Editing Electrical engineering

{{Short description|Branch of engineering}}
{{Distinguish|Electronic engineering}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox occupation
| name = Electrical engineering
| image = File:Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen 380kV-Trennschalter.jpg
| caption = A long row of [[disconnector]]s
| official_names = Electrical engineer
<!------------Details------------------->
| type =
| activity_sector = [[Electronics]], [[electrical circuit]]s, [[electromagnetics]], [[power engineering]], [[electrical machine]]s, [[telecommunications]], [[control system]]s, [[signal processing]], [[optics]], [[photonics]], and [[electrical substation]]s
| competencies = Technical knowledge, management skills, advanced mathematics, systems design, physics, science, abstract thinking, analytical thinking, philosophy of logic (see also [[Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering]])
| formation = 
| employment_field = [[Technology]], [[science]], [[space exploration|exploration]], [[military]], [[Industry (manufacturing)|industry]] and [[society]]
| related_occupation =
| average_salary =
}}

'''Electrical engineering''' is an [[engineering]] discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems that use [[electricity]], [[electronics]], and [[electromagnetism]]. It emerged as an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after the [[commercialization]] of the [[electric telegraph]], the telephone, and [[electrical power]] generation, distribution, and use.

Electrical engineering is divided into a wide range of different fields, including [[computer engineering]], [[systems engineering]], [[power engineering]], [[telecommunications]], [[radio-frequency engineering]], [[signal processing]], [[instrumentation]], [[photovoltaic cell]]s, [[electronics]], and [[optics]] and [[photonics]]. Many of these disciplines overlap with other engineering branches, spanning a huge number of specializations including hardware engineering, [[power electronics]], [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetics]] and waves, [[microwave engineering]], [[nanotechnology]], [[electrochemistry]], renewable energies, mechatronics/control, and electrical materials science.{{efn|For more see [[glossary of electrical and electronics engineering]].}}

Electrical engineers typically hold a [[academic degree|degree]] in electrical engineering, electronic or electrical and electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have [[professional certification]] and be members of a [[professional body]] or an international standards organization. These include the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), the [[National Society of Professional Engineers]] (NSPE), the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE) and the [[Institution of Engineering and Technology]] (IET, formerly the IEE).

Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from [[circuit theory]] to the management skills of a [[project manager]]. The tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple [[voltmeter]] to sophisticated design and manufacturing software.

==History==
{{Main|History of electrical engineering}}

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. [[William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert]] was a prominent early electrical scientist, and was the first to draw a clear distinction between [[magnetism]] and [[static electricity]]. He is credited with establishing the term "electricity".{{sfn|Martinsen|Grimnes|2011|p=411}} He also designed the [[versorium]]: a device that detects the presence of statically charged objects. In 1762 Swedish professor [[Johan Wilcke]] invented a device later named [[electrophorus]] that produced a static electric charge.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Voltaic Pile {{!}} Distinctive Collections Spotlights |url=https://libraries.mit.edu/collections/vail-collection/topics/electricity/the-voltaic-pile/ |access-date=2022-12-16 |website=libraries.mit.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> By 1800 [[Alessandro Volta]] had developed the [[voltaic pile]], a forerunner of the electric battery.

===19th century===
[[File:Faraday Cochran Pickersgill.jpg|thumb|upright|The discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]] formed the foundation of electric motor technology.]]

In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], who discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle; of [[William Sturgeon]], who in 1825 invented the [[electromagnet]]; of [[Joseph Henry]] and [[Edward Davy]], who invented the [[electrical relay]] in 1835; of [[Georg Ohm]], who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the [[electric current]] and [[potential difference]] in a [[Electrical conductor|conductor]]; of [[Michael Faraday]], the discoverer of [[electromagnetic induction]] in 1831; and of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who in 1873 published a unified [[Maxwell's equations|theory]] of electricity and [[magnetism]] in his treatise ''Electricity and Magnetism''.{{sfn|Lambourne|2010|p=11}}

In 1782, [[Georges-Louis Le Sage]] developed and presented in [[Berlin]] probably the world's first form of [[Electrical telegraph|electric telegraphy]], using 24 different wires, one for each letter of the alphabet. This telegraph connected two rooms. It was an electrostatic telegraph that moved gold leaf through electrical conduction.

In 1795, [[Francisco Salva Campillo]] proposed an electrostatic telegraph system. Between 1803 and 1804, he worked on electrical telegraphy, and in 1804, he presented his report at the Royal Academy of Natural Sciences and Arts of Barcelona. Salva's electrolyte telegraph system was very innovative though it was greatly influenced by and based upon two discoveries made in Europe in 1800—Alessandro Volta's electric battery for generating an electric current and William Nicholson and Anthony Carlyle's electrolysis of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2016 |title=Francesc Salvà i Campillo : Biography |url=https://ethw.org/Francesc_Salv%C3%A0_i_Campillo |access-date=25 March 2019 |website=ethw.org |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Electrical telegraph]]y may be considered the first example of electrical engineering.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://distantwriting.co.uk/introduction.html | title = Distant Writing: A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868: 2. Introduction | last = Roberts | first = Steven | quote = Using these discoveries a number of inventors or rather ‘adapters’ appeared, taking this new knowledge, transforming it into useful ideas with commercial utility; the first of these ‘products’ was the use of electricity to transmit information between distant points, the electric telegraph. }}</ref> Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century.  Practitioners had created a global [[electric telegraph]] network, and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK and the US to support the new discipline. [[Francis Ronalds]] created an electric telegraph system in 1816 and documented his vision of how the world could be transformed by electricity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph|last=Ronalds|first=B.F.|publisher=Imperial College Press|year=2016|isbn=978-1-78326-917-4|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ronalds|first=B.F.|date=2016|title=Sir Francis Ronalds and the Electric Telegraph|journal=International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology|volume=86|pages=42–55|doi=10.1080/17581206.2015.1119481|s2cid=113256632}}</ref> Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed the [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]]) where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ronalds|first=B.F.|date=July 2016|title=Francis Ronalds (1788–1873): The First Electrical Engineer?|journal=Proceedings of the IEEE|volume=104|issue=7|pages=1489–1498|doi=10.1109/JPROC.2016.2571358|s2cid=20662894}}</ref> By the end of the 19th century, the world had been forever changed by the rapid communication made possible by the engineering development of land-lines, [[submarine communications cable|submarine cable]]s, and, from about 1890, [[wireless telegraphy]].

Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardized [[units of measure]]. They led to the international standardization of the units [[volt]], [[ampere]], [[coulomb]], [[ohm]], [[farad]], and [[henry (unit)|henry]]. This was achieved at an international conference in [[Chicago]] in 1893.{{Sfn|Rosenberg|2008|p=9}} The publication of these standards formed the basis of future advances in standardization in various industries, and in many countries, the definitions were immediately recognized in relevant legislation.{{sfn|Tunbridge|1992}}

During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of [[physics]] since early electrical technology was considered [[electromechanical]] in nature. The [[Technische Universität Darmstadt]] founded the world's first department of electrical engineering in 1882 and introduced the first-degree course in electrical engineering in 1883.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etit.tu-darmstadt.de/fachbereich/profil/historie/index.en.jsp|title=Historie|last=Darmstadt|first=Technische Universität|website=Technische Universität Darmstadt|language=en|access-date=12 October 2019}}</ref> The first electrical engineering degree program in the United States was started at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) in the physics department under Professor Charles Cross,{{Sfn|Wildes|Lindgren|1985|p=19}} though it was [[Cornell University]] to produce the world's first electrical engineering graduates in 1885.<ref>{{cite web | title=History|publisher=School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell| date=Spring 1994| orig-date=Later updated|url=http://www.ece.cornell.edu/ece/about/history.cfm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606163120/http://www.ece.cornell.edu/ece/about/history.cfm | archive-date=6 June 2013 | url-status=dead}}</ref> The first course in electrical engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell's [[Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanic Arts]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.engineering.cornell.edu/about/upload/Cornell-Engineering-history.pdf |title=A tradition of leadership and innovation: a history of Cornell Engineering|year=2009|archive-date=3 March 2016| publication-place=Ithaca, NY | isbn=978-0-918531-05-6 | oclc=455196772 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165241/http://www.engineering.cornell.edu/about/upload/Cornell-Engineering-history.pdf |url-status=dead |last1=Roger Segelken |first1=H. }}</ref>

In about 1885, Cornell President [[Andrew Dickson White]] established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://president.cornell.edu/andrew-dickson-white/|title=Andrew Dickson White &#124; Office of the President|website=president.cornell.edu}}</ref> In the same year, [[University College London]] founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Electrical Engineer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TLLmAAAAMAAJ|year=1911|page=54}}</ref> Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at [[University of Missouri]] established the electrical engineering department in 1886.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://engineering.missouri.edu/ece/about/department-history/|title=Department History – Electrical & Computer Engineering|access-date=5 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117054305/http://engineering.missouri.edu/ece/about/department-history/|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Afterwards, universities and [[institutes of technology]] gradually started to offer electrical engineering programs to their students all over the world.

During these decades the use of electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, [[Thomas Edison]] switched on the world's first large-scale electric power network that provided 110 volts—[[direct current]] (DC)—to 59 customers on [[Manhattan Island]] in New York City. In 1884, [[Sir Charles Parsons]] invented the [[steam turbine]] allowing for more efficient electric power generation. [[Alternating current]], with its ability to transmit power more efficiently over long distances via the use of [[transformer]]s, developed rapidly in the 1880s and 1890s with transformer designs by [[Károly Zipernowsky]], [[Ottó Bláthy]] and [[Miksa Déri]] (later called ZBD transformers), [[Lucien Gaulard]], [[John Dixon Gibbs]] and [[William Stanley Jr.]] Practical [[AC motor]] designs including [[induction motor]]s were independently invented by [[Galileo Ferraris]] and [[Nikola Tesla]] and further developed into a practical [[three-phase]] form by [[Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky]] and [[Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown]].{{Sfn|Heertje|Perlman|1990|p=138}} [[Charles Steinmetz]] and [[Oliver Heaviside]] contributed to the theoretical basis of alternating current engineering.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5FqsDPVQ2MC&q=theoretical%20%20alternating%20current%20%20Oliver%20Heaviside&pg=PA1229|title=Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences|first=I.|last=Grattan-Guinness|date=1 January 2003|publisher=JHU Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780801873973}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lew5IC5piCwC&q=theoretical%20%20alternating%20current%20%20Charles%20Steinmetz&pg=PA329|title=Mathematics in Historical Context|first=Jeff|last=Suzuki|date=27 August 2009|publisher=MAA|via=Google Books|isbn=9780883855706}}</ref> The spread in the use of AC set off in the United States what has been called the ''[[war of the currents]]'' between a [[George Westinghouse]] backed AC system and a Thomas Edison backed DC power system, with AC being adopted as the overall standard.{{sfn|Severs|Leise|2011|p=145}}

===Early 20th century===
[[File:Guglielmo Marconi.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Guglielmo Marconi]], known for his pioneering work on long-distance [[radio transmission]]]]

During the [[invention of radio|development of radio]], many scientists and inventors contributed to [[radio communications|radio technology]] and electronics. The mathematical work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]] during the 1850s had shown the relationship of different forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]] including the possibility of invisible airborne waves (later called "radio waves"). In his classic physics experiments of 1888, [[Heinrich Hertz]] proved Maxwell's theory by transmitting [[radio wave]]s with a [[spark-gap transmitter]], and detected them by using simple electrical devices. Other physicists experimented with these new waves and in the process developed devices for transmitting and detecting them. In 1895, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] began work on a way to adapt the known methods of transmitting and detecting these "Hertzian waves" into a purpose-built commercial [[Wireless telegraphy|wireless telegraphic]] system. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, [[Cornwall]], and St. John's, [[Newfoundland]], a distance of {{convert|2100|mi|km}}.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html Marconi's biography at Nobelprize.org] retrieved 21 June 2008.</ref>

[[Millimetre wave]] communication was first investigated by [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] during 1894{{ndash}}1896, when he reached an [[extremely high frequency]] of up to 60{{nbsp}}[[GHz]] in his experiments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: First Millimeter-wave Communication Experiments by J.C. Bose, 1894–96 |url=https://ethw.org/Milestones:First_Millimeter-wave_Communication_Experiments_by_J.C._Bose,_1894-96 |website=[[List of IEEE milestones]] |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref> He also introduced the use of [[semiconductor]] junctions to detect radio waves,<ref name=emerson>{{cite book | last = Emerson | first = D. T. | title = 1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest | chapter = The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research | publisher = IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Research | volume = 45 | issue = 12 | pages = 2267–2273 | year = 1997 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=09Zsv97IH1MC&pg=PA88 | doi = 10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853 | isbn = 9780986488511|bibcode = 1997imsd.conf..553E | citeseerx = 10.1.1.39.8748 | s2cid = 9039614 }} reprinted in Igor Grigorov, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=09Zsv97IH1MC Antentop]'', Vol. 2, No.3, pp. 87–96.</ref> when he patented the radio [[crystal detector]] in 1901.<ref name="computerhistory-timeline">{{cite web |title=Timeline |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/timeline/ |website=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory-1901">{{cite web |title=1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as "Cat's Whisker" Detectors |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/semiconductor-rectifiers-patented-as-cats-whisker-detectors/ |website=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=23 August 2019}}</ref>

In 1897, [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] introduced the [[cathode-ray tube]] as part of an [[oscilloscope]], a crucial enabling technology for [[television|electronic television]].{{sfn|Abramson|1955|p=22}} [[John Ambrose Fleming|John Fleming]] invented the first radio tube, the [[diode]], in 1904. Two years later, [[Robert von Lieben]] and [[Lee De Forest]] independently developed the amplifier tube, called the [[triode]].{{Sfn|Huurdeman|2003|p=226}}

In 1920, [[Albert Hull]] developed the [[magnetron]] which would eventually lead to the development of the [[microwave oven]] in 1946 by [[Percy Spencer]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Albert W. Hull (1880–1966) | work = IEEE History Center | url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/hull.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020602014513/http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/hull.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2 June 2002 | access-date = 22 January 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Who Invented Microwaves? | url = http://www.gallawa.com/microtech/history.html | access-date =22 January 2006 }}</ref> In 1934, the [[British military]] began to make strides toward [[radar]] (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at [[Bawdsey]] in August 1936.<ref>{{cite web | title = Early Radar History | work = Peneley Radar Archives | url = http://www.penleyradararchives.org.uk/history/introduction.htm | access-date =22 January 2006 }}</ref>

In 1941, [[Konrad Zuse]] presented the [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], the world's first fully functional and programmable computer using electromechanical parts.  In 1943, [[Tommy Flowers]] designed and built the [[Colossus (computer)|Colossus]], the world's first fully functional, electronic, digital and programmable computer.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Raúl |last=Rojas |contribution=The history of Konrad Zuse's early computing machines |page=237 |editor1-first=Raúl |editor1-last=Rojas |editor2-first=Ulf |editor2-last=Hashagen |title=The First Computers—History and Architectures History of Computing |publisher=MIT Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-262-68137-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Anthony E. |last=Sale |contribution=The Colossus of Bletchley Park |pages=354–355 |editor1-first=Raúl |editor1-last=Rojas |editor2-first=Ulf |editor2-last=Hashagen |title=The First Computers—History and Architectures History of Computing |publisher=MIT Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-262-68137-7}}</ref> In 1946, the [[ENIAC]] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of [[John Presper Eckert]] and [[John Mauchly]] followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives.<ref>{{cite web | title = The ENIAC Museum Online | url = http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~museum/guys.html | access-date =18 January 2006 }}</ref>

In 1948, [[Claude Shannon]] published "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which mathematically describes the passage of information with uncertainty ([[electrical noise]]).

===Solid-state electronics ===
{{See also|History of electronic engineering|History of the transistor|Invention of the integrated circuit|MOSFET|Solid-state electronics}}
[[File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg|thumb|A replica of the first working [[transistor]], a [[point-contact transistor]]]]
[[File:MOSFET Structure.png|thumb|[[Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor]] (MOSFET), the basic building block of modern [[electronics]]]]

The first working [[transistor]] was a [[point-contact transistor]] invented by [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Houser Brattain]] while working under [[William Shockley]] at the [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] (BTL) in 1947.<ref>{{cite web |title=1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=10 August 2019}}</ref> They then invented the [[bipolar junction transistor]] in 1948.<ref>{{cite web |title=1948: Conception of the Junction Transistor |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/conception-of-the-junction-transistor/ |website=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=8 October 2019}}</ref> While early [[junction transistor]]s were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a [[mass-production]] basis,<ref name="Moskowitz">{{cite book |last1=Moskowitz |first1=Sanford L. |title=Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century |date=2016 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9780470508923 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168}}</ref> they opened the door for more compact devices.<ref>{{cite web | title = Electronics Timeline | work = Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century | url = http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3956 | access-date =18 January 2006 }}</ref>

The first [[integrated circuit]]s were the [[hybrid integrated circuit]] invented by [[Jack Kilby]] at [[Texas Instruments]] in 1958 and the monolithic integrated circuit chip invented by [[Robert Noyce]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in 1959.<ref name="Saxena140">{{cite book |last1=Saxena |first1=Arjun N. |title=Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts |date=2009 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812814456 |page=140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3lpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140}}</ref>

The [[MOSFET]] (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by [[Mohamed Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] at BTL in 1959.<ref name="computerhistory">{{cite journal|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/|title=1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated|journal=The Silicon Engine|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory-transistor">{{cite web |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=4 December 2013 |access-date=20 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="triumph">{{cite web |title=Triumph of the MOS Transistor |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/q6fBEjf9WPw| archive-date=2021-10-28|website=YouTube |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=21 July 2019 |date=6 August 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.<ref name="Moskowitz"/> It revolutionized the [[electronics industry]],<ref name="Chan">{{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Yi-Jen |title=Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications |date=1992 |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ |page=1 |quote=The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.}}</ref><ref name="Grant">{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Duncan Andrew |last2=Gowar |first2=John |title=Power MOSFETS: theory and applications |date=1989 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=9780471828679 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiZTAAAAMAAJ |quote=The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used active device in the very large-scale integration of digital integrated circuits (VLSI). During the 1970s these components revolutionized electronic signal processing, control systems and computers.}}</ref> becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.<ref name="computerhistory-transistor"/><ref name="Golio">{{cite book |last1=Golio |first1=Mike |last2=Golio |first2=Janet |title=RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9781420006728 |pages=18–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory2018">{{cite web |title=13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history/ |date=2 April 2018 |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>

The MOSFET made it possible to build [[very large-scale integration|high-density integrated circuit]] chips.<ref name="computerhistory-transistor"/> The earliest experimental MOS IC chip to be fabricated was built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at [[RCA Laboratories]] in 1962.<ref name="computerhistory-digital">{{cite web |title=Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279 |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref> MOS technology enabled [[Moore's law]], the [[transistor count|doubling of transistor]]s on an IC chip every two years, predicted by [[Gordon Moore]] in 1965.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Franco |first1=Jacopo |last2=Kaczer |first2=Ben |last3=Groeseneken |first3=Guido |title=Reliability of High Mobility SiGe Channel MOSFETs for Future CMOS Applications |date=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9789400776630 |pages=1–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnrGBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref> [[Silicon-gate]] MOS technology was developed by [[Federico Faggin]] at Fairchild in 1968.<ref>{{cite web |title=1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/silicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref> Since then, the MOSFET has been the basic building block of modern electronics.<ref name="triumph"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=McCluskey |first1=Matthew D. |last2=Haller |first2=Eugene E. |title=Dopants and Defects in Semiconductors |date=2012 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9781439831533 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fV3RBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref><ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite web|last1=Daniels|first1=Lee A.|date=28 May 1992|title=Dr. Dawon Kahng, 61, Inventor in Field of Solid-State Electronics|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/28/nyregion/dr-dawon-kahng-61-inventor-in-field-of-solid-state-electronics.html|access-date=1 April 2017|website=The New York Times}}</ref> The mass-production of silicon MOSFETs and MOS integrated circuit chips, along with continuous [[MOSFET scaling]] miniaturization at an exponential pace (as predicted by [[Moore's law]]), has since led to revolutionary changes in technology, economy, culture and thinking.<ref name="Feldman">{{cite book |last1=Feldman |first1=Leonard C. |author1-link=Leonard Feldman |chapter=Introduction |title=Fundamental Aspects of Silicon Oxidation |date=2001 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540416821 |pages=1–11 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4y2-mWGNIC&pg=PA1}}</ref>

The [[Apollo program]] which culminated in [[Moon landing|landing astronauts on the Moon]] with [[Apollo 11]] in 1969 was enabled by [[NASA]]'s adoption of advances in [[semiconductor]] [[electronic technology]], including MOSFETs in the [[Interplanetary Monitoring Platform]] (IMP)<ref>{{cite book |title=Interplanetary Monitoring Platform |date=29 August 1989 |publisher=[[NASA]] |pages=1, 11, 134 |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800012928.pdf |access-date=12 August 2019|last1=Butler |first1=P. M. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=H. D. |last2=Lokerson |first2=D. C. |title=The Evolution of IMP Spacecraft Mosfet Data Systems |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science]] |date=1971 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=233–236 |doi=10.1109/TNS.1971.4325871 |bibcode=1971ITNS...18..233W |issn=0018-9499}}</ref> and silicon integrated circuit chips in the [[Apollo Guidance Computer]] (AGC).<ref>{{cite web |title=Apollo Guidance Computer and the First Silicon Chips |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/apollo-guidance-computer-and-first-silicon-chips |website=[[National Air and Space Museum]] |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=1 September 2019 |date=14 October 2015}}</ref>

The development of MOS integrated circuit technology in the 1960s led to the invention of the [[microprocessor]] in the early 1970s.<ref name="computerhistory1971">{{cite web |title=1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="Colinge2016">{{cite book|last1=Colinge|first1=Jean-Pierre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|title=Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension|last2=Greer|first2=James C.|date=2016|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781107052406|page=2}}</ref> The first single-chip microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], released in 1971.<ref name="computerhistory1971"/>  The Intel 4004 was designed and realized by Federico Faggin at Intel with his silicon-gate MOS technology,<ref name="computerhistory1971"/> along with Intel's [[Marcian Hoff]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal|doi=10.1109/MSSC.2008.930938|title = The Making of the First Microprocessor|year = 2009|last1 = Faggin|first1 = Federico|journal = IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine|volume = 1|pages = 8–21|s2cid = 46218043|doi-access = }}</ref> The microprocessor led to the development of [[microcomputer]]s and personal computers, and the [[microcomputer revolution]].

==Subfields==
One of the properties of electricity is that it is very useful for energy transmission as well as for information transmission. These were also the first areas in which electrical engineering was developed. Today, electrical engineering has many subdisciplines, the most common of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes, certain fields, such as [[electronic engineering]] and [[computer engineering]], are considered disciplines in their own right.

===Power and energy===
{{Main|Power engineering|Energy engineering}}
[[File:Power pole.jpg|thumb|The top of a [[Utility pole|power pole]]]]

Power & Energy engineering deals with the [[electricity generation|generation]], [[electric power transmission|transmission]], and [[electric power distribution|distribution]] of electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices.{{Sfn|Grigsby|2012}} These include [[transformer]]s, [[electric generator]]s, [[electric motor]]s, high voltage engineering, and [[power electronics]]. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a [[power grid]] that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it.<ref name="UNESCO"/> Such systems are called ''on-grid'' power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid, or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called ''off-grid'' power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems.

===Telecommunications===
{{Main|Telecommunications engineering}}
[[File:Erdfunkstelle Raisting 2a.jpg|thumb|right|[[Satellite dish]]es are a crucial component in the analysis of satellite information.]]
Telecommunications engineering focuses on the [[transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]] of information across a [[communication channel]] such as a [[coax cable]], [[optical fiber]] or [[free space optical communications|free space]].{{sfn|Tobin|2007|p=15}} Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a [[carrier signal]] to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission; this is known as [[modulation]]. Popular analog modulation techniques include [[amplitude modulation]] and [[frequency modulation]].{{Sfn|Chandrasekhar|2006|p=21}} The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.

Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the [[transmitter]]s and [[receiver (radio)|receiver]]s needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a [[transceiver]]. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their [[power consumption]] as this is closely related to their [[signal strength]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=19}}{{sfn|Zhang|Hu|Luo|2007|p=448}} Typically, if the power of the transmitted signal is insufficient once the signal arrives at the receiver's antenna(s), the information contained in the signal will be corrupted by [[signal noise|noise]], specifically static.

===Control engineering===
{{Main||Control engineering|Control theory}}
[[File:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|[[Control system]]s play a critical role in [[spaceflight]].]]

[[Control engineering]] focuses on the [[Mathematical model|modeling]] of a diverse range of [[dynamic system]]s and the design of [[Controller (control theory)|controller]]s that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner.{{sfn|Bissell|1996|p=17}} To implement such controllers, electronics control engineers may use [[electronic circuit]]s, [[digital signal processor]]s, [[microcontroller]]s, and [[programmable logic controller]]s (PLCs). [[Control engineering]] has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of [[commercial airliner]]s to the [[cruise control]] present in many modern [[automobile]]s.{{sfn|McDavid|Echaore-McDavid|2009|p=95}} It also plays an important role in [[industrial automation]].

Control engineers often use [[feedback]] when designing [[control system]]s. For example, in an [[automobile]] with [[cruise control]] the vehicle's [[speed]] is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the [[Internal combustion engine|motor's]] [[Power (physics)|power]] output accordingly.{{sfn | Åström | Murray | 2021 | p=108}} Where there is regular feedback, [[control theory]] can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.

Control engineers also work in [[robotics]] to design autonomous systems using control algorithms which interpret sensory feedback to control actuators that move robots such as [[autonomous vehicle]]s, autonomous drones and others used in a variety of industries.{{sfn|Fairman|1998|p=119}}

===Electronics===
{{Main|Electronic engineering}}

[[File:Componentes.JPG|thumb|left|[[Electronic component]]s]]
Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of [[electronic circuit]]s that use the properties of [[electrical element|component]]s such as [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, [[inductor]]s, [[diode]]s, and [[transistor]]s to achieve a particular functionality.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite book|title=Engineering: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09i67GgGPCYC&pg=PA128|year=2010|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-104156-3|pages=127–8}}</ref> The [[tuned circuit]], which allows the user of a radio to [[electronic filter|filter]] out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example to research is a pneumatic signal conditioner.

Prior to the Second World War, the subject was commonly known as ''radio engineering'' and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and [[radar]], [[radio|commercial radio]], and [[television|early television]].<ref name="UNESCO"/> Later, in post-war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, computers, and [[microprocessor]]s. In the mid-to-late 1950s, the term ''radio engineering'' gradually gave way to the name ''electronic engineering''.

Before the invention of the [[integrated circuit]] in 1959,{{Sfn|Thompson|2006|p=4}} electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and [[electric power|power]] and were limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, [[integrated circuit]]s packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly [[transistor]]s,{{Sfn|Merhari|2009|p=233}} into a small chip around the size of a [[coin]]. This allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today.

===Microelectronics and nanoelectronics===
{{Main|Integrated circuit design|Semiconductor device modeling|Semiconductor device fabrication}}
{{Further|Microelectronics|Nanoelectronics|Chip design}}
[[File:80486dx2-large.jpg|thumb|right|[[Microprocessor]]]]
[[Microelectronics]] engineering deals with the design and [[microfabrication]] of very small electronic circuit components for use in an [[integrated circuit]] or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component.{{Sfn|Bhushan|1997|p=581}} The most common microelectronic components are [[semiconductor]] [[transistor]]s, although all main electronic components ([[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s etc.) can be created at a microscopic level.

[[Nanoelectronics]] is the further scaling of devices down to [[nanometer]] levels. Modern devices are already in the nanometer regime, with below 100&nbsp;nm processing having been standard since around 2002.{{Sfn|Mook|2008|p=149}}

Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, [[compound semiconductor]]s like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the effects of [[quantum mechanics]].{{sfn|Sullivan|2012}}

===Signal processing===
{{Main|Signal processing}}
[[File:Bayer pattern on sensor.svg|thumb|left|A [[Bayer filter]] on a [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue value at each pixel.]]
[[Signal processing]] deals with the analysis and manipulation of [[signal]]s.{{Sfn|Tuzlukov|2010|p=20}} Signals can be either [[analog signal|analog]], in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or [[Digital signal (signal processing)|digital]], in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the [[amplifier|amplification]] and [[Filter (signal processing)|filtering]] of audio signals for audio equipment or the [[modulation]] and [[demodulation]] of signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the [[Data compression|compression]], [[error detection]] and [[error correction]] of digitally sampled signals.{{Sfn|Manolakis|Ingle|2011|p=17}}

Signal processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of [[digital signal processing]] and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications, control, radar, [[audio engineer]]ing, [[broadcast engineering]], power electronics, and [[biomedical engineering]] as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts. [[Analog signal processing]] is still important in the design of many [[control system]]s.

DSP processor ICs are found in many types of modern electronic devices, such as digital [[television set]]s,{{sfn|Bayoumi|Swartzlander|1994|p=25}} radios, [[hi-fi]] audio equipment, mobile phones, [[Portable Media Player|multimedia player]]s, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control systems, [[noise cancelling]] headphones, digital [[spectrum analyzer]]s, missile guidance systems, [[radar]] systems, and [[telematics]] systems. In such products, DSP may be responsible for [[noise reduction]], [[speech recognition]] or [[Speech synthesis|synthesis]], [[Codec|encoding or decoding]] digital media, wirelessly [[Transceiver|transmitting or receiving]] data, triangulating positions using [[GPS]], and other kinds of [[image processing]], [[video processing]], [[audio signal processing|audio processing]], and [[speech processing]].{{Sfn|Khanna|2009|p=297}}

===Instrumentation===
{{Main|Instrumentation engineering}}
[[File:F-18E cockpit m02006112600499.jpg|thumb|right|[[Flight instrument]]s provide pilots with the tools to control aircraft analytically.]]
[[Instrumentation engineering]] deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as [[pressure]], [[Volumetric flow rate|flow]], and temperature.{{Sfn|Grant|Bixley|2011|p=159}} The design of such instruments requires a good understanding of [[physics]] that often extends beyond [[electromagnetic theory]]. For example, [[flight instrument]]s measure variables such as [[wind speed]] and altitude to enable pilots the control of aircraft analytically. Similarly, [[thermocouple]]s use the [[Peltier-Seebeck effect]] to measure the temperature difference between two points.{{sfn|Fredlund|Rahardjo|Fredlund|2012|p=346}}

Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the [[sensor]]s of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant.<ref>{{cite book|title=Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pos-MXDWb6MC&pg=PA154|date=1 January 1993|publisher=ASTM International|isbn=978-0-8031-1466-1|page=154}}</ref> For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control.

===Computers===
{{Main|Computer engineering}}
[[File:MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg|thumb|right|[[Supercomputer]]s are used in fields as diverse as [[computational biology]] and [[geographic information system]]s.]]
Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and [[computer system]]s. This may involve the design of new [[computer hardware|hardware]]. Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline.{{sfn|Jalote|2006|p=22}} [[Desktop computer]]s represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of [[embedded device]]s including [[video game console]]s and [[DVD player]]s. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0471605018|title=Fundamentals of Computer Engineering: Logic Design and Microprocessors|last1=Lam|first1=Herman|last2=O'Malley|first2=John R.|date=26 April 1988|publisher=Wiley }}</ref> [[Robot]]s are one of the applications of computer engineering.

===Photonics and optics===
{{Main|Photonics|Optics|Fiber-optic communication}}
[[File:Spectre.svg|thumb|280x280px|Electromagnetic spectrum showing wavelengths from radio waves (1&nbsp;km) to gamma rays (0.01&nbsp;nm). Visible light Information transmission in electrical engineering applications most frequently uses [[infrared light]] in the [[C band (infrared)|C band]] (1530–1565&nbsp;nm).]]

[[Photonics]] and [[optics]] deals with the generation, transmission, amplification, modulation, detection, and analysis of [[electromagnetic radiation]]. The application of optics deals with design of optical instruments such as [[lens]]es, [[microscope]]s, [[telescope]]s, and other equipment that uses the properties of electromagnetic radiation. Other prominent applications of optics include [[electro-optical sensor]]s and measurement systems, [[laser]]s, [[fiber-optic communication]] systems, and optical disc systems (e.g. CD and DVD). Photonics builds heavily on optical technology, supplemented with modern developments such as [[optoelectronics]] (mostly involving [[semiconductor]]s), laser systems, [[optical amplifier]]s and novel materials (e.g. [[metamaterial]]s).

==Related disciplines==
[[File:VIP Bird2.jpg|thumb|right|The Bird VIP Infant ventilator]]
[[Mechatronics]] is an engineering discipline that deals with the convergence of electrical and [[machine|mechanical]] systems. Such combined systems are known as [[electromechanical]] systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include [[automation|automated manufacturing system]]s,{{sfn|Mahalik|2003|p=569}} [[HVAC|heating, ventilation and air-conditioning system]]s,{{sfn|Leondes|2000|p=199}} and various subsystems of aircraft and [[automobile]]s.{{sfn|Shetty|Kolk|2010|p=36}}
''Electronic systems design'' is the subject within electrical engineering that deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electrical and mechanical systems.<ref name="lienig">{{Cite book|author=J. Lienig|author2=H. Bruemmer|title=Fundamentals of Electronic Systems Design|pages=1|publisher=Springer International Publishing|date=2017|isbn=978-3-319-55839-4|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-55840-0}}</ref>

The term ''mechatronics'' is typically used to refer to [[macroscopic]] systems but [[Futures studies|futurist]]s have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already, such small devices, known as [[microelectromechanical system]]s (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell [[airbag]]s when to deploy,{{sfn|Maluf|Williams|2004|p=3}} in [[digital projector]]s to create sharper images, and in [[inkjet printer]]s to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve [[optical communication]].{{Sfn|Iga|Kokubun|2010|p=137}}

In [[aerospace engineering]] and [[robotics]], an example is the most recent [[electric propulsion]] and ion propulsion.

==Education==
{{Main|Education and training of electrical and electronics engineers}}
[[File:Osciloscopio locomotora.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Oscilloscope]]]]
Electrical engineers typically possess an [[academic degree]] with a major in electrical engineering, [[electronics engineering]], [[electrical engineering technology]],<ref name=BLS3>{{cite web|title=Electrical and Electronic Engineer|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/electrical-and-electronics-engineers.htm#tab-4|work=[[Occupational Outlook Handbook]], 2012–13 Edition|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor|access-date=15 November 2014}}</ref> or electrical and electronic engineering.{{Sfn|Chaturvedi|1997|p=253}}<ref>{{cite web | title = What is the difference between electrical and electronic engineering? | work = FAQs – Studying Electrical Engineering | url = http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/mainsite/menuitem.818c0c39e85ef176fb2275875bac26c8/index.jsp?&pName=corp_level1&path=education/faqs&file=faqs1.xml&xsl=generic.xsl | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051110172817/http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/mainsite/menuitem.818c0c39e85ef176fb2275875bac26c8/index.jsp?&pName=corp_level1&path=education/faqs&file=faqs1.xml&xsl=generic.xsl | url-status = dead | archive-date = 10 November 2005 | access-date =20 March 2012 }}</ref> The same fundamental principles are taught in all programs, though emphasis may vary according to title. The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Science in Electrical/Electronics Engineering Technology, [[Bachelor of Engineering]], Bachelor of Science, [[Bachelor of Technology]], or [[Bachelor of Applied Science]], depending on the university. The [[bachelor's degree]] generally includes units covering [[physics]], mathematics, [[computer science]], [[project management]], and a [[list of electrical engineering topics|variety of topics in electrical engineering]].<ref name="Enterprise1986">{{cite book|title=Computerworld|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVHbRM6mU9gC&pg=PA97|date=25 August 1986|publisher=IDG Enterprise|page=97}}</ref> Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering. 

[[File:LM317 typical schematic.svg|thumb|left|An example [[circuit diagram]], which is useful in [[circuit design]] and [[troubleshooting]] ]]

At many schools, electronic engineering is included as part of an electrical award, sometimes explicitly, such as a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronic), but in others, electrical and electronic engineering are both considered to be sufficiently broad and complex that separate degrees are offered.<ref>{{cite web|title=Electrical and Electronic Engineering|url=http://www.flinders.edu.au/science_engineering/csem/disciplines/eee/|access-date=8 December 2011|archive-date=28 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128205305/http://flinders.edu.au/science_engineering/csem/disciplines/eee/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Some electrical engineers choose to study for a postgraduate degree such as a [[Master of Engineering]]/Master of Science (MEng/MSc), a Master of [[Engineering Management]], a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Engineering, an [[Engineering Doctorate]] (Eng.D.), or an [[Engineer's degree]]. The master's and engineer's degrees may consist of either research, [[coursework]] or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the entry point to [[academia]]. In the United Kingdom and some other European countries, Master of Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering rather than a standalone postgraduate degree.<ref>Various including graduate degree requirements [http://www.eecs.mit.edu/grad/degrees.html at MIT] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116055044/http://www.eecs.mit.edu/grad/degrees.html |date=16 January 2006 }}, study guide [http://www.ecm.uwa.edu.au/students/study-guides-2012/be-elec-mech at UWA], the curriculum [http://www.queensu.ca/calendars/appsci/pg219.html at Queen's] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804025330/http://www.queensu.ca/calendars/appsci/pg219.html |date=4 August 2012 }} and unit tables [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/calendar/requirements/07H50116.doc at Aberdeen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822115131/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/calendar/requirements/07H50116.doc |date=22 August 2006 }}</ref>

==Professional practice==
[[File:Belgium. Belgian electrical engineers Georges Jean L. Van Antro, left, Georges H. Marchal, center, and Jacques de... - NARA - 541661.tif|thumb|left|Belgian electrical engineers inspecting the rotor of a 40,000 kilowatt [[turbine]] of the [[General Electric Company]] in New York City]]
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards [[professional certification]] and the degree program itself is certified by a [[professional body]].<ref name="Labor2008">{{cite book|title=Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008–2009|url=https://archive.org/details/occupationaloutl00usde_2|url-access=registration|date=1 March 2008|publisher=U S Department of Labor, Jist Works|isbn=978-1-59357-513-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/occupationaloutl00usde_2/page/148 148]}}</ref> After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of [[Professional Engineer]] (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), [[Chartered engineer]] or [[Incorporated Engineer]] (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ireland and [[Zimbabwe]]), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or [[European Engineer]] (in much of the [[European Union]]).

[[File:3 Park Avenue.JPG|thumb|right|The [[IEEE]] corporate office is on the 17th floor of [[3 Park Avenue]] in New York City.]]
The advantages of licensure vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients".<ref>{{cite web | title = Why Should You Get Licensed? | work = National Society of Professional Engineers | url = http://www.nspe.org/lc1-why.asp | access-date =11 July 2005 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085233/http://www.nspe.org/lc1-why.asp| archive-date = 4 June 2005}}</ref> This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as [[Quebec]]'s Engineers Act.<ref>{{cite web | title = Engineers Act | work = Quebec Statutes and Regulations (CanLII) | url = http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=//I_9/I9_A.htm | access-date =24 July 2005 }}</ref> In other countries, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a [[ethical code|code of ethic]]s that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.<ref>{{cite web | title = Codes of Ethics and Conduct | work = Online Ethics Center | url = http://onlineethics.org/CMS/profpractice/ethcodes.aspx | access-date = 24 July 2005 | archive-date = 2 February 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160202155943/http://www.onlineethics.org/CMS/profpractice/ethcodes.aspx | url-status = dead }}</ref> In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to [[contract law]]. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the [[tort of negligence]] and, in extreme cases, the charge of [[criminal negligence]]. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations, such as [[building code]]s and legislation pertaining to [[environmental law]].

Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE) and the [[Institution of Engineering and Technology]] (IET).  The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences annually.<ref>{{cite web | title = About the IEEE | work = IEEE | url = https://www.ieee.org/about/index.html | access-date =11 July 2005 }}</ref> The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe.<ref>{{cite web | title = About the IET | work = The IET | url = http://www.theiet.org/about/ | access-date =11 July 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Journal and Magazines | work = The IET | url = http://www.theiet.org/publishing/journals/ | access-date = 11 July 2005 | archive-date = 24 August 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070824124603/http://www.theiet.org/publishing/journals/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. An MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology) is recognised in Europe as an Electrical and computer (technology) engineer.<ref>{{cite web | title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer | work = Occupational Outlook Handbook | url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm | access-date =16 July 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050713014728/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm|archive-date=13 July 2005}} (see [[work of the United States Government|here]] regarding copyright)</ref>

In Australia, Canada, and the United States, electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force.{{efn|In May 2014 there were around 175,000 people working as electrical engineers in the US.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Electrical Engineers|url = http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes172071.htm|website = www.bls.gov|access-date = 30 November 2015}}</ref> In 2012, Australia had around 19,000<ref>{{Cite web|title = Electrical Engineer Career Information for Migrants {{!}} Victoria, Australia|url = http://www.liveinvictoria.vic.gov.au/working-and-employment/occupations/electrical-engineer|website = www.liveinvictoria.vic.gov.au|access-date = 30 November 2015|archive-date = 8 December 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208141251/http://www.liveinvictoria.vic.gov.au/working-and-employment/occupations/electrical-engineer|url-status = dead}}</ref> while in Canada, there were around 37,000 ({{As of|2007|lc=on}}), constituting about 0.2% of the labour force in each of the three countries. Australia and Canada reported that 96% and 88% of their electrical engineers respectively are male.<ref>{{cite web | title=Electrical Engineers | publisher=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] | url=http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm | access-date=13 March 2009 | archive-date=19 February 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219092732/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm | url-status=dead }} See also: {{cite web | title=Work Experience of the Population in 2006 | publisher=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] | url=http://www.bls.gov/news.release/History/work_12192007.txt | access-date=20 June 2008 }} and {{cite web | title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers | work = Australian Careers | url = http://joboutlook.gov.au/Pages/occupation.aspx?search=alpha&tab=prospects&cluster=&code=2333 | access-date = 13 March 2009 | archive-date = 23 October 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091023023049/http://joboutlook.gov.au/pages/occupation.aspx?search=alpha&tab=prospects&cluster=&code=2333 | url-status = dead }} and {{cite web| title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers| publisher = Canadian jobs service| url = http://www.jobfutures.ca/noc/2133p1.shtml| access-date = 13 March 2009| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090306165318/http://www.jobfutures.ca/noc/2133p1.shtml| archive-date = 6 March 2009}}</ref>}}

==Tools and work==

From the [[Global Positioning System]] to [[electric power generation]], electrical engineers have contributed to the development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test, and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunications systems, the operation of [[electric power station]]s, the [[lighting]] and [[wiring]] of buildings, the design of [[household appliance]]s, or the electrical [[control theory|control]] of industrial machinery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer |work=Occupational Outlook Handbook |url=http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm |access-date=16 July 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050713014728/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm |archive-date=13 July 2005 |url-status=dead }} (see )</ref>

[[File:Molnya-1 Musee du Bourget P1010442.jpg|thumb|left|[[Communications satellite|Satellite communication]]s is typical of what electrical engineers work on.]]
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of [[physics]] and mathematics as these help to obtain both a [[Qualitative data|qualitative]] and [[Quantity|quantitative]] description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use of [[computer]]s and it is commonplace to use [[computer-aided design]] programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.

[[File:Shadow Hand Bulb large.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Shadow Hand|Shadow robot hand]] system]]
Although most electrical engineers will understand basic [[circuit theory]] (that is, the interactions of elements such as [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, [[diode]]s, [[transistor]]s, and [[inductor]]s in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, [[quantum mechanics]] and [[solid state physics]] might be relevant to an engineer working on [[VLSI]] (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even [[circuit theory]] may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunications systems that use [[commercial off-the-shelf|off-the-shelf]] components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize [[numeracy|strong numerical skill]]s, [[computer literacy]], and the ability to understand the [[technical terminology|technical language and concept]]s that relate to electrical engineering.{{Sfn|Taylor|2008|p=241}}

[[File:Laser in fibre.jpg|thumb|A [[laser]] bouncing down an [[poly(methyl methacrylate)|acrylic]] rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a [[multi-mode optical fiber]]]]

A wide range of instrumentation is used by electrical engineers.  For simple control circuits and alarms, a basic [[multimeter]] measuring [[voltage]], [[electric current|current]], and [[electrical resistance|resistance]] may suffice.  Where time-varying signals need to be studied, the [[oscilloscope]] is also an ubiquitous instrument.  In [[RF engineering]] and high-frequency telecommunications, [[spectrum analyzer]]s and [[Network analyzer (electrical)|network analyzer]]s are used.  In some disciplines, safety can be a particular concern with instrumentation.  For instance, medical electronics designers must take into account that much lower voltages than normal can be dangerous when electrodes are directly in contact with internal body fluids.{{sfn|Leitgeb|2010|p=122}} Power transmission engineering also has great safety concerns due to the high voltages used; although [[voltmeter]]s may in principle be similar to their low voltage equivalents, safety and calibration issues make them very different.<ref>{{harvnb|Naidu|Kamaraju|2009|p=210}}</ref> Many disciplines of electrical engineering use tests specific to their discipline.  Audio electronics engineers use [[audio system measurements|audio test set]]s consisting of a signal generator and a meter, principally to measure level but also other parameters such as [[harmonic distortion]] and [[noise (electronics)|noise]].  Likewise, information technology have their own test sets, often specific to a particular data format, and the same is true of television broadcasting.

[[File:Navy-Radome.jpg|left|upright=1.2|thumb|[[Radome]] at the Misawa Air Base Misawa Security Operations Center, Misawa, Japan]]
For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing [[budget]]s and determining [[schedule (project management)|project schedule]]s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Trevelyan|first=James|year=2005|title=What Do Engineers Really Do?|publisher=University of Western Australia|url=http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/jpt/Engineering%20Roles%20050503.pdf}}</ref> Many senior engineers manage a team of [[technician]]s or other engineers and for this reason [[project management]] skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and [[technical writing|strong written communication]] skills are therefore very important.

The [[Office|workplace]]s of engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a [[fabrication plant]], on board a [[Naval ship]], the offices of a [[consulting firm]] or on site at a mine. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, [[electrician]]s, [[computer programmer]]s, and other engineers.{{Sfn|McDavid|Echaore-McDavid|2009|p=87}}

Electrical engineering has an intimate relationship with the physical sciences.  For instance, the physicist [[Lord Kelvin]] played a major role in the engineering of the first [[transatlantic telegraph cable]].<ref>Huurdeman, pp.&nbsp;95–96</ref> Conversely, the engineer [[Oliver Heaviside]] produced major work on the mathematics of transmission on telegraph cables.<ref>Huurdeman, p. 90</ref> Electrical engineers are often required on major science projects.  For instance, large [[particle accelerator]]s such as [[CERN]] need electrical engineers to deal with many aspects of the project including the power distribution, the instrumentation, and the manufacture and installation of the [[superconducting electromagnet]]s.<ref>Schmidt, p. 218</ref><ref>Martini, p. 179</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Electronics|Engineering}}
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Barnacle (slang)]]
*[[Comparison of EDA software]]
*[[Electrical Technologist]]
*[[Electronic design automation]]
*[[Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering]]
*[[Index of electrical engineering articles]]
*[[Information engineering]]
*[[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC)
*[[List of electrical engineers]]
*[[List of engineering branches]]
*[[List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by revenue]]
*[[List of Russian electrical engineers]]
*[[Occupations in electrical/electronics engineering]]
*[[Outline of electrical engineering]]
*[[Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
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*{{cite book|last1=McDavid|first1=Richard A.|last2=Echaore-McDavid|first2=Susan|title=Career Opportunities in Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hx0g1_hs4N8C&pg=PA95|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1070-7}}
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==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
*{{cite book|last1=Adhami|first1=Reza|last2=Meenen|first2=Peter M.|last3=Hite|first3=Denis|title=Fundamental Concepts in Electrical and Computer Engineering with Practical Design Problems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9nqkVbFPutYC|year=2007|publisher=Universal-Publishers|isbn=978-1-58112-971-7}}
*{{cite book|last1=Bober|first1=William|last2=Stevens|first2=Andrew|title=Numerical and Analytical Methods with MATLAB for Electrical Engineers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yiL6EWiWaUYC|date=27 August 2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-5429-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Bobrow|first=Leonard S.|title=Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BEr779Z80LgC|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-510509-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Chen|first=Wai Kai|title=The Electrical Engineering Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhHsSlazGrQC|date=16 November 2004|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-047748-0}}
*{{cite book|last1=Ciuprina|first1=G.|last2=Ioan|first2=D.|title=Scientific Computing in Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFVbC-e5_DkC|date=30 May 2007|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-71980-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Faria|first=J. A. Brandao|title=Electromagnetic Foundations of Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Xk4NO1b8CUC|date=15 September 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-69748-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Lincoln D.|title=Electrical Engineering: Problems and Solutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLIxyZSCfosC|date=July 2004|publisher=Dearborn Trade Publishing|isbn=978-1-4195-2131-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Karalis|first=Edward|title=350 Solved Electrical Engineering Problems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CP73jv-GBMkC|date=18 September 2003|publisher=Dearborn Trade Publishing|isbn=978-0-7931-8511-5}}
*{{cite book|last1=Krawczyk|first1=Andrzej|last2=Wiak|first2=S.|title=Electromagnetic Fields in Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EwN2--zVLZsC|date=1 January 2002|publisher=IOS Press|isbn=978-1-58603-232-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Laplante|first=Phillip A.|title=Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=soSsLATmZnkC|date=31 December 1999|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-64835-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Leon-Garcia|first=Alberto|title=Probability, Statistics, and Random Processes for Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUJosCkbBywC|year=2008|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-13-147122-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Malaric|first=Roman|title=Instrumentation and Measurement in Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9np_Rr-ahI8C|year=2011|publisher=Universal-Publishers|isbn=978-1-61233-500-1}}
*{{cite book|last1=Sahay|first1=Kuldeep|last2=Pathak |first2=Shivendra |title=Basic Concepts of Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r3c27IaomA0C|date=1 January 2006|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1836-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Srinivas|first=Kn|title=Basic Electrical Engineering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sb6a_isNGl8C|date=1 January 2007|publisher=I. K. International Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-81-89866-34-1}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
*[http://www.iec.ch/ International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/index.htm MIT OpenCourseWare] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126142615/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/index.htm |date=26 January 2008 }} in-depth look at Electrical Engineering – online courses with video lectures.
*[http://www.ieeeghn.org/ IEEE Global History Network] A wiki-based site with many resources about the history of IEEE, its members, their professions and electrical and informational technologies and sciences.

{{Engineering fields}}
{{Glossaries of science and engineering}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Electrical engineering| ]]
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[[Category:Electrical and computer engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering disciplines]]