Editing Elf

{{Short description|Supernatural being in Germanic folklore}}
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[[File:Ängsälvor - Nils Blommér 1850.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''Ängsälvor'' (Swedish "Meadow Elves") by [[Nils Blommér]] (1850)]]

An '''elf''' ({{plural form}}: '''elves''') is a type of [[humanoid]] [[supernatural]] being in [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[folklore]].<!--GA--> Elves appear especially in [[Norse mythology|North Germanic mythology]], being mentioned in the [[Iceland]]ic ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' and the ''[[Prose Edda]]''.

In medieval [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]-speaking cultures, elves were thought of as beings with magical powers and supernatural beauty, ambivalent towards everyday people and capable of either helping or hindering them.<ref>For discussion of a previous formulation of this sentence, see {{harvp|Jakobsson|2015}}.</ref> Beliefs varied considerably over time and space and flourished in both pre-Christian and [[Christian culture]]s.<!--GA--> The word ''elf'' is found throughout the [[Germanic languages]]. It seems originally to have meant 'white being'. However, reconstructing the early concept depends largely on texts written by Christians, in [[Old English|Old]] and [[Middle English]], medieval German, and [[Old Norse]]. These associate elves variously with the gods of [[Norse mythology]], with causing illness, with magic, and with beauty and seduction.<!--GA-->

After the medieval period, the word ''elf'' became less common throughout the Germanic languages, losing out to terms like ''[[wikt:Zwerg|Zwerg]]'' ('dwarf') in German and ''[[wikt:hulder|huldra]]'' ('hidden being') in [[North Germanic languages]], and to loan-words like ''[[wikt:fairy|fairy]]'' (borrowed from French). Still, belief in elves persisted in the [[early modern period]], particularly in Scotland and Scandinavia, where elves were thought of as magically powerful people living, usually invisibly, alongside human communities. They continued to be associated with causing illnesses and with sexual threats. For example, several early modern ballads in the [[British Isles]] and Scandinavia, originating in the medieval period, describe elves attempting to seduce or abduct human characters.<!--GA-->

With modern urbanisation and industrialisation, belief in elves declined rapidly, though Iceland has some claim to continued popular belief. Elves started to be prominent in the literature and art of educated elites from the early modern period onwards. These literary elves were imagined as tiny, playful beings, with [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' a key development of this idea. In the eighteenth century, German [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers were influenced by this notion of the elf, and re-imported the English word ''elf'' into the German language.<!--GA--> From the Romantic notion came the elves of modern popular culture. [[Christmas elf|Christmas elves]] are a relatively recent creation, popularized during the late 19th century in the United States. Elves entered the twentieth-century [[high fantasy]] genre in the wake of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s works; these re-popularised the idea of elves as human-sized and humanlike beings. Elves [[Elves in fiction#Elves in modern fantasy literature|remain a prominent feature]] of fantasy media today.<!--GA-->

== Etymology ==

[[File:Phonological development of the word elf in English.png|thumb|right|upright=2|A chart showing how the sound of the word ''elf'' has changed in the history of English<ref>{{cite book|series=A Grammar of Old English |volume=1|title=Phonology|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=1992}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hall|2007|p=178 (fig. 7)}}]]

The English word ''[[wikt:elf|elf]]'' is from the [[Old English]] word most often attested as {{lang|ang|ælf}} (whose plural would have been [[Linguistic reconstruction|*]]{{lang|ang|ælfe}}). Although this word took a variety of forms in different Old English dialects, these converged on the form ''elf'' during the [[Middle English]] period.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=176–81}} During the Old English period, separate forms were used for female elves (such as {{lang|ang|ælfen}}, putatively from Proto-Germanic *''ɑlβ(i)innjō''), but during the Middle English period the word ''elf'' routinely came to include female beings.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=75–88, 157–66}}

The Old English forms are [[cognate]]s – having a common origin – with medieval Germanic terms such as Old Norse {{lang|non|alfr}} ('elf'; plural {{lang|non|alfar}}), Old High German {{lang|goh|alp}} ('evil spirit'; pl. {{lang|goh|alpî}}, {{lang|goh|elpî}}; feminine {{lang|goh|elbe}}), Burgundian *''alfs'' ('elf'), and Middle Low German ''{{lang|mg|alf}}'' ('evil spirit').{{sfnp|Orel|2003|p=13}}{{sfnp|Hall|2007|p=5}} These words must come from [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], the ancestor-language of the attested [[Germanic languages]]; the Proto-Germanic forms are reconstructed as *''ɑlβi-z'' and *''ɑlβɑ-z''.{{sfnp|Orel|2003|p=13}}{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=5, 176–77}}

Germanic ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/albiz|*ɑlβi-z~*ɑlβɑ-z]]'' is generally agreed to be a cognate with Latin ''albus'' ('(matt) white'), Old Irish ''ailbhín'' ('flock'), Ancient Greek ἀλφός (''alphós''; 'whiteness, white leprosy'), and Albanian ''elb'' ('barley'); and the Germanic word for 'swan' reconstructed as [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/albit|''*albit-'']] (compare Modern Icelandic ''álpt''). These all come from a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*h₂elbʰ-'', and seem to be connected by the idea of whiteness. The Germanic word presumably originally meant 'white one', perhaps as a euphemism.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=54–55}} [[Jakob Grimm]] thought whiteness implied positive moral connotations, and, noting Snorri Sturluson's ''[[Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar|ljósálfar]]'', suggested that elves were divinities of light.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=54–55}} This is not necessarily the case, however. For example, because the cognates suggest matte white rather than shining white, and because in medieval Scandinavian texts whiteness is associated with beauty, [[Alaric Hall]] has suggested that elves may have been called 'the white people' because whiteness was associated with (specifically feminine) beauty.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=54–55}} <!--Some scholars have argued that the names [[Albion]] and [[Alps]] may also be related (possibly through Celtic).{{sfnp|Orel|2003|p=13}}{{Failed verification|date=January 2024|talk=Etymology not supported by sources}}-->

A completely different etymology, making ''elf'' a cognate with the ''[[Ribhus|Ṛbhus]]'', semi-divine craftsmen in Indian mythology, was suggested by [[Adalbert Kuhn]] in 1855.<ref name="Kuhn1855-p110">{{harvp|Kuhn|1855|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wvRTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA110 110]}}; {{harvp|Schrader|1890|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.107733/page/n183 163]}}.</ref> In this case, *''ɑlβi-z'' would connote the meaning 'skilful, inventive, clever', and could be a cognate with Latin ''labor'', in the sense of 'creative work'. While often mentioned, this etymology is not widely accepted.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=54–55 fn. 1}}

{{anchor|Proper names}}

=== In proper names ===

Throughout the medieval Germanic languages, ''elf'' was one of the nouns used in [[Germanic name|personal names]], almost invariably as a first element. These names may have been influenced by [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] names beginning in ''Albio-'' such as ''[[Mars (mythology)#Celtic Mars|Albiorix]]''.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|p=56}}

[[File:Alden Valley - geograph.org.uk - 417197.jpg|thumb|Alden Valley, Lancashire, a place possibly once associated with elves{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=64–66}}]]

Personal names provide the only evidence for ''elf'' in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], which must have had the word *{{lang|got|albs}} (plural *{{lang|got|albeis}}). The most famous name of this kind is ''[[Alboin]]''. Old English names in ''elf''- include the cognate of ''Alboin'' [[Ælfwine]] (literally "elf-friend", m.), [[Ælfric]] ("elf-powerful", m.), [[Ælfweard]] ("elf-guardian", m.), and [[Ælfwaru]] ("elf-care", f.). A widespread survivor of these in modern English is [[Alfred (name)|Alfred]] (Old English ''Ælfrēd'', "elf-advice"). Also surviving are the English surname [[Elgar]] (''Ælfgar'', "elf-spear"), and the name of [[St Alphege]] (''Ælfhēah'', "elf-tall").<ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Reaney |first1=P. H. |last2=Wilson |first2=R. M. |title=A Dictionary of English Surnames |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-860092-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofengl0000rean/page/6 6, 9] |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofengl0000rean/page/6 }}</ref> German examples are ''[[Alberich]]'', ''[[Alphart]]'' and ''Alphere'' (father of [[Walter of Aquitaine]])<ref name=paul/><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Althof |editor-first=Hermann |title=Das Waltharilied |publisher=Dieterich |year=1902 |page=114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AcnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA114}}</ref> and Icelandic examples include ''Álfhildur''. These names suggest that elves were positively regarded in early Germanic culture. Of the many words for supernatural beings in Germanic languages, the only ones regularly used in personal names are ''elf'' and words denoting pagan gods, suggesting that elves were considered to be similar to gods.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=58–61}}

In later Old Icelandic, {{lang|non|alfr}} ("elf") and the personal name which in Common Germanic had been *{{lang|gem|Aþa(l)wulfaz}} both coincidentally became {{lang|non|álfr~Álfr}}.<ref name=devreis/>

Elves appear in some place names, though it is difficult to be sure how many because other words, including personal names, can appear similar to ''elf'', such as ''al''- (from ''eald'') meaning "old". The clearest appearances of elves in English examples are ''[[Elveden]]'' ("elves' hill", Suffolk) and ''[[Elvendon]]'' ("elves' valley", Oxfordshire);<ref>Ann Cole, 'Two Chiltern Place-names Reconsidered: Elvendon and Misbourne', ''Journal of the English Place-name Society'', 50 (2018), 65-74 (p. 67).</ref> other examples may be ''[[Eldon Hill]]'' ("Elves'-hill hill", Derbyshire); and ''[[Alden Valley]]'' ("elves' hill valley", Lancashire). These associate elves fairly consistently with woods and valleys.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=64–66}}

== In medieval texts and post-medieval folk belief ==

=== Medieval English-language sources ===

==== As causes of illnesses ====

The earliest surviving manuscripts mentioning elves in any Germanic language are from [[Anglo-Saxon England]]. Medieval English evidence has, therefore, attracted quite extensive research and debate.{{sfnp|Jolly|1996}}{{sfnp|Shippey|2005}}{{sfnp|Hall|2007}}{{sfnp|Green|2016}} In Old English, elves are most often mentioned in medical texts which attest to the belief that elves might afflict humans and [[livestock]] with illnesses: apparently mostly sharp, internal pains and mental disorders. The most famous of the medical texts is the [[Anglo-Saxon metrical charms|metrical charm]] ''[[Wið færstice]]'' ("against a stabbing pain"), from the tenth-century compilation ''[[Lacnunga]]'', but most of the attestations are in the tenth-century [[Bald's Leechbook|''Bald's Leechbook'' and ''Leechbook III'']]. This tradition continues into later English-language traditions too: elves continue to appear in Middle English medical texts.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=88–89, 141}}; {{harvp|Green|2003}}; {{harvp|Hall|2006}}.</ref>

Belief in elves as a cause of illnesses remained prominent in early modern Scotland, where elves were viewed as supernaturally powerful people who lived invisibly alongside everyday rural people.<ref>{{harvp|Henderson|Cowan|2001}}; {{harvp|Hall|2005}}.</ref> Thus, elves were often mentioned in the early modern Scottish witchcraft trials: many witnesses in the trials believed themselves to have been given healing powers or to know of people or animals made sick by elves.<ref name=purkiss/>{{sfnp|Hall|2007|p=112–15}} Throughout these sources, elves are sometimes associated with the [[succubus]]-like supernatural being called the [[Mare (folklore)|''mare'']].{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=124–26, 128–29, 136–37, 156}}

While they may have been thought to cause diseases with magical weapons, elves are more clearly associated in Old English with a kind of magic denoted by Old English ''sīden'' and ''sīdsa'', a cognate with the Old Norse ''[[seiðr]]'', and paralleled in the Old Irish ''[[Serglige Con Culainn]]''.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=119–156}}{{sfnp|Tolley|2009|loc=vol. I, p. 221}} By the fourteenth century, they were also associated with the arcane practice of [[alchemy]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

==== "Elf-shot" ====

[[File:Eadwine Psalter f 66r detail of Christ and demons attacking psalmist.png|thumb|upright=0.8|right|The Eadwine Psalter, f. 66r. Detail: Christ and demons attacking the psalmist.]]

In one or two Old English medical texts, elves might be envisaged as inflicting illnesses with projectiles. In the twentieth century, scholars often labelled the illnesses elves caused as "[[elf-shot]]", but work from the 1990s onwards showed that the medieval evidence for elves' being thought to cause illnesses in this way is slender;{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=96–118}} debate about its significance is ongoing.{{sfnp|Tolley|2009|loc=vol. I, p. 220}}

The noun ''elf-shot'' is first attested in a [[Scots language|Scots]] poem, "Rowlis Cursing," from around 1500, where "elf schot" is listed among a range of curses to be inflicted on some chicken thieves.{{sfnp|Hall|2005|p=23}} The term may not always have denoted an actual projectile: ''shot'' could mean "a sharp pain". But in early modern Scotland, ''elf-schot'' and other terms like ''elf-arrowhead'' are sometimes used of [[Elf-arrow|neolithic arrow-heads]], apparently thought to have been made by elves. In a few witchcraft trials, people attested that these arrow-heads were used in healing rituals, and occasionally alleged that witches (and perhaps elves) used them to injure people and cattle.{{sfnp|Hall|2005}} A 1749–50 ode by [[William Collins (poet)|William Collins]] includes the lines:<ref name="Carlyle 1788">{{harvp|Carlyle|1788}}, i 68, stanza II. 1749 date of composition is given on p. 63.</ref>

{{Blockquote|<poem>
There every herd, by sad experience, knows
How, winged with fate, their elf-shot arrows fly,
When the sick ewe her summer food forgoes,
Or, stretched on earth, the heart-smit heifers lie.<ref name="Carlyle 1788"/></poem>}}

==== Size, appearance, and sexuality ====

Because of elves' association with illness, in the twentieth century, most scholars imagined that elves in the Anglo-Saxon tradition were small, invisible, demonic beings, causing illnesses with arrows. This was encouraged by the idea that "elf-shot" is depicted in the [[Eadwine Psalter]], in an image which became well known in this connection.<ref name=grattan&singer/> However, this is now thought to be a misunderstanding: the image proves to be a conventional illustration of God's arrows and Christian demons.{{sfnp|Jolly|1998}} Rather, twenty-first century scholarship suggests that Anglo-Saxon elves, like elves in Scandinavia or the Irish ''[[Aos Sí]]'', were regarded as people.<ref>{{harvp|Shippey|2005|pp=168–76}}; {{harvp|Hall|2007|loc=esp. pp. 172–75}}.</ref>
[[File:Beowulf - ylfe.jpg|thumb|"⁊ ylfe" ("and elves") in ''Beowulf'']]

Like words for gods and men, the word ''elf'' is used in personal names where words for monsters and demons are not.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=55–62}} Just as ''álfar'' is associated with ''[[Æsir]]'' in Old Norse, the Old English ''Wið færstice'' associates elves with ''ēse''; whatever this word meant by the tenth century, etymologically it denoted pagan gods.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=35–63}} In Old English, the plural {{lang|ang|ylfe}} (attested in ''Beowulf'') is grammatically an [[ethnonym]] (a word for an ethnic group), suggesting that elves were seen as people.<ref name=huld/><ref>{{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=62–63}}; {{harvp|Tolley|2009|loc=vol. I, p. 209}}</ref> As well as appearing in medical texts, the Old English word ''ælf'' and its feminine derivative ''ælbinne'' were used in [[Gloss (annotation)|glosses]] to translate Latin words for [[nymph]]s. This fits well with the word ''ælfscȳne'', which meant "elf-beautiful" and is attested describing the seductively beautiful Biblical heroines [[Sarah]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]].{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=75–95}}

Likewise, in Middle English and early modern Scottish evidence, while still appearing as causes of harm and danger, elves appear clearly as humanlike beings.<ref>{{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=157–66}}; {{harvp|Shippey|2005|pp=172–76}}.</ref> They became associated with medieval chivalric romance traditions of [[fairy|fairies]] and particularly with the idea of a [[Fairy Queen]]. A propensity to seduce or rape people becomes increasingly prominent in the source material.<ref>{{harvp|Shippey|2005|pp=175–76}}; {{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=130–48}}; {{harvp|Green|2016|pp=76–109}}.</ref> Around the fifteenth century, evidence starts to appear for the belief that elves might steal human babies and replace them with [[changeling]]s.{{sfnp|Green|2016|pp=110–46}}

==== Decline in the use of the word ''elf'' ====

By the end of the medieval period, ''elf'' was increasingly being supplanted by the French loan-word ''fairy''.{{sfnp|Hall|2005|p=20}} An example is [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s satirical tale ''[[Sir Thopas]]'', where the title character sets out in a quest for the "elf-queen", who dwells in the "countree of the Faerie".{{sfnp|Keightley|1850|p=53}}

=== Old Norse texts ===

==== Mythological texts ====

[[File:Semantic field diagram of words for sentient beings in Old Norse.gif|thumb|upright=1.75|One possible semantic field diagram of words for sentient beings in Old Norse, showing their relationships as an [[Euler diagram]]{{sfnp|Hall|2009|p=208, fig.{{nbsp}}1}}]]

Evidence for elf beliefs in medieval Scandinavia outside Iceland is sparse, but the Icelandic evidence is uniquely rich. For a long time, views about elves in Old Norse mythology were defined by Snorri Sturluson's ''[[Prose Edda]]'', which talks about ''[[svartálfar]]'', [[Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar|''dökkálfar'' and ''ljósálfar'']] ("black elves", "dark elves", and "light elves"). For example, Snorri recounts how the ''svartálfar'' create new blond hair for Thor's wife [[Sif]] after [[Loki]] had shorn off Sif's long hair.<ref name="Manea" /> However, these terms are attested only in the Prose Edda and texts based on it. It is now agreed that they reflect traditions of [[Dwarf (mythology)|dwarves]], [[demon]]s, and [[angel]]s, partly showing Snorri's "paganisation" of a Christian cosmology learned from the ''[[Elucidarius]]'', a popular digest of Christian thought.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Scholars of Old Norse mythology now focus on references to elves in Old Norse poetry, particularly the [[Elder Edda]]. The only character explicitly identified as an elf in classical Eddaic poetry, if any, is [[Wayland the Smith|Völundr]], the protagonist of ''[[Völundarkviða]]''.{{sfnp|Dumézil|1973|p=3}} However, elves are frequently mentioned in the [[Alliteration|alliterating]] phrase ''Æsir ok Álfar'' ('Æsir and elves') and its variants. This was a well-established poetic [[Oral-formulaic composition|formula]], indicating a strong tradition of associating elves with the group of gods known as the [[Æsir]], or even suggesting that the elves and Æsir were one and the same.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=34–39}}{{sfnp|Þorgeirsson|2011|pp=49–50}} The pairing is paralleled in the Old English poem ''[[Wið færstice]]''{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=35–63}} and in the Germanic personal name system;{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=55–62}} moreover, in [[Skaldic verse]] the word ''elf'' is used in the same way as words for gods.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=28–32}} [[Sigvatr Þórðarson]]'s skaldic travelogue ''[[Austrfaravísur]]'', composed around 1020, mentions an ''[[álfablót]]'' ('elves' sacrifice') in Edskogen in what is now southern Sweden.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=30–31}} There does not seem to have been any clear-cut distinction between humans and gods; like the Æsir, then, elves were presumably thought of as being humanlike and existing in opposition to the [[Jötunn|giants]].{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=31–34, 42, 47–53}} Many commentators have also (or instead) argued for conceptual overlap between elves and [[Dwarf (mythology)|dwarves]] in Old Norse mythology, which may fit with trends in the medieval German evidence.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=32–33}}

There are hints that the god [[Freyr]] was associated with elves. In particular, ''[[Álfheimr]]'' (literally "elf-world") is mentioned as being given to [[Freyr]] in ''[[Grímnismál]]''. Snorri Sturluson identified Freyr as one of the [[Vanir]]. However, the term ''Vanir'' is rare in Eddaic verse, very rare in Skaldic verse, and is not generally thought to appear in other Germanic languages. Given the link between Freyr and the elves, it has therefore long been suspected that ''álfar'' and ''Vanir'' are, more or less, different words for the same group of beings.<ref name=simek2010/>{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=35–37}}<ref name=frog&roper/> However, this is not uniformly accepted.{{sfnp|Tolley|2009|loc=vol. I, pp. 210–217}}

A [[kenning]] (poetic metaphor) for the sun, ''[[álfröðull]]'' (literally "elf disc"), is of uncertain meaning but is to some suggestive of a close link between elves and the sun.<ref name=motz1973/>{{sfnp|Hall|2004|p=40}}

Although the relevant words are of slightly uncertain meaning, it seems fairly clear that Völundr is described as one of the elves in ''[[Völundarkviða]]''.<ref>{{harvp|Jakobsson|2006}}; {{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=39–47}}.</ref> As his most prominent deed in the poem is to rape [[Böðvildr]], the poem associates elves with being a sexual threat to maidens. The same idea is present in two post-classical Eddaic poems, which are also influenced by [[chivalric romance]] or [[Breton lai|Breton ''lais'']], ''Kötludraumur'' and ''[[Gullkársljóð]]''. The idea also occurs in later traditions in Scandinavia and beyond, so it may be an early attestation of a prominent tradition.{{sfnp|Þorgeirsson|2011|pp=50–52}} Elves also appear in a couple of verse spells, including the [[Bergen rune-charm]] from among the [[Bryggen inscriptions]].{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=133–34}}

==== Other sources ====

[[File:Glasgow Botanic Gardens. Kibble Palace. William Goscombe John - 'The Elf', 1899.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Glasgow Botanic Gardens]]. Kibble Palace. [[Goscombe John|William Goscombe John]], ''The Elf'', 1899.]]

The appearance of elves in sagas is closely defined by genre. The [[Sagas of Icelanders]], [[Bishops' saga]]s, and contemporary [[saga]]s, whose portrayal of the supernatural is generally restrained, rarely mention ''álfar'', and then only in passing.{{sfnp|Jakobsson|2006|p=231}} But although limited, these texts provide some of the best evidence for the presence of elves in everyday beliefs in medieval Scandinavia. They include a fleeting mention of elves seen out riding in 1168 (in ''[[Sturlunga saga]]''); mention of an ''álfablót'' ("elves' sacrifice") in ''[[Kormáks saga]]''; and the existence of the euphemism ''ganga álfrek'' ('go to drive away the elves') for "going to the toilet" in ''[[Eyrbyggja saga]]''.{{sfnp|Jakobsson|2006|p=231}}{{sfnp|Tolley|2009|loc=vol. I, pp. 217–218}}

The [[Kings' sagas]] include a rather elliptical but widely studied account of an early Swedish king being worshipped after his death and being called [[Olaf Geirstad-Alf|Ólafr Geirstaðaálfr]] ('Ólafr the elf of Geirstaðir'), and a demonic elf at the beginning of ''[[Norna-Gests þáttr]]''.<ref>{{harvp|Jakobsson|2006|pp=231–232}}; {{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=26–27}}; {{harvp|Tolley|2009|loc=vol. I, pp. 218–219}}.</ref>

The [[legendary saga]]s tend to focus on elves as legendary ancestors or on heroes' sexual relations with elf-women. Mention of the land of [[Álfheimr (region)|Álfheimr]] is found in ''[[Heimskringla]]'' while ''[[Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar]]'' recounts a line of local kings who ruled over [[Álfheim]], who since they had elven blood were said to be more beautiful than most men.<ref>''[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/viking/001_02.php The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414154443/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/viking/001_02.php |date=14 April 2005 }}'' (Old Norse original: ''[http://www.snerpa.is/net/forn/thorstei.htm Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar]''). Chapter 1.</ref><ref name=ashman_rowe/> According to ''[[Hrólfs saga kraka]]'', [[Hrolf Kraki|Hrolfr Kraki]]'s half-sister [[Skuld (princess)|Skuld]] was the [[half-elf|half-elven]] child of King Helgi and an elf-woman (''álfkona''). Skuld was skilled in witchcraft (''seiðr''). Accounts of Skuld in earlier sources, however, do not include this material. The ''[[Þiðreks saga]]'' version of the [[Nibelung]]en (Niflungar) describes [[Hagen (legend)|Högni]] as the son of a human queen and an elf, but no such lineage is reported in the Eddas, ''[[Völsunga saga]]'', or the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]''.{{sfnp|Jakobsson|2006|p=232}} The relatively few mentions of elves in the [[chivalric sagas]] tend even to be whimsical.{{sfnp|Þorgeirsson|2011|pp=52–54}}

In his ''Rerum Danicarum fragmenta'' (1596) written mostly in Latin with some Old Danish and Old Icelandic passages, [[Arngrímur Jónsson]] explains the Scandinavian and Icelandic belief in elves (called ''Allffuafolch'').<ref name=skjold/>
Both Continental Scandinavia and Iceland have a scattering of mentions of elves in medical texts, sometimes in Latin and sometimes in the form of amulets, where elves are viewed as a possible cause of illness. Most of them have Low German connections.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=132–33}}{{sfnp|Þorgeirsson|2011|pp=54–58}}<ref name=simek2011/>

Sometimes elves are, like [[Dwarf (folklore)|dwarves]], associated with craftsmanship. [[Wayland the Smith]] embodies this feature. He is known under many names, depending on the language in which the stories were distributed. The names include ''Völund'' in Old Norse, ''Wēland'' in Anglo-Saxon and ''Wieland'' in German. The story of Wayland is also to be found in the ''Prose Edda''.<ref name="Manea">{{cite web |last1=Manea |first1=Irina-Maria |date=2022-03-08 |title=Elves & Dwarves in Norse Mythology |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1695/elves--dwarves-in-norse-mythology |access-date=2022-12-19 |website=worldhistory.org |publisher=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> 

=== Medieval and early modern German texts ===

{{Main|Alp (folklore)}}
[[File:Margarethe-Luther-1527.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Margarethe Luther, believed by her son Martin to have been afflicted by ''elbe'' ("elves")]]

The [[Old High German]] word ''alp'' is attested only in a small number of glosses. It is defined by the ''Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch'' as a "nature-god or nature-demon, equated with the [[Faun]]s of Classical mythology{{nbsp}}... regarded as eerie, ferocious beings{{nbsp}}... As the [[Mare (folklore)|mare]] he messes around with women".<ref>"Naturgott oder -dämon, den Faunen der antiken Mythologie gleichgesetzt{{nbsp}}... er gilt als gespenstisches, heimtückisches Wesen{{nbsp}}... als Nachtmahr spielt er den Frauen mit"; {{harvp|Karg-Gasterstädt|Frings|1968}}, s.v. ''alb''.</ref> Accordingly, the German word ''Alpdruck'' (literally "elf-oppression") means "nightmare". There is also evidence associating elves with illness, specifically epilepsy.{{sfnp|Edwards| 1994}}

In a similar vein, elves are in Middle High German most often associated with deceiving or bewildering people in a phrase that occurs so often it would appear to be proverbial: {{lang|gmh|die elben/der alp trieget mich}} ("the elves/elf are/is deceiving me").{{sfnp|Edwards|1994|pp=16–17, at 17}} The same pattern holds in Early Modern German.{{sfnp|Grimm|1883b|p=463}}<ref>In Lexer's Middle High German dictionary under [http://woerterbuchnetz.de/Lexer/?sigle=Lexer&mode=Vernetzung&lemid=LA00984 alp, alb] is an example: Pf. arzb. 2 14b= {{harvp|Pfeiffer|1863|p=44}} ({{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0QSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA44|title=Zwei deutsche Arzneibücher aus dem 12. und 13. Jh.|last=Pfeiffer|first=F.|year=1863|place=Wien|contribution=Arzenîbuch 2= Bartholomäus" (Mitte 13. Jh.)}}): "Swen der alp triuget, rouchet er sich mit der verbena, ime enwirret als pald niht;" meaning: 'When an ''alp'' deceives you, fumigate yourself with [[verbena]] and the confusion will soon be gone'. The editor glosses ''alp'' here as "malicious, teasing spirit" ({{langx|de|boshafter neckende geist}})</ref> This deception sometimes shows the seductive side apparent in English and Scandinavian material:{{sfnp|Edwards| 1994}} most famously, the early thirteenth-century [[Heinrich von Morungen]]'s fifth ''[[Minnesang]]'' begins "Von den elben wirt entsehen vil manic man / Sô bin ich von grôzer liebe entsên" ("full many a man is bewitched by elves / thus I too am bewitched by great love").{{sfnp|Edwards|1994|p=13}} ''Elbe'' was also used in this period to translate words for nymphs.{{sfnp|Edwards|1994|p=17}}

In later medieval prayers, Elves appear as a threatening, even demonic, force. For example, some prayers invoke God's help against nocturnal attacks by ''Alpe''.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=125–26}} Correspondingly, in the early modern period, elves are described in north Germany doing the evil bidding of witches; [[Martin Luther]] believed his mother to have been afflicted in this way.{{sfnp|Edwards|1994|pp=21–22}} As in Old Norse, however, there are few characters identified as elves. It seems likely that in the German-speaking world, elves were to a significant extent conflated with dwarves ({{langx|gmh|{{linktext|getwerc}}}}).{{sfnp|Motz|1983|loc=esp. pp. 23–66}} Thus, some dwarves that appear in German heroic poetry have been seen as relating to elves. In particular, nineteenth-century scholars tended to think that the dwarf Alberich, whose name etymologically means "elf-powerful," was influenced by early traditions of elves.<ref name=weston/>{{sfnp|Grimm|1883b|p=453}}

== Post-medieval folklore ==

=== Britain ===

[[File:Scott-Minstrelsy-Works-v1-p195-True Thomas tune.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Thomas the Rhymer]]'' in [[Walter Scott]]'s ''[[Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border]]''{{sfnp|Scott|1803|p=266}}]]

From around the [[Late Middle Ages]], the word ''elf'' began to be used in English as a term loosely synonymous with the French loan-word ''fairy'';{{sfnp|Hall|2005|pp=20–21}} in elite art and literature, at least, it also became associated with diminutive supernatural beings like [[Puck (folklore)|Puck]], [[hobgoblin]]s, Robin Goodfellow, the English and Scots [[brownie (folklore)|brownie]], and the Northumbrian English [[Hob (folklore)|hob]].{{sfnp|Bergman|2011|pp=62–74}} However, in Scotland and parts of northern England near the Scottish border, beliefs in elves remained prominent into the nineteenth century. [[James VI of Scotland]] and Robert Kirk discussed elves seriously; elf beliefs are prominently attested in the Scottish witchcraft trials, particularly the trial of [[Isobel Gowdie|Issobel Gowdie]]; and related stories also appear in folktales,{{sfnp|Henderson|Cowan|2001}} There is a significant corpus of ballads narrating stories about elves, such as ''Thomas the Rhymer'', where a man meets a female elf; ''[[Tam Lin]]'', ''[[The Elfin Knight]]'', and ''[[Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight]]'', in which an Elf-Knight rapes, seduces, or abducts a woman; and ''[[The Queen of Elfland's Nourice]]'', a woman is abducted to be a wet-nurse to the elf queen's baby, but promised that she might return home once the child is weaned.{{sfnp|Taylor|2014|pp=199–251}}

=== Scandinavia ===

{{See also|Huldufólk|Hulder}}

==== Terminology ====

In [[Scandinavian folklore]], many humanlike supernatural beings are attested, which might be thought of as elves and partly originate in medieval Scandinavian beliefs. However, the characteristics and names of these beings have varied widely across time and space, and they cannot be neatly categorised. These beings are sometimes known by words descended directly from the Old Norse ''álfr''. However, in modern languages, traditional terms related to ''álfr'' have tended to be replaced with other terms. Things are further complicated because when referring to the elves of Old Norse mythology, scholars have adopted new forms based directly on the Old Norse word ''álfr''. The following table summarises the situation in the main modern standard languages of Scandinavia.<ref name=olrik/>
{| class="wikitable"

! [[Language]]
! Terms related to ''elf'' in traditional usage
! Main terms of similar meaning in traditional usage
! Scholarly term for Norse mythological elves

|-
! [[Danish language|Danish]]
|''elver'', ''elverfolk'', ''ellefolk''
|''[[Neck (water spirit)|nøkke]],'' ''[[Nisse (folklore)|nisse]]'', ''[[Fairy|fe]]''
|''alf''

|-
! [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
|''älva''
|''skogsrå, skogsfru'', ''tomte''
|''alv'', ''alf''

|-
! [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''[[bokmål]]'')
|''alv'', ''alvefolk''
|''[[Vættir|vette]]'', ''huldra''
|''alv''
|-

! [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
|''álfur''
|''[[huldufólk]]''
|''álfur''
|}

==== Appearance and behaviour ====

[[File:Älvalek.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''Älvalek'', "Elf Play" by [[August Malmström]] (1866)]]

The elves of Norse mythology have survived into folklore mainly as females, living in hills and mounds of stones.<ref name="He-1">{{cite book|last=Hellström |first=Anne Marie |year=1990|title=En Krönika om Åsbro|isbn=978-91-7194-726-0 |page=36|publisher=Libris }}</ref> The Swedish ''älvor'' were stunningly beautiful girls who lived in the forest with an elven king.<ref>For the Swedish belief in ''älvor'' see mainly {{cite book|last=Schön|first=Ebbe|year=1986|title=Älvor, vättar och andra väsen|isbn=978-91-29-57688-7|chapter=De fagra flickorna på ängen|publisher=Rabben & Sjogren }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Keightley|1850|pp=78–}}. Chapter: "Scandinavia: Elves"</ref>

The elves could be seen dancing over meadows, particularly at night and on misty mornings. They left a circle where they had danced, called ''älvdanser'' (elf dances) or ''älvringar'' (elf circles), and to urinate in one was thought to cause venereal diseases. Typically, elf circles were [[fairy ring]]s consisting of a ring of small mushrooms, but there was also another kind of elf circle. In the words of the local historian Anne Marie Hellström:<ref name="He-1"/>

{{Quote|... on lake shores, where the forest met the lake, you could find elf circles. They were round places where the grass had been flattened like a floor. Elves had danced there. By [[Tisnaren|Lake Tisnaren]], I have seen one of those. It could be dangerous, and one could become ill if one had trodden over such a place or if one destroyed anything there.<ref name="He-1"/>}}

If a human watched the dance of the elves, he would discover that even though only a few hours seemed to have passed, many years had passed in the real world. Humans being invited or lured to the elf dance is a common motif transferred from older Scandinavian ballads.{{sfnp|Taylor|2014}}

Elves were not exclusively young and beautiful. In the Swedish folktale ''Little Rosa and Long Leda'', an elvish woman (''älvakvinna'') arrives in the end and saves the heroine, Little Rose, on the condition that the king's cattle no longer graze on her hill. She is described as a beautiful old woman and by her aspect people saw that she belonged to the ''subterraneans''.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Lilla Rosa och Långa Leda |title=Svenska folksagor |trans-title=Swedish Folktales |language=Swedish |year=1984 |publisher=Almquist & Wiksell Förlag AB |location=Stockholm |page=158}}</ref>

==== In ballads ====

Elves have a prominent place in several closely related ballads, which must have originated in the Middle Ages but are first attested in the early modern period.{{sfnp|Taylor|2014|pp=199–251}} Many of these ballads are first attested in [[Karen Brahes Folio]], a Danish manuscript from the 1570s, but they circulated widely in Scandinavia and northern Britain. They sometimes mention elves because they were learned by heart, even though that term had become archaic in everyday usage. They have therefore played a major role in transmitting traditional ideas about elves in post-medieval cultures. Indeed, some of the early modern ballads are still quite widely known, whether through school syllabuses or contemporary folk music. They, therefore, give people an unusual degree of access to ideas of elves from older traditional culture.{{sfnp|Taylor|2014|pp=264–66}}

The ballads are characterised by sexual encounters between everyday people and humanlike beings referred to in at least some variants as elves (the same characters also appear as [[Merman|mermen]], dwarves, and other kinds of supernatural beings). The elves pose a threat to the everyday community by lure people into the elves' world. The most famous example is ''[[Elveskud]]'' and its many variants (paralleled in English as ''[[Clerk Colvill]]''), where a woman from the elf world tries to tempt a young knight to join her in dancing, or to live among the elves; in some versions he refuses, and in some he accepts, but in either case he dies, tragically. As in ''Elveskud'', sometimes the everyday person is a man and the elf a woman, as also in ''[[Elvehøj]]'' (much the same story as ''Elveskud,'' but with a happy ending), ''[[Herr Magnus og Bjærgtrolden]]'', ''[[Herr Tønne af Alsø]]'', ''[[Ungersven och havsfrun|Herr Bøsmer i elvehjem]]'', or the Northern British ''[[Thomas the Rhymer]]''. Sometimes the everyday person is a woman, and the elf is a man, as in the northern British ''[[Tam Lin]]'', ''[[The Elfin Knight]]'', and ''[[Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight]]'', in which the Elf-Knight bears away Isabel to murder her, or the Scandinavian ''[[Harpans kraft]]''. In ''[[The Queen of Elfland's Nourice]]'', a woman is abducted to be a [[wet nurse]] to the elf-queen's baby, but promised that she might return home once the child is weaned.{{sfnp|Taylor|2014|pp=199-251}}

==== As causes of illness ====

[[File:Alfkors.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|The "Elf cross" which protected against malevolent elves.<ref name="alvkors" />]]

In folk stories, Scandinavian elves often play the role of disease spirits. The most common, though the also most harmless case was various irritating skin [[rash]]es, which were called ''älvablåst'' (elven puff) and could be cured by a forceful counter-blow (a handy pair of [[bellows]] was most useful for this purpose). ''Skålgropar'', a particular kind of [[petroglyph]] (pictogram on a rock) found in Scandinavia, were known in older times as ''älvkvarnar'' (elven mills), because it was believed elves had used them. One could appease the elves by offering a treat (preferably butter) placed into an elven mill.<ref name=olrik/>

In order to protect themselves and their livestock against malevolent elves, Scandinavians could use a so-called Elf cross (''Alfkors'', ''Älvkors'' or ''Ellakors''), which was carved into buildings or other objects.<ref name="alvkors">The article ''[https://runeberg.org/nfba/0313.html Alfkors]'' in ''Nordisk familjebok'' (1904).</ref> It existed in two shapes, one was a [[pentagram]], and it was still frequently used in early 20th-century Sweden as painted or carved onto doors, walls, and household utensils to protect against elves.<ref name="alvkors" /> The second form was an ordinary cross carved onto a round or oblong silver plate.<ref name="alvkors" /> This second kind of elf cross was worn as a pendant in a necklace, and to have sufficient magic, it had to be forged during three evenings with silver, from nine different sources of inherited silver.<ref name="alvkors" /> In some locations it also had to be on the altar of a church for three consecutive Sundays.<ref name="alvkors" />

==== Modern continuations ====

In Iceland, expressing belief in the ''huldufólk'' ("hidden people"), elves that dwell in rock formations, is still relatively common. Even when Icelanders do not explicitly express their belief, they are often reluctant to express disbelief.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.novatoadvance.com/articles/2007/10/24/novato_living/doc471fb91b8f622734769663.txt|title=Novatoadvance.com, Chasing waterfalls ... and elves|publisher=Novatoadvance.com|access-date=2012-06-14|archive-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207065640/http://www.novatoadvance.com/articles/2007/10/24/novato_living/doc471fb91b8f622734769663.txt|url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2006 and 2007 study by the University of Iceland's Faculty of Social Sciences revealed that many would not rule out the existence of elves and ghosts, a result similar to a 1974 survey by [[Erlendur Haraldsson]]. The lead researcher of the 2006–2007 study, [[Terry Gunnell]], stated: "Icelanders seem much more open to phenomena like dreaming the future, forebodings, ghosts and elves than other nations".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icelandreview.com/icelandreview/daily_news/?cat_id=40764&ew_0_a_id=290137|title=Icelandreview.com, Iceland Still Believes in Elves and Ghosts|publisher=Icelandreview.com|access-date=2012-06-14|archive-date=6 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206061839/http://www.icelandreview.com/icelandreview/daily_news/?cat_id=40764&ew_0_a_id=290137|url-status=dead}}</ref> Whether significant numbers of Icelandic people do believe in elves or not, elves are certainly prominent in national discourses. They occur most often in oral narratives and news reporting in which they disrupt house- and road-building. In the analysis of [[Valdimar Tr. Hafstein]], "narratives about the insurrections of elves demonstrate supernatural sanction against development and urbanization; that is to say, the supernaturals protect and enforce religious values and traditional rural culture. The elves fend off, with more or less success, the attacks, and advances of modern technology, palpable in the bulldozer."<ref name=hafstein/> Elves are also prominent, in similar roles, in contemporary Icelandic literature.{{sfnp|Hall|2015}}

Folk stories told in the nineteenth century about elves are still told in modern Denmark and Sweden. Still, they now feature ethnic minorities in place of elves in essentially racist discourse. In an ethnically fairly homogeneous medieval countryside, supernatural beings provided the [[Other (philosophy)|Other]] through which everyday people created their identities; in cosmopolitan industrial contexts, ethnic minorities or immigrants are used in storytelling to similar effect.<ref name=tangherlini/>

== Post-medieval elite culture ==
=== Early modern elite culture ===

[[File:Rackham elves.jpg|thumb|Illustration of Shakespeare's ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' by [[Arthur Rackham]]]]

Early modern Europe saw the emergence of a distinctive [[High culture|elite culture]]: while the [[Reformation]] encouraged new skepticism and opposition to traditional beliefs, subsequent Romanticism encouraged the [[Fetishism|fetishisation]] of such beliefs by intellectual elites. The effects of this on writing about elves are most apparent in England and Germany, with developments in each country influencing the other. In Scandinavia, the Romantic movement was also prominent, and literary writing was the main context for continued use of the word ''elf,'' except in fossilised words for illnesses. However, oral traditions about beings like elves remained prominent in Scandinavia into the early twentieth century.{{sfnp|Taylor|2014}}

Elves entered early modern elite culture most clearly in the literature of Elizabethan England.{{sfnp|Bergman|2011|pp=62–74}} Here [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[Faerie Queene]]'' (1590–) used ''fairy'' and ''elf'' interchangeably of human-sized beings, but they are complex, imaginary and allegorical figures. Spenser also presented his own explanation of the origins of the ''Elfe'' and ''Elfin kynd'', claiming that they were created by [[Prometheus]].{{sfnp|Keightley|1850|p=57}} Likewise, [[William Shakespeare]], in a speech in ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (1592) has an "elf-lock" (tangled hair) being caused by [[Queen Mab]], who is referred to as "the [[fairy|fairies']] [[midwife]]".<ref name="oed-elf-lock">{{Citation|title=elf-lock|url=http://www.oed.com/|year=1989|series=OED Online|work=Oxford English Dictionary|edition=2|publisher=Oxford University Press|url-access=subscription}}; "Rom. & Jul. I, iv, 90 Elf-locks" is the oldest example of the use of the phrase given by the OED.</ref> Meanwhile, ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' promoted the idea that elves were diminutive and ethereal. The influence of Shakespeare and [[Michael Drayton]] made the use of ''elf'' and ''fairy'' for very small beings the norm, and had a lasting effect seen in fairy tales about elves, collected in the modern period.<ref name=tolkien1969/>

=== The Romantic movement ===
[[File:Erl king sterner.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration of ''Der Erlkönig'' (c. 1910) by [[Albert Sterner]]]]
Early modern English notions of elves became influential in eighteenth-century Germany. The [[Modern German]] ''Elf'' (m) and ''Elfe'' (f) was introduced as a loan-word from English in the 1740s<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thun |first=Nils |year=1969 |title=The Malignant Elves: Notes on Anglo-Saxon Magic and Germanic Myth |journal=Studia Neophilologica |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=378–96 |doi=10.1080/00393276908587447}}</ref>{{sfnp|Grimm|1883b|p=443}} and was prominent in [[Christoph Martin Wieland]]'s 1764 translation of ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''.<ref name="kluge-elf-de">"Die aufnahme des Wortes knüpft an Wielands Übersetzung von Shakespeares Sommernachtstraum 1764 und and Herders Voklslieder 1774 (Werke 25, 42) an"; {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/etymologischesw09kluggoog |title=Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache|last=Kluge|first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Kluge |publisher=K. J. Trübner|year=1899 |edition=6th |place=Strassbourg|page=[https://archive.org/details/etymologischesw09kluggoog/page/n124 93]}}</ref>

As [[German Romanticism]] got underway and writers started to seek authentic folklore, Jacob Grimm rejected ''Elf'' as a recent Anglicism, and promoted the reuse of the old form ''Elb'' (plural ''Elbe'' or ''Elben'').{{sfnp|Grimm|1883b|p=443}}{{sfnp|Grimm|Grimm|1854–1954|loc=s.v. ''Elb''}} In the same vein, [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] translated the Danish ballad ''[[Elveskud]]'' in his 1778 collection of folk songs, ''{{lang|de|Stimmen der Völker in Liedern}}'', as "{{lang|de|Erlkönigs Tochter}}" ("The Erl-king's Daughter"; it appears that Herder introduced the term ''Erlkönig'' into German through a mis-Germanisation of the Danish word for ''elf''). This in turn inspired Goethe's poem ''[[Der Erlkönig]]''. However, Goethe added another new meaning, as the German word "Erle" does not mean "elf", but "black alder" - the poem about the ''Erlenkönig'' is set in the area of an alder quarry in the Saale valley in Thuringia. Goethe's poem then took on a life of its own, inspiring the Romantic concept of the [[Erlking]], which was influential on literary images of elves from the nineteenth century on.{{sfnp|Taylor|2014|pp=119–135}}

[[File:Tomtebobarnen.jpg|thumb|right|Little ''älvor'', playing with ''Tomtebobarnen''. From ''Children of the Forest'' (1910) by Swedish author and illustrator [[Elsa Beskow]].]]
In Scandinavia too, in the nineteenth century, traditions of elves were adapted to include small, insect-winged fairies. These are often called "elves" (''älvor'' in modern Swedish, ''alfer'' in Danish, ''álfar'' in Icelandic), although the more formal translation in Danish is ''feer''. Thus, the ''alf'' found in the fairy tale ''The Elf of the Rose'' by Danish author [[Hans Christian Andersen]] is so tiny he can have a rose blossom for home, and "wings that reached from his shoulders to his feet". Yet Andersen also wrote about ''elvere'' in ''The Elfin Hill''. The elves in this story are more alike those of traditional Danish folklore, who were beautiful females, living in hills and boulders, capable of dancing a man to death. Like the ''huldra'' in Norway and Sweden, they are hollow when seen from the back.<ref name=erixon/>

English and German literary traditions both influenced the British [[Victorian era|Victorian]] image of elves, which appeared in illustrations as tiny men and women with [[Pointy ears|pointed ears]] and stocking caps. An example is [[Andrew Lang]]'s fairy tale ''Princess Nobody'' (1884), illustrated by [[Richard Doyle (illustrator)|Richard Doyle]], where fairies are tiny people with [[butterfly]] wings. In contrast, elves are small people with red stocking caps. These conceptions remained prominent in twentieth-century children's literature, for example [[Enid Blyton]]'s [[The Faraway Tree]] series, and were influenced by German Romantic literature. Accordingly, in the [[Brothers Grimm]] fairy tale ''[[The Elves and the Shoemaker|Die Wichtelmänner]]'' (literally, "the little men"), the title protagonists are two tiny naked men who help a shoemaker in his work. Even though ''Wichtelmänner'' are akin to beings such as [[kobold]]s, [[dwarf (mythology)|dwarves]] and [[brownie (folklore)|brownies]], the tale was translated into English by Margaret Hunt in 1884 as ''[[The Elves and the Shoemaker]]''. This shows how the meanings of ''elf'' had changed and was in itself influential: the usage is echoed, for example, in the house-elf of [[J. K. Rowling]]'s [[Harry Potter]] stories. In his turn, J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;R. Tolkien recommended using the older German form ''Elb'' in translations of his works, as recorded in his "[[Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings]]" (1967). ''Elb, Elben'' was consequently introduced in 1972 [[Translations of The Lord of the Rings|German translation of ''The Lord of the Rings'']], repopularising the form in German.{{sfnp|Hall|2014}}{{clear}}

== In popular culture ==

=== Christmas elf ===

{{main|Christmas elf}}

[[File:ChristmasFest 2016 (30822904564).jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|A person dressed as a Christmas Elf, Virginia, 2016]]

With industrialisation and mass education, traditional folklore about elves waned; however, as the phenomenon of popular culture emerged, elves were re-imagined, in large part based on Romantic literary depictions and associated [[medievalism]].{{sfnp|Hall|2014}}

As American Christmas traditions crystallized in the nineteenth century, the 1823 poem "[[A Visit from St. Nicholas]]" (widely known as "'Twas the Night before Christmas") characterized St Nicholas himself as "a right jolly old elf." However, it was his little helpers, inspired partly by folktales like ''The Elves and the Shoemaker'', who became known as "Santa's elves"; the processes through which this came about are not well-understood, but one key figure was a Christmas-related publication by the German-American cartoonist [[Thomas Nast]].<ref name="america">{{cite book |title=Christmas in America: A History |last=Restad |first=Penne L. |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510980-1 |page=147}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hall|2014}} Thus in the US, Canada, UK, and Ireland, the modern children's folklore of Santa Claus typically includes small, nimble, green-clad elves with pointy ears, long noses, and pointy hats, as Santa's helpers. They make the toys in a workshop located in the North Pole.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Belk |first=Russell W. |author-link=Russell W. Belk |title=A Child's Christmas in America: Santa Claus as Deity, Consumption as Religion |journal=The Journal of American Culture |volume=10 |number=1 |date=Spring 1987 |pages=87–100 (p. 89) |doi=10.1111/j.1542-734X.1987.1001_87.x}}</ref> The role of elves as Santa's helpers has continued to be popular, as evidenced by the success of the popular Christmas movie ''[[Elf (film)|Elf]]''.{{sfnp|Hall|2014}}

=== Fantasy fiction ===

{{Main|Elves in fiction}}

[[File:Poor little birdie teased by Richard Doyle.jpg|thumb|19th century illustration of an elf teasing a bird by [[Richard Doyle (illustrator)|Richard Doyle]] ]]

[[File:Elf markwoman by Kitty.png|thumb|Illustration of a female elf in the high fantasy style. Kitty Polikeit, 2011]]

The [[fantasy]] genre in the twentieth century grew out of nineteenth-century Romanticism, in which nineteenth-century scholars such as [[Andrew Lang]] and the Grimm brothers collected fairy stories from folklore and in some cases retold them freely.{{sfnp|Bergman|2011}}

A pioneering work of the fantasy genre was ''[[The King of Elfland's Daughter]]'', a 1924 novel by [[Lord Dunsany]]. The [[Elf (Middle-earth)|Elves of Middle-earth]] played a central role in [[Tolkien's legendarium]], notably ''[[The Hobbit]]'' and ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''; this legendarium was enormously influential on subsequent fantasy writing. Tolkien's writing had such influence that in the 1960s and afterwards, elves speaking an elvish language similar to those in Tolkien's novels became staple non-human characters in [[high fantasy]] works and in fantasy [[role-playing game]]s. Post-Tolkien fantasy elves (which feature not only in novels but also in role-playing games such as ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'') are often portrayed as being wiser and more beautiful than humans, with sharper senses and perceptions as well. They are said to be gifted in [[magic in fiction|magic]], mentally sharp and lovers of nature, art, and song. They are often skilled archers. A hallmark of many fantasy elves is their pointed ears.{{sfnp|Bergman|2011}}

In works where elves are the main characters, such as ''The Silmarillion'' or Wendy and Richard Pini's comic book series ''[[Elfquest]]'', elves exhibit a similar range of behaviour to a human cast, distinguished largely by their superhuman physical powers. However, where narratives are more human-centered, as in ''The Lord of the Rings'', elves tend to sustain their role as powerful, sometimes threatening, outsiders.{{sfnp|Bergman|2011}} Despite the obvious fictionality of fantasy novels and games, scholars have found that elves in these works continue to have a subtle role in shaping the real-life identities of their audiences. For example, elves can function to encode real-world racial others in [[video game]]s,<ref name="Poor"/><ref name=cooper/> or to influence gender norms through literature.{{sfnp|Bergman|2011|pp=215-29}}

== Equivalents in non-Germanic traditions ==

[[File:Satyres vendangeurs (Amase en - 540).JPG|thumb|right|Greek black-figure vase painting depicting dancing [[satyr]]s. A propensity for dancing and making mischief in the woods is among the traits satyrs and elves have in common.{{sfnp|West|2007|pages=294–5}}]]

Beliefs in humanlike supernatural beings are widespread in human cultures, and many such beings may be referred to as ''elves'' in English.

=== Europe ===

Elfish beings appear to have been a common characteristic within [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European mythologies]].{{sfnp|West|2007|pages=292–5, 302–3}} In the Celtic-speaking regions of north-west Europe, the beings most similar to elves are generally referred to with the [[Irish language|Gaelic]] term ''[[Aos Sí]]''.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=68, 138–40}}{{sfnp|Hall|2008}} The equivalent term in modern Welsh is ''[[Tylwyth Teg]]''. In the [[Romance languages|Romance-speaking world]], beings comparable to elves are widely known by words derived from Latin ''[[Moirai|fata]]'' ('fate'), which came into English as ''[[fairy]]''. This word became partly synonymous with ''elf'' by the early modern period.{{sfnp|Hall|2005|pp=20–21}} Other names also abound, however, such as the Sicilian ''[[Donas de fuera]]'' ('ladies from outside'),{{sfnp|Henningsen|1990}} or French ''bonnes dames'' ('good ladies').{{sfnp|Pócs|1989|page=13}} In the [[Finnic languages|Finnic-speaking world]], the term usually thought most closely equivalent to ''elf'' is ''[[haltija]]'' (in Finnish) or ''haldaja'' (Estonian).{{sfnp|Leppälahti|2011|page=170}} Meanwhile, an example of an equivalent in the [[Slavic languages|Slavic-speaking world]] is the ''[[Supernatural beings in Slavic religion|vila]]'' (plural ''vile'') of Serbo-Croatian (and, partly, Slovene) [[Slavic paganism|folklore]].{{sfnp|Pócs|1989|p=14}} Elves bear some resemblances to the [[satyr]]s of [[Greek mythology]], who were also regarded as woodland-dwelling mischief-makers.{{sfnp|West|2007|pp=292–5}}

In the Italian region of [[Romagna]], the ''{{Lang|rgn|[[mazapégul]]}}'' are mischievous nocturnal elves who disrupt sleep and torment beautiful young girls.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=21 November 2020 |title=Mazapegul: il folletto romagnolo che ha fatto dannare i nostri nonni |trans-title=Mazapegul: The elf from Romagna who ruined our grandparents |url=https://www.romagnarepublic.it/territorio-e-storia/mazapegul-il-folletto-romagnolo-che-ha-fatto-dannare-i-nostri-nonni/ |access-date=1 March 2024 |website=Romagna Republic |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Campagna |first=Claudia |date=28 February 2020 |title=Mazapegul, il folletto romagnolo |trans-title=Mazapegul, the romagnol elf |url=https://www.romagnaatavola.it/it/mazapegul/ |access-date=1 March 2024 |website=Romagna a Tavola |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=13 March 2014 |title=Mazapègul, il 'folletto di Romagna' al Centro Mercato |trans-title=Mazapègul, the 'elf of Romagna' at the Market Centre |url=https://www.estense.com/2014/367708/mazapegul-il-folletto-di-romagna-al-centro-mercato/ |access-date=2 March 2024 |website=estense.com |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Cuda |first=Grazia |date=5 February 2021 |title=E' Mazapégul |trans-title=It's Mazapégul |url=https://ilromagnolo.info/rubriche/tradizioni/e-mazapegul/ |access-date=2 March 2024 |website=Il Romagnolo |language=it-IT}}</ref>

=== Asia and Oceania ===

Some scholarship draws parallels between the Arabian tradition of ''[[jinn]]'' with the elves of medieval Germanic-language cultures.<ref>E.g. Rossella Carnevali and Alice Masillo, '[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.466.4523&rep=rep1&type=pdf#page=103 A Brief History of Psychiatry in Islamic World]', ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 6–7 (2007–8) 97–101 (p. 97); David Frankfurter, ''Christianizing Egypt: Syncretism and Local Worlds in Late Antiquity'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018), p. 50.</ref> Some of the comparisons are quite precise: for example, the root of the word ''jinn'' was used in medieval Arabic terms for madness and possession in similar ways to the Old English word ''ylfig'',<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tzeferakos | first1 = Georgios A. | last2 = Douzenis | first2 = Athanasios I. | year = 2017| title = Islam, Mental Health and Law: A General Overview | journal = Annals of General Psychiatry | volume = 16 | page = 28 | doi = 10.1186/s12991-017-0150-6 | pmid = 28694841 | pmc = 5498891 | doi-access = free }}</ref> which was derived from ''elf'' and also denoted prophetic states of mind implicitly associated with elfish possession.{{sfnp|Hall|2006|p=242}}

Khmer culture in Cambodia includes the ''[[Mrenh kongveal]]'', elfish beings associated with guarding animals.{{sfnp|Harris|2005|p=59}}

In the Philippines, elves are collectively known as [[Engkanto]] but are known by various names across different native languages. They are believed to inhabit large trees like the dalakit and kalumpang, which are thought to be their mansions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aguilar |first=Filomeno V. |title=Clash of spirits: the history of power and sugar planter hegemony on a Visayan island |date=2010 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2082-4 |location=Honolulu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=VanRheenen |first=Gailyn |title=Contextualization and Syncretism: Navigating Cultural Currents |date=2006 |publisher=William Carey Publishing |isbn=978-0-87808-387-9 |series=Evangelical Missiological Society Ser |location=Pasadena}}</ref> Filipinos respect these beings, seeking permission before picking fruit or cutting trees. Elves can cause mischief, such as throwing dust into trespassers’ eyes or causing illness. Some, like the kiba-an, steal hair or food but can be warded off through rituals.Legends tell of tall, fair-skinned [[Dalaketnon|dalakitnon]] elves who blend with humans<ref>{{Citation |title=Ramos-López, Maximo |date=2011-10-31 |work=Benezit Dictionary of Artists |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/benz/9780199773787.article.b00148677 |access-date=2025-03-17 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Engkanto are mystical spirits in Filipino folklore that can take human or animal form. They are linked to ancestors, nature spirits, and mythical beings like elves and sirens. The term comes from the Spanish ''encanto'' (enchantment), used to describe the diverse supernatural entities in the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Demetrio |first=Francisco |date=1969 |title=The Engkanto Belief: An Essay in Interpretation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1177781?origin=crossref |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=77 |doi=10.2307/1177781|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some Engkanto live independently and interact with humans, even becoming spirit guides (''abyan''). They can befriend or harm people—bringing luck, madness, or illness. They are believed to dwell in nature, especially large trees like the '''[[Balete tree|balete]]''', and sometimes take humans as lovers, leading to legends of unusual births.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reyes |first=Jun Cruz |date=2022-12-31 |title=ANG PAGHAHANAP SA MGA PUTOL-PUTOL NA NARATIBO, O KUNG BAKIT MAHALAGANG BUUIN ANG MGA MUMUNTING KASAYSAYAN |url=https://doi.org/10.70922/ppsdk746 |journal=Entrada |doi=10.70922/ppsdk746 |issn=2362-9045|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Engkanto vary in appearance, with some being strikingly beautiful, having fair skin, blue eyes, or golden hair, while others appear eerie or monstrous. Some, like the '''itim na engkanto''', are malevolent and stalk humans. They can lead travelers astray, cause fevers, or even abduct people. To ward them off, Filipinos carry protective charms called ''anting-anting'' or ''[[agimat]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramos |first=Maximo D. |title=Creatures of Philippine lower mythology |date=1990 |publisher=Phoenix Publishing House |isbn=978-971-06-0691-7 |location=Quezon City, Philippines}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Demetrio |first=Francisco |date=1969 |title=The Engkanto Belief: An Essay in Interpretation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1177781?origin=crossref |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=77 |doi=10.2307/1177781|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
In the animistic precolonial beliefs of the [[Philippines]], the world can be divided into the material world and the spirit world. All objects, animate or inanimate, have a spirit called ''(''[[anito|diwa]]'')''. Non-human ''diwa'' are known as ''[[anito#Diwata Nature spirits and deities|diwata]]'', usually euphemistically referred to as ''dili ingon nato'' ('those unlike us'). They inhabit natural features like mountains, forests, old trees, caves, reefs, etc., as well as personify abstract concepts and natural phenomena. They are similar to elves in that they can be helpful or hateful but are usually indifferent to mortals. They can be mischievous and cause unintentional harm to humans, but they can also deliberately cause illnesses and misfortunes when disrespected or angered. Spanish colonizers equated them with elves and fairy folklore.<ref name="Scott1994">{{cite book|last= Scott |first=William Henry |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |title=Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |date=1994 |location=Quezon City |isbn=978-971-550-135-4 }}</ref>

[[Orang bunian]] are supernatural beings in [[Malay folklore|Malaysian, Bruneian]] and [[Mythology of Indonesia|Indonesian folklore]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9s9bgIXJKk4C&q=bunian+human+social+structures&pg=PA202 |title=Muslims and Matriarchs: Cultural Resilience in Indonesia Through Jihad and ... By Jeffrey Hadler |date= 2008-10-09|access-date=2012-06-23|isbn=9780801446979 |last1=Hadler |first1=Jeffrey |publisher=Cornell University Press }}</ref> invisible to most humans except those with spiritual sight. While the term is often translated as "elves", it literally translates to "hidden people" or "whistling people". Their appearance is nearly identical to humans dressed in an ancient [[Southeast Asia]]n style.

In Māori culture, [[Patupaiarehe]] are beings similar to European elves and fairies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cowan, James|author-link=James Cowan (New Zealand writer)|year=1925 |title=Fairy Folk Tales of the Maori |publisher=[[Whitcombe and Tombs]] |location=New Zealand |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-CowFair.html}}</ref>

== Relationship with reality ==

=== Reality and perception ===

Elves have in many times and places been believed to be real beings.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=8–9}} Where enough people have believed in the reality of elves that those beliefs then had real effects in the world, they can be understood as part of people's [[worldview]], and as a [[social reality]]: a thing which, like the exchange value of a dollar bill or the sense of pride stirred up by a national flag, is real because of people's beliefs rather than as an objective reality.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=8–9}} Accordingly, beliefs about elves and their social functions have varied over time and space.<ref>{{harvp|Jakobsson|2006}}; {{harvp|Jakobsson|2015}}; {{harvp|Shippey|2005}}; {{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=16–17, 230–231}}; {{harvp|Gunnell|2007}}.</ref> Even in the twenty-first century, fantasy stories about elves have been argued both to reflect and to shape their audiences' understanding of the real world.<ref name="Poor">{{Cite journal|last=Poor|first=Nathaniel |s2cid=147432832|date=September 2012|title=Digital Elves as a Racial Other in Video Games: Acknowledgment and Avoidance|journal=Games and Culture|volume=7|issue=5|pages=375–396 |doi=10.1177/1555412012454224}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bergman|2011|pp=215–29}} Over time, people have attempted to [[Demythologization|demythologise]] or [[Rationalization (sociology)|rationalise]] beliefs in elves in various ways.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=6–9}}

=== Integration into Christian cosmologies ===

[[File:James I; Daemonologie, in forme of a dialogue. Title page. Wellcome M0014280.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''Daemonologie'' by [[James VI and I]]. It tried to explain traditional Scottish beliefs in terms of Christian scholarship.]]

Beliefs about elves have their origins before the [[conversion to Christianity]] and associated [[Christianization]] of northwest Europe. For this reason, belief in elves has, from the Middle Ages through into recent scholarship, often been labelled "[[paganism|pagan]]" and a "[[superstition]]." However, almost all surviving textual sources about elves were produced by Christians (whether Anglo-Saxon monks, medieval Icelandic poets, early modern ballad-singers, nineteenth-century folklore collectors, or even twentieth-century fantasy authors). Attested beliefs about elves, therefore, need to be understood as part of [[Christianisation of the Germanic peoples|Germanic-speakers' Christian culture]] and not merely a relic of their [[Germanic paganism|pre-Christian religion]]. Accordingly, investigating the relationship between beliefs in elves and [[Christian cosmology]] has been a preoccupation of scholarship about elves both in early times and modern research.<ref>{{harvp|Jolly|1996}}; {{harvp|Shippey|2005}}; {{harvp|Green|2016}}.</ref>

Historically, people have taken three main approaches to integrate elves into Christian cosmology, all of which are found widely across time and space:

* Identifying elves with the [[demon]]s of Judaeo-Christian-Mediterranean tradition.<ref>e.g. {{harvp|Jolly|1992|p=172}}</ref> For example:
** In English-language material: in the [[Royal Prayer Book]] from c. 900, ''elf'' appears as a [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]] for "Satan".{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=71–72}} In the late-fourteenth-century ''[[The Wife of Bath's Tale|Wife of Bath's Tale]]'', [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] equates male elves with [[incubus|incubi]] (demons which rape sleeping women).{{sfnp|Hall|2007|p=162}} In the [[Witch trials in early modern Scotland|early modern Scottish witchcraft trials]], witnesses' descriptions of encounters with elves were often interpreted by prosecutors as encounters with the [[Devil]].{{sfnp|Hall|2005|pp=30–32}}
** In medieval Iceland, [[Snorri Sturluson]] wrote in his ''[[Prose Edda]]'' of [[Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar|''ljósálfar'' and ''dökkálfar'']] ('light-elves and dark-elves'), the ''ljósálfar'' living in the heavens and the ''dökkálfar'' under the earth. The consensus of modern scholarship is that Snorri's elves are based on angels and demons of Christian cosmology.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvp|Shippey|2005|pp=180–81}}; {{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=23–26}}; {{harvp|Gunnell|2007|pp=127–28}}; {{harvp|Tolley|2009|loc=vol. I, p. 220}}.</ref>
** Elves appear as demonic forces widely in medieval and early modern English, German, and Scandinavian prayers.<ref>{{harvp|Hall|2007|pp=69–74, 106 n. 48 & 122}} on English evidence</ref><ref name=schulz/><ref>{{harvp|Þorgeirsson|2011|pp=54–58}} on Icelandic evidence.</ref>
* Viewing elves as being more or less like people and more or less outside Christian cosmology.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=172–175}} The Icelanders who copied the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' did not explicitly try to integrate elves into Christian thought. Likewise, the early modern Scottish people who confessed to encountering elves seem not to have thought of themselves as having dealings with the [[Devil]]. Nineteenth-century Icelandic folklore about [[Huldufólk|elves]] mostly presents them as a human agricultural community parallel to the visible human community, which may or may not be Christian.{{sfnp|Shippey|2005|pp=161–68}}<ref name=alver&selberg/> It is possible that stories were sometimes told from this perspective as a political act, to subvert the dominance of the Church.{{sfnp|Ingwersen|1995|pp=83–89}}
* Integrating elves into Christian cosmology without identifying them as demons.{{sfnp|Shippey|2005|p={{page needed|date=September 2020}}}} The most striking examples are serious theological treatises: the Icelandic ''Tíðfordrif'' (1644) by [[Jón Guðmundsson lærði]] or, in Scotland, [[Robert Kirk (folklorist)|Robert Kirk]]'s ''Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies'' (1691). This approach also appears in the Old English poem ''[[Beowulf]]'', which lists elves among the races springing from [[Cain and Abel|Cain's murder of Abel]].{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=69–74}} The late thirteenth-century ''[[South English Legendary]]'' and some Icelandic folktales explain elves as angels that sided neither with [[Lucifer]] nor with God and were banished by God to earth rather than hell. One famous Icelandic folktale explains elves as the lost children of Eve.<ref>{{harvp|Hall|2007|p=75}}; {{harvp|Shippey|2005|pp=174, 185–86}}.</ref>

=== Demythologising elves as indigenous peoples ===

Some nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholars attempted to rationalise beliefs in elves as folk memories of lost indigenous peoples. Since belief in supernatural beings is ubiquitous in human cultures, scholars no longer believe such explanations are valid.{{sfnp|Spence|1946|pp=53–64, 115–131}}{{sfnp|Purkiss|2000|pp=5–7}} Research has shown, however, that stories about elves have often been used as a way for people to think [[metaphor]]ically about real-life ethnic others.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=47–53}}<ref name=tangherlini/><ref name="Poor"/>

=== Demythologising elves as people with illness or disability ===

Scholars have at times also tried to explain beliefs in elves as being inspired by people suffering certain kinds of illnesses (such as [[Williams syndrome]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Westfahl |first1=Gary |last2=Slusser |first2=George Edgar |title=Nursery Realms: Children in the Worlds of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror |date=1999 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=9780820321448 |page=153 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrdhYWzpSDkC&pg=PA153 |language=en}}</ref> Elves were certainly often seen as a cause of illness, and indeed the English word ''oaf'' seems to have originated as a form of ''elf'': the word ''elf'' came to mean '[[changeling]] left by an elf' and then, because changelings were noted for their failure to thrive, to its modern sense 'a fool, a stupid person; a large, clumsy man or boy'.<ref>"[https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/129456 oaf, n.1.]{{Dead link|date=December 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}", "[https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/13053 auf(e, n.]{{Dead link|date=December 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}" , ''OED Online, Oxford University Press'', June 2018. Accessed 1 September 2018.</ref> However, it again seems unlikely that the origin of beliefs in elves itself is to be explained by people's encounters with objectively real people affected by disease.{{sfnp|Hall|2007|pp=7–8}}

== See also ==

* [[Svartálfar]]
* [[Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar]]

== Footnotes ==

=== Citations ===

{{Reflist|20em|refs=
<ref name=alver&selberg>{{illm|Bente Gullveig Alver{{!}}Alver, Bente Gullveig|no|Bente Gullveig Alver}}; Selberg, Torunn (1987),'Folk Medicine as Part of a Larger Concept Complex', Arv, '''43''': 21–44.</ref>

<ref name=ashman_rowe>{{citation|last=Ashman Rowe |first=Elizabeth |title=''Sǫgubrot af fornkonungum'': : Mythologised History for Late Thirteenth-century Iceland |editor-last1=Arnold |editor-first1=Martin |editor-last2=Finlay |editor-first2=Alison |work=Making History: Essays on the Fornaldarsögur |publisher=Viking Society for Northern Research |year=2010 |pages=11–12 |url=http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/fornaldarsogur.pdf#page=9}}</ref>

<ref name=cooper><!--Cooper 2016, 97–99.-->{{cite thesis|type=PhD |last=Cooper |first=Victoria Elizabeth |title=Fantasies of the North: Medievalism and Identity in ''Skyrim'' |publisher=University of Leeds |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/16875/}}</ref>

<ref name=devreis>{{cite dictionary|last=De Vries |first=Jan |author-link=Jan de Vries (linguist) |title=Álfr |dictionary=Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch |edition=2nd |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1962}}</ref>

<ref name=erixon><!--Erixon (1961), p. 34.-->{{citation|last=Erixon |first=Sigurd |title=Some Examples of Popular Conceptions of Sprites and other Elementals in Sweden during the 19th Century |editor-last=Hultkrantz |editor-first=Åke |work=The Supernatural Owners of Nature: Nordic Symposion on the Religious Conceptions of Ruling Spirits (genii locii, genii speciei) and Allied Concepts |place=Stockholm |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |year=1961 |series=Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion, 1|page=34 (34–37)}}</ref>

<ref name=frog&roper>{{cite journal|last1=Frog |first1=Etunimetön |last2=Roper |first2=Jonathan |author-link=<!--Etunimetön Frog--> |title=Verses versus the Vanir: Response to Simek's "Vanir Obituary |journal=The Retrospective Methods Network Newsletter |date=May 2011 |pages=29–37 |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/English/RMN/RMNNewsletter_2_May_2011.pdf}}</ref>
 
<ref name=grattan&singer><!--John Henry Grafton Grattan-->Grattan, J. H. G.; [[Charles Singer|Singer, Charles]] (1952), ''Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine Illustrated Specially from the Semi-Pagan Text 'Lacnunga{{'}}'', Publications of the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum, New Series, 3, London: Oxford University Press, frontispiece.</ref>

<ref name=hafstein>{{cite journal|last=Hafstein |first=Valdimar Tr. |s2cid=162055463 |author-link=Valdimar Tr. Hafstein |title=The Elves' Point of View ''Cultural Identity in Contemporary Icelandic Elf-Tradition'' |journal=Fabula |volume=41 |issue=1–2 |year=2000 |pages=87–104 (quoting p. 93) |doi=10.1515/fabl.2000.41.1-2.87 |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/English/RMN/RMN%20Newsletter%20DECEMBER%202010.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=huld>{{cite journal|last=Huld |first=Martin E |author-link=<!--Martin E Huld--> |title=On the Heterclitic Declension of Germanic Divinities and the Status of the ''Vanir'' |journal=Studia Indogermanica Lodziensia |volume=2 |year=1998|pages=136–46 }}</ref>

<ref name=motz1973>{{cite journal|last=Motz |first=Lotte |title=Of Elves and Dwarves |journal=Arv: Tidskrift för Nordisk Folkminnesforskning |volume=29–30 |year=1973 |page=99 |url=http://heathen.vuya.net/sites/default/files/1973%20Of%20Elves%20and%20Dwarves%20(Motz).pdf }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

<ref name=olrik>{{cite encyclopedia|author-link=Axel Olrik |last=O[lrik] |first=A[xel] |date=1915–1930 |url=https://runeberg.org/salmonsen/2/7/0143.html |title=Elverfolk |encyclopedia=Salmonsens konversationsleksikon |editor-last=Blangstrup |editor-first=Chr. |display-editors=et al |edition=2nd |volume=VII |pages=133–136}}</ref>

<ref name=paul>{{cite book|last=Paul|first=Hermann|author-link=Hermann Paul |title=Grundriss der germanischen philologie unter mitwirkung|publisher=K. J. Trübner|year=1900|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wXcVAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wXcVAAAAYAAJ/page/n288 268]}}</ref>

<ref name=purkiss>{{harvp|Purkiss|2000|pp=85–115}}; Cf. {{harvp|Henderson|Cowan|2001}}; {{harvp|Hall|2005}}.</ref>

<ref name=schulz>{{harvp|Hall|2007|p=98, fn. 10}} and {{harvp|Schulz|2000|pp=62–85}} on German evidence.</ref>

<ref name=simek2010>{{cite journal|last=Simek |first=Rudolf |author-link=Rudolf Simek |title=The Vanir: An Obituary |journal=The Retrospective Methods Network Newsletter |date=December 2010 |pages=10–19 |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/English/RMN/RMN%20Newsletter%20DECEMBER%202010.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=simek2011>{{cite book|last=Simek |first=Rudolf |author-link=Rudolf Simek |editor-last=Anlezark |editor-first=Daniel |chapter=Elves and Exorcism: Runic and Other Lead Amulets in Medieval Popular Religion |title=Myths, Legends, and Heroes: Essays on Old Norse and Old English Literature in Honour of John McKinnell |place=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2011 |pages=25–52 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGPl11DewwgC&pg=PA25 |access-date=2020-09-22 |isbn=978-0-8020-9947-1}}</ref>

<ref name=skjold>{{cite journal|last=Olrik |first=Axel |author-link=Axel Olrik |title=Skjoldungasaga in Arngrim Jonssons Udtog |journal=Aarbøger for nordisk oldkyndighed og historie |date=1894 |pages=130–131 |url=https://archive.org/details/1894a95aarbger00norduoft/page/n137/mode/2up}}</ref>

<ref name=tangherlini>{{cite journal|last1=Tangherlini|first1=Timothy R.|author-link=<!--Timothy R. Tangherlini--> |title=From Trolls to Turks: Continuity and Change in Danish Legend Tradition |journal=Scandinavian Studies |volume=67 |issue=1|pages= 32–62|date= 1995|jstor=40919729}}; cf. {{harvp|Ingwersen|1995|pp=78-79, 81}}.</ref>

<ref name=tolkien1969>Tolkien, J. R. R., (1969) [1947], "On Fairy-Stories", in ''Tree and Leaf'', Oxford, pp. 4–7 (3–83). (First publ. in ''Essays Presented to Charles Williams'', Oxford, 1947.)</ref>

<ref name=weston><!--Weston (1903), p. 144.-->{{citation|last=Weston |first=Jessie Laidlay |author-link=Jessie Weston (scholar) |title=The legends of the Wagner drama: studies in mythology and romance |publisher=C. Scribner's sons |year=1903 |page=144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OdBNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA144}}</ref>

}}

=== References ===

{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite journal |last=Þorgeirsson |first=Haukur |title=Álfar í gömlum kveðskap |journal=Són |volume=9 |year=2011 |url=http://hi.is/~haukurth/Haukur_2011_Alfar_Son.pdf |pages=49–61 |language=is }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
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{{Refend}}

<!--== Further reading ==--><!--not sure why this unused item is here, the article is heavily sourced already-->
<!--
* Goodrich, Jean N. "Fairy, Elves and the Enchanted Otherworld". In: ''Handbook of Medieval Culture'' Volume 1. Edited by Albrecht Classen. Berlin, München, Boston: De Gruyter, 2015. pp. 431-464. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110267303-022-->

== External links ==

{{Sister project links|d=Q174396|wikt=elf|commons=Category:Elves|b=no|q=no|n=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|voy=no|s=no|v=no}}

{{Elves|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Fairies}}
{{Norse mythology}}
{{Scandinavian folklore}}
{{Anglo-SaxonPaganism}}
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[[Category:Elves| ]]
[[Category:Fairy tale stock characters]]