing task in countries with strong traditions of free and fair elections. Problems that prevent an election from being "free and fair" take various forms.<ref>{{cite web|title=Free and Fair Elections|url=http://www.publicsphereproject.org/content/free-and-fair-elections|website=Public Sphere Project|access-date=8 November 2015|date=2008}}</ref>

===Lack of open political debate or an informed electorate===
{{See also|Political censorship|List of banned political parties}}
The electorate may be poorly informed about issues or candidates due to lack of [[freedom of the press]], lack of objectivity in the press due to state or corporate control, or lack of access to news and political media. [[Freedom of speech]] may be curtailed by the state, favouring certain viewpoints or state [[propaganda]]. Scheduling [[frequent elections]] can also lead to [[voter fatigue]].

===Violation of political egalitarianism===
{{See also|Political egalitarianism|One man, one vote}}
[[Gerrymandering]], [[wasted vote]]s and manipulating [[electoral threshold]]s can prevent that all votes count equally.

===Interference with campaigns===
{{see also|Political bias|Political prisoner|Foreign electoral intervention}}
Exclusion of opposition candidates from eligibility for office, needlessly high [[nomination rules]] on who may be a candidate, are some of the ways the structure of an election can be changed to favour a specific faction or candidate. Those in power may arrest or assassinate candidates, suppress or even criminalize campaigning, close campaign headquarters, harass or beat campaign workers, or intimidate voters with violence. [[Foreign electoral intervention]] can also occur, with the United States interfering between 1946 and 2000 in 81 elections and [[Russia]] or the [[Soviet Union]] in 36.<ref name="LevinISQ2016">{{cite journal|last=Levin|first=Dov H.|title=When the Great Power Gets a Vote: The Effects of Great Power Electoral Interventions on Election Results|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=60|issue=2|date=June 2016|pages=189–202|doi=10.1093/isq/sqv016|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In 2018 the most intense interventions, utilizing false information, were by [[China]] in [[Taiwan]] and by [[Russia]] in [[Latvia]]; the next highest levels were in Bahrain, Qatar and Hungary.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/99/de/99dedd73-f8bc-484c-8b91-44ba601b6e6b/v-dem_democracy_report_2019.pdf |title=Democracy Facing Global Challenges, V-Dem Annual Democracy Report 2019 |page=36 |publisher=V-Dem |date=14 May 2019 |access-date=1 January 2020 |archive-date=5 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605230333/https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/99/de/99dedd73-f8bc-484c-8b91-44ba601b6e6b/v-dem_democracy_report_2019.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Tampering with mechanisms===
{{see also|Election audit|Electoral fraud|Electoral integrity|Certification of voting machines |Secret ballot|Voter impersonation|Voter ID laws|Voter suppression}}

This can include falsifying voter instructions,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sanmateocourt.org/documents/grand_jury/2018/elections.pdf|title=Security of Election Announcements|last= San Mateo County Civil Grand Jury|date=24 July 2019|publisher=Superior Court of California|access-date=20 August 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820074448/https://www.sanmateocourt.org/documents/grand_jury/2018/elections.pdf |archive-date= 20 August 2019 }}</ref>
violation of the [[secret ballot]], [[ballot stuffing]], tampering with voting machines,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zetter |first=Kim |date=26 September 2018 |title=The Crisis of Election Security |work=[[The New York Times Magazine]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/magazine/election-security-crisis-midterms.html |url-access=limited |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/magazine/election-security-crisis-midterms.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |id={{ProQuest|2112081778}}}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
destruction of legitimately cast ballots,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/candidate-says-new-congressional-election-warranted-in-north-carolina/2019/02/21/acae4482-35e0-11e9-854a-7a14d7fec96a_story.html|title=N.C. board declares a new election in contested House race after the GOP candidate admitted he was mistaken in his testimony|last=Gardner|first=Amy|date=21 February 2019|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref>
[[voter suppression]], voter registration fraud, failure to validate voter residency, fraudulent tabulation of results, and use of physical force or verbal intimation at polling places. Other examples include persuading candidates not to run, such as through blackmailing, bribery, intimidation or physical violence.

=== Shams ===
[[File:Economist_Intelligence_Unit_Democracy_Index_2024.svg|alt=|thumb|upright=1.2|The 2024 [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] ''[[The Economist Democracy Index|Democracy Index]]'' map]]

{{Anchor|Show election}}
{{Anchor|Sham election}}
A '''sham election''', or '''show election''', is an election that is held purely for show; that is, without any significant political choice or real impact on the results of the election.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://definitions.uslegal.com/s/sham-election/|title=Sham Election Law and Legal Definition |publisher=USLegal, Inc.|access-date=14 July 2018}}</ref>

Sham elections are a common event in [[Dictatorship|dictatorial regimes]] that feel the need to feign the appearance of public [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]]. Published results usually show nearly 100% [[voter turnout]] and high support (typically at least 80%, and close to 100% in many cases) for the prescribed candidates or for the [[referendum]] choice that favours the [[political party]] in power. Dictatorial regimes can also organize sham elections with results simulating those that might be achieved in democratic countries.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/kim-jong-un-wins-100-of-the-vote-in-north-korean-elections-9180814.html | title=Kim Jong-un wins 100% of the vote in his constituency| website=[[The Independent]]| date=10 March 2014}}</ref>

Sometimes, only one government-approved candidate is allowed to run in sham elections with no opposition candidates allowed, or opposition candidates are arrested on false charges (or even without any charges) before the election to prevent them from running.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/02/21/world/meast/yemen-elections/index.html|title=Yemen holds presidential election with one candidate|first=Mohammed |last=Jamjoom|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=21 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/01/29/egyptian-opposition-calls-boycott-elections-challengers-arrested/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/01/29/egyptian-opposition-calls-boycott-elections-challengers-arrested/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Egyptian opposition calls for boycott of elections after challengers are arrested and attacked |first1=Raf |last1=Sanchez |first2=Magdy |last2=Samaan |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|date=29 January 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="urlAlexei Navalny latest: Russian opposition leader arrested ahead of presidential election | The Independent">{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/alexei-navalny-latest-updates-russia-president-election-opposition-leader-putin-protests-a8222956.html |title=Alexei Navalny latest: Russian opposition leader arrested ahead of presidential election |website=The Independent |date=22 February 2018 }}</ref>

Ballots may contain only one "yes" option, or in the case of a simple "yes or no" question, security forces often [[Persecution|persecute]] people who pick "no", thus encouraging them to pick the "yes" option. In other cases, those who vote receive stamps in their passport for doing so, while those who did not vote (and thus do not receive stamps) are persecuted as [[Enemy of the people|enemies of the people]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764407,00.html|title=Russia: Justice in The Baltic|date=19 August 1940|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=14 July 2018|issn=0040-781X}}</ref><ref name="urlYes, There Are Elections in North Korea and Heres How They Work - The Atlantic">{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/03/north-korea-elections-guide/358875/ |title=Yes, There Are Elections in North Korea and Here's How They Work |website=[[The Atlantic]] |date=6 March 2014 }}</ref>

Sham elections can sometimes backfire against the party in power, especially if the regime believes they are popular enough to win without coercion, fraud or suppressing the opposition. The most famous example of this was the [[1990 Myanmar general election]], in which the government-sponsored [[National Unity Party (Myanmar)|National Unity Party]] suffered a landslide defeat by the opposition [[National League for Democracy]] and consequently, the results were annulled.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/26/burma-20-years-after-1990-elections-democracy-still-denied|title=Burma: 20 Years After 1990 Elections, Democracy Still Denied|date=26 May 2010|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=14 July 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Wahlzettel-3.-Reich.jpg|thumb|right|A ballot from the [[1936 German parliamentary election and referendum|1936 elections in Nazi Germany]]]]
[[File:Stimmzettel-Anschluss.jpg|thumb|right|A ballot from the [[1938 German parliamentary election and referendum|1938 elections in Nazi Germany]] asking voters to approve the new [[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]] and the [[Anschluss]]. The "no" box was made significantly smaller than the "yes" box.]]

Examples of sham elections include: the [[1929 Italian general election|1929]] and [[1934 Italian general election|1934]] [[Elections in Italy|elections]] in [[Kingdom of Italy|Fascist Italy]], the [[1942 Japanese general election|1942 general election]] in [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]], those in [[elections in Nazi Germany|Nazi Germany]], [[Elections_in_Germany#German_Democratic_Republic|East Germany]] other than the election in 1990, the [[People's Parliament|1940 elections of Stalinist "People's Parliaments"]] to legitimise the [[Occupation of the Baltic States|Soviet occupation]] of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]], those in [[Elections in Egypt|Egypt]] under [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], [[Anwar Sadat]], [[Hosni Mubarak]], and [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]], those in [[Elections in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] under [[Sheikh Hasina]], those in [[Elections in Russia|Russia]] under [[Vladimir Putin]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5hY2FzdC5jb20vcHVibGljL3Nob3dzLzY1ODMwMTJlNzE1ZDUzMDAxNjlkY2RjYg/episode/NjVmNDc4M2NlNzY3NDUwMDE2MmQxMjgx?sa=X&ved=0CAUQkfYCahkKEwjoq_mC0PeEAxUAAAAAHQAAAAAQxMUB | title=Google Podcasts }}</ref> those in Syria under [[Hafez Al-Assad]] and his son [[Bashar Al-Assad]], those in [[Elections in Venezuela|Venezuela]] Under [[Hugo Chavez]] and [[Nicolas Maduro]] and most Notably in [[2018 Venezuelan presidential election|2018]] and [[2024 Venezuelan presidential election|2024]], the [[1928 Portuguese presidential election|1928]], [[1935 Portuguese presidential election|1935]], [[1942 Portuguese presidential election|1942]], [[1949 Portuguese presidential election|1949]], [[1951 Portuguese presidential election|1951]] and [[1958 Portuguese presidential election|1958 election]]s in Portugal, those in [[Elections in Indonesia|Indonesia]] during [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]] regime, those in [[Elections in Belarus|Belarus]] and Most Notably in [[2020 Belarusian presidential election|2020]], the [[1991 Kazakh presidential election|1991]] and [[2019 Kazakh presidential election]]s, those in [[Elections in North Korea|North Korea]],<ref name="time_Insi">{{Cite magazine | title = Inside North Korea's sham election | author =  Emily Rauhala | magazine = Time | date = 10 March 2014 | access-date = 4 July 2015 | url = https://time.com/17720/north-korea-election-a-sham-worth-studying/ }}</ref> the [[1995 Iraqi presidential referendum|1995]] and [[2002 Iraqi presidential referendum|2002 presidential referendum]]s in [[Ba'athist Iraq|Saddam Hussein's Iraq]].

In [[Mexico]], all of the presidential elections from [[1929 Mexican general election|1929]] to [[1982 Mexican general election|1982]] are considered to be sham elections, as the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party]] (PRI) and its predecessors governed the country in a ''de facto'' single-party system without serious opposition, and they won all of the presidential elections in that period with more than 70% of the vote. The first seriously competitive presidential election in modern Mexican history was that of [[1988 Mexican general election|1988]], in which for the first time the PRI candidate faced two strong opposition candidates, though it is believed that the government rigged the result. The first fair election was held in [[1994 Mexican general election|1994]], though the opposition did not win until [[2000 Mexican general election|2000]].

A predetermined conclusion is permanently established by the regime through [[Political repression|suppression]] of the opposition, [[coercion]] of voters, [[Electoral fraud|vote rigging]], reporting several votes received greater than the number of voters, outright lying, or some combination of these. In an extreme example, [[Charles D. B. King]] of [[Liberia]] was reported to have won by 234,000 votes in the [[1927 Liberian general election|1927 general election]], a "majority" that was over fifteen times larger than the number of eligible voters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/1927ElectionsMF.htm|title=Liberia past and present 1927 elections|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=20 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120205806/http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/1927ElectionsMF.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Aristocratic ==
Some scholars argue that the predominance of elections in modern [[Liberal democracy|liberal democracies]] masks the fact that they are actually aristocratic selection mechanisms<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Ferejohn |first1=John |title=Political Representation |last2=Rosenbluth |first2=Frances |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780511813146 |editor-last=Shapiro |editor-first=Ian |chapter=10 |editor-last2=Stokes |editor-first2=Susan C. |editor-last3=Wood |editor-first3=Elisabeth Jean |editor-last4=Kirshner |editor-first4=Alexander S.}}</ref> that deny each citizen an equal chance of holding public office. Such views were expressed as early as the time of [[Ancient Greece]] by [[Aristotle]].<ref name=":1" /> According to French [[Political science|political scientist]] Bernard Manin, the inegalitarian nature of elections stems from four factors: the unequal treatment of candidates by voters, the distinction of candidates required by choice, the cognitive advantage conferred by salience, and the costs of disseminating information.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Manin |first=Bernard |title=The Principles of Representative Government |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780511659935 |pages=134–149}}</ref> These four factors result in the evaluation of candidates based on voters' partial standards of quality and social saliency (for example, skin colour and good looks). This leads to self-selection biases in candidate pools due to unobjective standards of treatment by voters and the costs (barriers to entry) associated with raising one's political profile. Ultimately, the result is the election of candidates who are superior (whether in actuality or as perceived within a cultural context) and objectively unlike the voters they are supposed to represent.<ref name=":03" />

Evidence suggests that the concept of electing representatives was originally conceived to be different from [[democracy]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manin |first=Bernard |title=The Principles of Representative Government |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780511659935 |page=4}}</ref> Prior to the 18th century, some societies in [[Western Europe]] used [[sortition]] as a means to select rulers, a method which allowed regular citizens to exercise power, in keeping with understandings of democracy at the time.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Manin |first=Bernard |title=The Principles of Representative Government |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780511659935 |pages=42}}</ref> The idea of what constituted a legitimate government shifted in the 18th century to include [[Consent of the governed|consent]], especially with the rise of the [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]]. From this point onward, sortition fell out of favor as a mechanism for selecting rulers. On the other hand, elections began to be seen as a way for the masses to express popular consent repeatedly, resulting in the triumph of the electoral process until the present day.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manin |first=Bernard |title=The Principles of Representative Government |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780511659935 |pages=79–93}}</ref>

This conceptual misunderstanding of elections as open and egalitarian when they are not innately so may thus be a root cause of the [[Oligarchy|problems in contemporary governance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Landemore |first=Hélène |title=Open Democracy: Reinventing Popular Rule for the Twenty-First Century |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0691181998 |page=33}}</ref> Those in favor of this view argue that the modern system of elections was never meant to give ordinary citizens the chance to exercise power - merely privileging their right to consent to those who rule.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Landemore |first=Hélène |title=Open Democracy: Reinventing Popular Rule for the Twenty-First Century |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0691181998 |pages=xiv |chapter=Prologue}}</ref> Therefore, the representatives that modern electoral systems select for are too disconnected, unresponsive, and elite-serving.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Landemore |first=Hélène |title=Open Democracy: Reinventing Popular Rule for the Twenty-First Century |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0691181998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reybrouck |first=David Van |title=Against Elections: The Case for Democracy |publisher=Random House UK |year=2016 |isbn=978-1847924223}}</ref> To deal with this issue, various scholars have proposed alternative models of democracy, many of which include a return to sortition-based selection mechanisms. The extent to which sortition should be the dominant mode of selecting rulers<ref name=":4" /> or instead be hybridised with electoral representation<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gastil |first1=John |title=Legislature by Lot: Transformative Designs for Deliberative Governance |last2=Wright |first2=Erik Olin |publisher=Verso |year=2019 |isbn=9781788736084}}</ref> remains a topic of debate.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Artificial intelligence and elections]] - Use of AI in elections and political campaigning.
*[[Ballot access]]
*[[Concession (politics)]]
*[[Demarchy]] – "democracy without elections"
*[[Electoral calendar]]
*[[Electoral system]]
*[[Election law]]
*[[Election litter]]
*[[Elections by country]]
*[[Electronic voting]]
*[[Fenno's paradox]]
*[[Full slate]]
*[[Garrat Elections]]
*[[Gerontocracy]]
*[[Issue voting]]
*[[Landslide election]]
*[[List of next general elections]]
*[[Meritocracy]]
*[[Multi-party system]]
*[[Non-human electoral candidate]]
*[[Party system]]
*[[Pluralism (political philosophy)]]
*[[Political polarization]]
*[[Political science]]
*[[Polling station]]
*[[Proportional representation]]
*[[Re-election]]
*[[Slate (elections)|Slate]]
*[[Stunning elections]]
*[[Two-party system]]
*[[Voter turnout]]
*[[Voting system]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Kenneth Arrow|Arrow, Kenneth J.]] 1963. ''Social Choice and Individual Values''. 2nd ed. New Haven, CT: [[Yale University Press]].
* Benoit, Jean-Pierre and Lewis A. Kornhauser. 1994. "Social Choice in a Representative Democracy". ''American Political Science Review'' 88.1: 185–192.
* Corrado Maria, Daclon. 2004. ''US Elections and War On Terrorism – Interview With Professor Massimo Teodori'' Analisi Difesa, n. 50
* Farquharson, Robin. 1969. ''A Theory of Voting''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
* Mueller, Dennis C. 1996. ''Constitutional Democracy''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].
* Owen, Bernard, 2002. "Le système électoral et son effet sur la représentation parlementaire des partis: le cas européen", LGDJ;
* [[William H. Riker|Riker, William]]. 1980. ''Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation Between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
* Thompson, Dennis F. 2004. ''Just Elections: Creating a Fair Electoral Process in the U.S.'' Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0226797649}}
* Ware, Alan. 1987. ''Citizens, Parties and the State''. Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]].
{{div col end}}

==External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{commons category|Elections}}
{{scholia}}
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle= Election |volume = 9 |pages=169-172 |short=1}}
===Election counts===
*[https://www.nationalelectionsdatabase.com/ Marx, B., Pons, V., & Rollet, V. (2024). National Elections Database (Version 1.0).]
*[http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/parlinesearch.asp PARLINE database on national parliaments. Results for all parliamentary elections since 1966]
* [http://psephos.adam-carr.net/ "Psephos", archive of recent electoral data from 182 countries]
*[http://www.electionguide.org ElectionGuide.org – Worldwide Coverage of National-level Elections]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012214801/http://parties-and-elections.de/ parties-and-elections.de: Database for all European elections since 1945]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060108113500/http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/ Angus Reid Global Monitor: Election Tracker]}}
===Election organizations===
*[http://www.aceproject.org ACE Electoral Knowledge Network] – electoral encyclopedia and related resources from a consortium of electoral agencies and organizations.
*[https://www.ifes.org/ International Foundation for Electoral Systems]
*[https://www.idea.int  International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance]
*[https://www.coe.int/en/web/electoral-management-bodies-conference European Conferences of Electoral Management Bodies (Council of Europe)]
*[https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070427195545/http://www.eurela.org/ European Election Law Association (Eurela)], closed in 2008
*[http://www.killercampaigning.com/local-elections-list-political-campaign-candidate-offices/ List of Local Elected Offices in the United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402070734/http://www.killercampaigning.com/local-elections-list-political-campaign-candidate-offices/ |date=2 April 2016 }}
* [http://www.vote.caltech.edu/ Caltech/ MIT Voting Technology Project]
{{Electoral calendar navigation}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Comparative politics]]
[[Category:Elections| ]]
[[Category:Politics]]