Editing English folklore

{{Short description|Myths and legends of English culture}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=January 2018}}
{{Prose|date=April 2018}}
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{{Use British English|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Beowulf and the dragon.jpg|thumb|[[Beowulf (hero)|Beowulf]] and the [[Dragon]], as told in the [[Old English]] epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
[[File:Kilpeck Green Man.jpg|thumb|A sculpture of the mythical [[Green Man]] on the [[Church of St Mary and St David, Kilpeck]]]]
{{Culture of England}}
'''English folklore''' consists of the [[myth]]s and [[legend]]s of [[England]], including the region's [[Legendary creature|mythical creatures]], traditional [[recipes]], [[urban legends]], [[proverb]]s, [[superstition]]s, [[Folk dance|dance]], [[ballad]]ry, and [[Folklore|folktales]] that have been passed down through generations, reflecting the cultural heritage of the country. This body of folklore includes a diverse array of characters, such as heroic figures like [[Beowulf]] or [[Robin Hood]], legendary kings like [[King Arthur|Arthur]], and mythical creatures like the [[Green Man (folklore)|Green Man]] and [[Black Shuck]]. These tales and traditions have been shaped by the historical experiences of the English people, influenced by the various cultures that have settled in England over centuries, including [[Celtic Britons|Celtic]], [[Romano-British culture|Roman]], [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]], and [[Normans|Norman]] elements.<ref name="McDowall">{{Cite web |first=Robert |last=McDowall |date=26 September 2019 |title=English Folklore: What Cultural Values Does It Represent? |url=https://folklorethursday.com/folklore-folklorists/english-folklore-what-cultural-values-does-it-represent/ |access-date=30 December 2021 |website=#FolkloreThursday |language=en-GB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724170404/https://folklorethursday.com/folklore-folklorists/english-folklore-what-cultural-values-does-it-represent/ |archive-date=24 July 2021}}</ref>

The stories within English folklore often convey themes of justice, loyalty, bravery, and the supernatural, and often contain a moral imperative stemming from [[Christian values]].<ref name="Mingazova & Sulteev">{{Cite journal |last1=Mingazova |first1=Liailia |last2=Sulteev |first2=Rustem |year=2014 |title=Tatar and English Children's Folklore: Education in Folk Traditions |journal=[[Western Folklore]] |volume=73 |pages=410–431 |via=ProQuest}}</ref> They frequently explore the relationship between humans and the natural world, as seen in the legends of the Green Man or [[Herne the Hunter]], or the consequences of human actions, as illustrated in tales like the [[Lambton Worm]].

Additionally, English folklore has been influenced by historical events, such as the [[Witch trials in the early modern period|witch trials]] of the early modern period, which are reflected in stories like that of the [[Pendle witches]]. During the [[Renaissance]] in the 16th century, England looked to more European texts to develop a national identity. English folklore has continued to differ according to region, although there are shared elements across the country.<ref name="Cheeseman & Hart">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1250431455 |title=Folklore and nation in Britain and Ireland |date=2022 |editor1-first=Matthew |editor1-last=Cheeseman |editor2-first=Carina |editor2-last=Hart |isbn=978-1-003-00753-1 |location=New York |oclc=1250431455}}</ref> The folktales, characters and creatures are often derived from aspects of English experience, such as [[topography]], [[Architecture of England|architecture]], real people, or real events.<ref name="Simpson">{{Cite journal |last=Simpson |first=Jacqueline |author-link=Jacqueline Simpson |year=2008 |title=Seeking the Lore of the Land |journal=Folklore |volume=119 |issue=2 |pages=131–141 |doi=10.1080/00155870802056936 |s2cid=162117834}}</ref>

English folklore has had a lasting impact on [[Culture of England|English culture]], [[English literature|literature]], and [[English national identity|identity]]. Many of these traditional stories have been retold in various forms, from medieval manuscripts to modern films and literature. To this day, traditional folk festivals such as [[May Day]], [[Plough Monday]], [[Bonfire Night]], [[Allhallowtide]], and [[Harvest Festival (United Kingdom)|Harvest festival]] continue to be practised. [[Morris dance|Morris dancing]], [[Mummers' play]]s, and [[Maypole dancing]] remain popular forms of folk traditions, often depicting or echoing themes or stories from English folklore.

== History ==
[[File:A Chronicle of England - Page 052 - Baptism of King Guthorm.jpg|thumb|King Guthrum being appointed as a Christian by King Alfred before becoming the ruler of East Anglia]]
Before England was founded in the year 927, [[Wessex]] and its surrounding areas' cultures were transformed by the [[Viking activity in the British Isles|invasion]] of the Danish King [[Guthrum]] between 865 and 878.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atherton |first=Mark |title=The Making of England: A New History of the Anglo-Saxon World |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-00-300753-1 |pages=59–75}}</ref> The king of [[Wessex]], [[Alfred the Great|King Alfred]], prevailed against King Guthrum's troops in 878 and King Guthrum was [[Baptism|baptised]] and became the ruler of [[East Anglia]]. This continued the process of the assimilation of Norse words into the English language. Eventually English folklore melded with [[Norse mythology|Norse]] traditions such as in their [[iconography]], which became more Greek, and in their clothing and folktales which adopted more Nordic elements.<ref name="Atherton">{{Cite book |last=Atherton |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Atherton |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/975999502 |title=The making of England: a new history of the Anglo-Saxon world |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-78672-154-9 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |location=London |pages=53–58 |oclc=975999502}}</ref> The folklore of the people of England continued to be passed down through [[oral tradition]].{{r|McDowall}}

During the [[Renaissance]], artists captured these customs in the written word; such as [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearean]] plays' reflections of English folklore through their witches, fairies, folk medicine, marriage and funeral customs, superstitions, and religious beliefs.{{r|McDowall}}

The Grimm brothers' publications such as ''[[Deutsche Sagen|German Legends]]'' and ''[[Grimms' Fairy Tales]]'' were translated from their original German and distributed across Europe in 1816. Their stories inspired publishers such as [[William Thoms]] to compile legends from within English folklore and without to compose an English identity. The stories that the Grimm brothers collected were integrated into the English school curriculum throughout the 19th century as educators of morality.{{r|Cheeseman & Hart}}

== Characteristics ==
Although English folklore has many influences, its largest are Christian, Celtic and Germanic.{{r|McDowall}} Non-Christian influences also defined English folklore up to the eleventh century, such as in their folksongs, celebrations and folktales.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |date=3 November 2010 |title=How Pagan Were Medieval English Peasants?|journal=Folklore |volume=122 |issue=3 |pages=235–249 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.2011.608262 |s2cid=162281749 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]] Online}}</ref> An example is the 305 [[Child Ballads|ballads collected by Francis James Child]] published during the English revival in the 19th century. During the [[English folk music|English folksong revival]], English artists scrambled to compose a national identity consisting of England's past folksongs and their contemporary musical influences.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Richard |last=Sykes |year=1993 |title=The Evolution of Englishness in the English Folksong Revival, 1890-1914 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4522437 |journal=[[Folk Music Journal]] |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=446–490 |jstor=4522437}}</ref> Authors such as [[Francis James Child]], [[Arthur Hugh Clough]], and [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] made English folksong supranational due to the willingness to import other languages' words, pronunciations, and metres.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Phelan |first=Joseph |year=2019 |title=Arthur Hugh Clough, Francis James Child, and Mid-Victorian Chaucer |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sel.2019.0037 |journal=[[Studies in English Literature]] |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=855–872 |doi=10.1353/sel.2019.0037 |hdl=2086/16572 |s2cid=213125784 |via=ProQuest |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Other examples of non-Christian influences include the [[Wild Hunt]] which originates from wider Europe,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Monroe |first=Alexei |date=15 January 2019 |title=The Wild Hunt: Nationalistic Anarchism and Neofeudalism Unleashed |journal=Third Text |volume=32 |pages=620–628 |doi=10.1080/09528822.2018.1555302 |s2cid=150174959 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]] Online}}</ref> and [[Herne the Hunter]] which relates to the [[Germanic mythology|Germanic]] deity [[Woden]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bramwell |first=Peter |title=Pagan Themes in Modern Children's Fiction |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-23689-9 |pages=38–83 |chapter=Herne the Hunter and the Green Man}}</ref> The [[Abbots Bromley Horn Dance]] may represent a pre-Christian festival and the practice of [[Well dressing]] in the [[Peak District]], which may date back to [[Anglo-Saxon]] or even [[Celts|Celtic]] times.<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=James |author-link=James Campbell (historian) |title=The Anglo-Saxons |date=1991 |pages=241 |publisher=Penguin Publishing |isbn=0-14-014395-5}}</ref> [[May Day]] celebrations such as the [[Maypole]] survive across much of England and [[Northern Europe]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1996 |pages=218–225}}</ref> Christmas practices such as [[Christmas tree|decorating trees]], the significance of [[holly]], and [[Christmas carol]]ling were born from the desire to escape from the harshness of winter around Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Bruce David |title=Christmas: A Candid History |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-520-93372-9 |pages=1–14 |chapter=First There Was Winter}}</ref>

These combine to form a folklore which teaches that, through an upright and virtuous character, a person can achieve a successful life. [[Lullaby|Lullabies]], songs, dances, games, folktales, and superstitions all imparted a religious and moral education, and form a person's sense of justice and Christianity. Children's games would often contain counting songs or gamifications of manners to ensure that a child was happy, healthy, and good.{{r|Mingazova & Sulteev}}[[File:Poor little birdie teased by Richard Doyle.jpg|thumb|right|''Poor little birdie teased'', by the 19th-century [[England|English]] illustrator [[Richard Doyle (illustrator)|Richard Doyle]]. It depicts an elf as imagined in English folktales.]]English folklore also included beliefs of the [[supernatural]], including [[Precognition|premonitions]], [[curse]]s, and [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]],<ref name="Harte">{{Cite journal |last=Harte |first=Jeremy |date=2 March 2018 |title=Superstitious observations: fortune-telling in English folk culture |journal=Time and Mind |volume=11 |pages=67–88 |doi=10.1080/1751696X.2018.1433357 |s2cid=165848305 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]] Online}}</ref> and was common across all social classes.<ref name="Bailey">{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=Michael D. |title=Fearful Spirits, Reasoned Follies: The Boundaries of Superstition in Late Medieval Europe |date=2 May 2013 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |pages=7–10 |isbn=978-0-8014-5144-7}}</ref> It was not regarded with the same validity as scientific discoveries, but was made to be trusted by the repeated accounts of a magician or priest's clients who saw the ritual's spectacle and so believed in its efficacy.{{r|Harte}} Even when such rituals failed, such as a 15th-century physician using a golden artifact to heal his patients, their failures were attributed to the fickleness of magic.{{r|Bailey}}

As for English folktales, some such as Weber argue that they were passed down for the purpose of reflecting the grim realities of a child's life and hence instilled valued English morals and aesthetics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weber |first=Eugen |author-link=Eugen Weber |year=1981 |title=Fairies and hard facts: The Reality of Folktales |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709419 |journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=93–113 |doi=10.2307/2709419 |jstor=2709419|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Others such as Tatar would counter that these folktales' fantasies were so removed from reality that they were a form of escapism, imaginative expression, and linguistic appreciation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tatar |first=Maria |year=2010 |title=Why Fairy Tales Matter: The Performative and the Transformative |journal=[[Western Folklore]] |volume=69 |pages=55–64 |via=ProQuest}}</ref> Most folklorists would agree that the purpose of English folklore is to protect, entertain, and instruct on how to participate in a just and fair society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avery |first=Gillian |date=1965 |title=Nineteenth century children : heroes and heroines in English children's stories, 1780-1900 |location=London |publisher=[[Hodder and Stoughton]] |pages=8–11 |isbn=978-90-5005-492-8}}</ref>

== Folktales ==
Folklorists have developed frameworks such as the [[Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index|Aarne–Thompson-Uther index]] which categorise folktales first by types of folktales and then by consistent motifs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aarne |first=Antti |author-link=Antti Aarne |date=1961 |title=The types of the folktale |location=Helsinki |publisher=[[Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia]] |pages=5–19}}</ref> While these stories and characters have differences according to the region of their origin, these motifs are such that there is a national identity of folktales through which these regions have interacted.{{r|Cheeseman & Hart}}

There are likely many characters and stories that have never been recorded and hence were forgotten, but these folktales and their evolutions were often a product of contemporary figures, places, or events local to specific regions.{{r|Simpson}} The below are only a small fraction of examples from the folktale types of English folklore.

=== Creatures ===
[[Dragon]]s are giant winged reptiles that breathe fire, poison and acid. They are usually associated with treasure rooms, waterfalls, and hollowed out tree stumps.

A [[Wyvern]] is a smaller relative of dragons with two legs rather than four. It also has smaller wings and cannot breathe fire.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snelling |first1=Roy |title=Dragons of Somerset |date=2015 |publisher=Spiritual Genesis Books |isbn=978-1-78301-632-7 |page=13}}</ref>

The [[Black dog (folklore)|black dog]] is a creature which foreshadows calamity or causes it. It is a combination of [[Odysseus]]' Argos and [[Hades]]' [[Cerberus]] from [[Greek mythology]], and [[Fenrir]] from [[Norse mythology]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zmarzlinski |first=Adam |date=2020 |title=The Black Dog: Origins and Symbolic Characteristics of the Spectral Canine |journal=Cultural Analysis |volume=18}}</ref> The first collection of sightings of the black dog around Great Britain, [[Ethel Rudkin|Ethel Rudkin's]] 1938 article reports that the dog has black fur, abnormally large eyes, and a huge body.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rudkin |first=Ethel |year=1938 |title=The Black Dog |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1257762 |journal=Folklore |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=111–131 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.1938.9718739 |jstor=1257762 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The black dog is a common motif in folklore and appears in many traditional English stories and tales. They often denote death and misfortune close at hand and appear and disappear into thin air.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Quaile |first=Sheilagh |date=2013 |title='The black dog that worries you at home': The Black Dog Motif in Modern English Folklore and Literacy Culture |journal=The Great Lakes Journal of Undergraduate History |volume=1 |issue=1 }}</ref>

A [[boggart]] is, depending on local or regional tradition, a malevolent ''[[genius loci]]'' inhabiting fields, marshes or other topographical features. The household boggart causes objects to disappear, milk to sour, and dogs to go lame. They can possess small animals, fields, churches, or houses so they can play tricks on the civilians with their chilling laugh. Always malevolent, the boggart will follow its family wherever they flee. In Northern England, at least, there was the belief that the boggart should never be named, for when the boggart was given a name, it could not be reasoned with nor persuaded, but would become uncontrollable and destructive.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guiley |first=Rosemary Ellen |author-link=Rosemary Ellen Guiley |date=2007 |title=The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits |location=New York |publisher=[[Facts On File]], Inc.}}</ref>

A [[Brownie (folklore)|brownie]] is a type of [[Hob (folklore)|hob]] (household spirit), similar to a [[hobgoblin]]. Brownies are said to inhabit houses and aid in tasks around the house. However, they do not like to be seen and will only work at night, traditionally in exchange for small gifts or food. Among food, they especially enjoy porridge and honey. They usually abandon the house if their gifts are called payments, or if the owners of the house misuse them. Brownies make their homes in an unused part of the house.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=M. |date=1716 |title=A description of the Western Islands of Scotland |location=London |publisher=A. Bell |pages=391, 67}}</ref>

A [[Dwarf (folklore)|dwarf]] is a human-shaped entity that dwells in mountains and in the earth, and is associated with wisdom, smithing, mining, and crafting. The term had only started to be used in the 19th century as a translation for the German, French, and [[Scandinavia]]n words which describe dwarfs.{{r|Simpson & Roud}}

[[Ogre]]s are usually tall, strong, violent, greedy, and remarkably dull monsters and they originate from French culture. In folktales they are likely to be defeated by being outsmarted.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Warner |first=M. |title=Paternity and Fatherhood |chapter=Why do Ogres Eat Babies? Monstrous Paternity in Myth and Fairytales |year=1998 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-13816-6_18 |pages=195–203 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-13816-6_18 |isbn=978-1-349-13818-0 |via=Springer Link}}</ref>

The [[Will-o'-the-wisp]] is a folk explanation of strange, flickering lights seen around [[marsh]]es and [[bog]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Silcock |first1=Fred |editor1-last=Czechura |editor1-first=Gregory |editor2-last=Debus |editor2-first=Stephen J. S. |title=Australian raptor studies II (Birds of Australia Monograph 3) |date=1997 |publisher=Birds Australia |location=Hawthorn East |isbn=978-1-875122-08-0 |chapter=A review of accounts of luminosity in Barn Owls ''Tyto alba'' |url=https://www.owlpages.com/owls/articles.php?a=18 |language=en |via=The Owl Pages}}</ref> Some perceive them as souls of unbaptized infants which lead travellers off the forest path and into danger, while others perceive them as trickster [[Fairy|fairies]] or [[Sprite (folklore)|sprites]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Katharine |last=Briggs |author-link=Katharine Mary Briggs |date=1976 |title=An Encyclopedia of Fairies |publisher=[[Pantheon Books]] |page=381 |isbn=0-394-40918-3}}</ref>

=== Characters and personifications ===
[[File:322 The Romance of King Arthur.jpg|left|thumb|An image of '[[Questing Beast|The Questing Beast]]', a monster slain by King Arthur and his knights in Malory's {{lang|fr|[[Le Morte d'Arthur|Morte Darthur]]}}]]
[[King Arthur]] is the legendary king of the Britons, the Once and Future King and True Born King of England. The origins of King Arthur and his exploits are vague due to the many reproductions of his character. The {{lang|la|[[Historia Brittonum]]}} and the {{lang|la|[[Annales Cambriae]]}} reference many battles of an Arthur, {{lang|la|Annales Cambriae}} also referencing [[Mordred]], a rival, and [[Merlin]], a wise mentor. Although these sources have been used as proof for Arthur's origins, their credibility has been disputed as mythology rather than history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Thomas |title=Concepts of Arthur |publisher=Tempus |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-7524-4461-1 |location=Gloucestershire}}</ref> As English folklore has progressed, King Arthur's retellings have been classified into romances such as [[Thomas Malory|Malory]]'s {{lang|fr|[[Le Morte d'Arthur|Morte Darthur]]}}, chronicles such as [[Geoffrey of Monmouth|Geoffrey]]'s {{lang|la|[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]}}, and fantasies such as {{lang|cy|[[Culhwch and Olwen|Culhwch ac Olwen]]}} (whose author is unknown).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fulton |first=Helen |date=2009 |title=A companion to Arthurian literature |location=Chichester |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |pages=21–29 |isbn=978-1-4443-0583-8}}</ref>

[[Robin Hood]] was a vicious outlaw who expressed the working-class' disenchantment with the status quo.<ref name="Assayed">{{cite thesis |last=Assayed |first=Layān |date=2015 |title=The Medieval Rhymes of Robin Hood: An Inquiry into Outlaw Territory |publisher=[[University of Haifa]]}}</ref> Through Robin Hood, the forest (called the "greenwood" by folklorists) transformed from the dangerous, mystical battleground of Arthur to a site of sanctuary, comradery, and lawlessness.<ref name="Keen">{{cite book |last=Keen |first=Maurice |date=2001 |title=The Outlaws of Medieval Legend |location=Canada |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] Group |pages=1–8 |isbn=0-203-35004-9}}</ref> Rather than a philanthropic thief of the rich, Robin Hood's tales began in the 15th century as a brutal outlaw, ballads revelling in his violent retaliation to threats. Robin Hood fought to protect himself and his group the [[Merry Men]], regardless the class, age, or gender of their enemy. In stories such as '[[Robin Hood and the Widow's Three Sons]]' and '[[The Tale of Gamelyn]]', the joyful ending is in the hanging of the sheriff and the officials; in '[[Robin Hood and the Monk]]''','' Robin Hood kills a monk and his young helper. Paradoxical to English values of strict adherence to the law and honour, Robin Hood was glorified in ballads and stories for his banishment from society.{{r|Assayed}}

[[Puck (folklore)|Robin Goodfellow]], or Puck, is a shape-changing fairy known for his tricks. Since some English superstition suspected that fairies were demons, 17th century publications such as 'Robin Good-Fellow, his Mad Prankes and Merry Jests' and 'The Anatomy of Melancholy' portrayed him as a demon.<ref name="Simpson & Roud">{{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=Jacqueline |author1-link=Jacqueline Simpson |last2=Roud |first2=Steve |author2-link=Steve Roud |date=2003 |title=A Dictionary of English Folklore |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-172664-4}}</ref>

[[Lubber fiend|Lob]], also called loby, looby, lubbard, lubber, or lubberkin, is the name given to a fairy with a dark raincloud as a body. It has a mischievous character and can describe any fairy-like creature from British folklore. It can be confused with [[Lubber fiend|Lob Lie-By-The-Fire]], a strong, hairy giant which helps humans.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bane |first1=Theresa |author1-link=Theresa Bane |date=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of Fairies in World Folklore and Mythology |publisher=McFarland & Company, Incorporated Publishers |page=219 |isbn=978-0-394-40918-4}}</ref>

=== Stories ===
[[File:Stories of beowulf wiglaf and beowulf.jpg|thumb|183x183px|Beowulf on his deathbed after slaying the dragon that attacked his home. Beside him is [[Wiglaf]], the only soldier to fight with him against the dragon.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of Beowulf: An Anglo-Saxon Epic Poem |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16328/16328-h/16328-h.htm#page_95 |access-date=2022-01-10 |website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref>]]
[[Beowulf]] is an anonymous Old English historical [[Epic poetry|epic]] of 3182 lines which describes the adventures of its titular character, prince Beowulf of [[Geats]]. The story goes that Beowulf slays [[Grendel]], a monster who has tormented the hall of [[Hrothgar]] King of the Danes for twelve years. Grendel's mother seeks to gain revenge and Beowulf slays her also, after which Beowulf becomes king of the Danes himself. After 50 years, Beowulf's people are tormented by a dragon and Beowulf dies while slaying her.{{sfn|Chambers|2010|p=2}} Original speculation was that Beowulf was a Scandinavian epic translated to English, theorised due to the story's Scandinavian settings. However, Beowulf was cemented as an Old English epic through the study that heroes of folklore are not ordinarily natives of the country they save.{{sfn|Chambers|2010|pp=98–100}}

[[Brown Lady of Raynham Hall|The Brown Lady of Raynham]] is a story of the ghost of a woman of [[Norfolk]], Lady Dorothy Walpole. After her adultery was discovered, she was confined to her chambers until death and roamed the halls of [[Raynham Hall|Raynham]], named after the brown brocade she wears. Differing versions of the story attest that she was locked in by her husband, Lord Townsend, or by the Countess of Wharton.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rye |first=W. |date=1877 |title=The Norfolk Antiquarian Miscellany |publisher=Samuel Miller and Co |volume=2 |page=292}}</ref>

The [[Legend of the Mistletoe Bough]] is a ghost story which has been associated with many mansions and stately homes in England. The tale describes how a new bride, playing a game of hide-and-seek during her wedding breakfast, hid in a chest in an attic and was unable to escape. She was not discovered by her family and friends, and suffocated. The body was allegedly found many years later in the locked chest.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mistletoe Bough |url=http://www.users.dialstart.net/~2metres/poetry/mistletoebough/mistletoebough.htm |access-date=10 January 2022 |website=user.dialstart}}</ref>

== Other types of folklore ==

=== Beliefs and motifs ===
[[Standing stone]]s are man-made stone structures made to stand up. Some small standing stones can also be arranged in groups to form miniliths.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gillings |first=Mark |date=2015 |title=Betylmania? - Small Standing Stones and the Megaliths of South-West Britain |journal=[[Oxford Journal of Archaeology]] |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=207–233 |doi=10.1111/ojoa.12056 |url=http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/33451/1/ojoa_12056.pdf }}</ref> Similar to these geological artefacts are [[hill figure]]s. These are figures drawn into the countryside by digging into the ground and sometimes filling it in with a mineral of a contrasting colour. Examples are the [[Cerne Abbas Giant]], the [[Uffington White Horse]], and the [[Long Man of Wilmington]] and are the focus for folktales and beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Petrie |first=Flinders |year=1926 |title=The Hill Figures of England |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003581500057486 |journal=The Antiquaries Journal |volume=7 |pages=540–541 |doi=10.1017/S0003581500057486 |via=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Green Man|The Green Man]] is a description originating in 1939 which describes the engraved sculpture of a face with leaves growing from it in English architecture. His presence symbolises nature, but he is depicted differently according to where he is engraved and who carves him; on a church he may symbolise either inspiration or lust, or he may symbolise an ancient protector of travellers in a forest.<ref>{{cite book |last=Varner |first=Gary |date=2006 |title=Mythic Forest, the Green Man and the Spirit of Nature: The Re-Emergence of the Spirit of Nature from Ancient Times into Modern Society |publisher=[[Algora Publishing]] |pages=5–10 |isbn=1-281-39562-5}}</ref> The phrase originated from 'whifflers' who dressed in leaves or hair to make way for processions during pageants from the 15th to 18th centuries.{{r|Simpson & Roud}}

There was a belief that those born at the [[chime hours]] could see ghosts. The time differed according to region, usually based around the times of monk's prayer which were sometimes marked by a chime.{{r|Simpson & Roud}}

[[Crop circles]] are formations of flattened cereal. While they have been speculated to have mysterious and often extraterrestrial origins, most crop circles have been proven to be hoaxes. Those made by Doug Bower and Dave Chorley across England in 1991 have since started chains of copycats around the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schmidt |first=William E. |date=10 September 1991 |title=2 'Jovial Con Men' Demystify Those Crop Circles in Britain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/10/world/2-jovial-con-men-demystify-those-crop-circles-in-britain.html |url-status=live |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621112748/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/10/world/2-jovial-con-men-demystify-those-crop-circles-in-britain.html |archive-date=21 June 2022}}</ref>

[[Cunning folk]] was a term used to refer to male and female healers, magicians, conjurers, fortune-tellers, potion-makers, exorcists, or thieves. Such people were respected, feared and sometimes hunted for their breadth of knowledge which was suspected as supernatural.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Owen |date=2007 |title=Popular magic: cunning folk in English history |location=London |publisher=Hambledon Continuum |pages=vii–viii |isbn=978-1-84725-036-0}}</ref>

The [[Wild Hunt|wild hunt]] was a description of a menacing group of huntsmen which either rode across the sky or on lonely roads. Their presence was a hallmark of the perception of the countryside as a wild and mystical place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davies |first=Owen |date=11 June 2019 |title=The Wild Hunt in the Modern British Imagination |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0015587X.2018.1493861 |journal=Folklore |volume=130 |issue=2 |pages=175–191 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.2018.1493861 |s2cid=166360154 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]] Online|hdl=1983/4b628a36-120a-4404-bc6d-da2e09347237 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Practices ===
[[File:MaypoleDanceWinterbourneHoughton2006.jpg|thumb|A maypole dance held at Winterbourne Houghton in 2006.]]
On [[May Day]], the first day of May, a tall, decorated pole is put up as a symbol of fertility called a [[maypole]]. The maypole may represents a phallic object impregnating the earth at the end of spring to ensure a bountiful summer, but this association is very late. The maypoles were decorated originally with flowers and carved from the branches of trees about to bloom to symbolise the birth of new life. Eventually the flowers were replaced with ribbons and May day became a day for celebration and dancing in which a [[May Queen|May queen]] and sometimes a [[May King and Queen|May king]] would be crowned to also symbolise fertility.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Victoria |date=2017 |volume=2: Adolescence and Early Adulthood". |title=Celebrating Life Customs around the World: From Baby Showers to Funerals: Adolescence and Early Adulthood |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |pages=219–221 |isbn=978-1-4408-3659-6}}</ref>

A [[Parish Ale|parish ale]] is a type of party in the [[parish]] usually held to fundraise money for a particular purpose.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brewer |first=Ebenezer Cobham |date=2001 |title=Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable |publisher=Wordsworth Editions Ltd. |page=132 |isbn=1-84022-310-3}}</ref>

[[Plough Monday]] was a custom in which, on the first Monday after [[Christmas]], men visited people's doorsteps at night and asked for a token for the holiday. They carried whips and a makeshift [[plough]] and dug up the house's doorstep or scraper if the house refused to give them an item.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jonas |first1=M. C. |last2=Partridge |first2=J. B. |last3=Leather |first3=Ella M. |last4=Potter |first4=F. S. |year=1913 |title=Scraps of English Folklore, VII |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0015587X.1913.9719566 |journal=Folklore |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=234–241 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.1913.9719566 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]] Online}}</ref>

[[Corn dolly|Corn dollies]] are a form of straw work made as part of harvest customs of Europe before the [[World War I|First World War]]. Their use varied according to region: it may have been decorative, an image of pride for the harvest, or a way to mock nearby farms which had not yet collected their harvest. There has been a recent resurgence in their creation led by Minnie Lambeth in the 1950s and 1960s through her book ''A Golden Dolly: The Art, Mystery, and History of Corn Dollies''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=Jacqueline |author1-link=Jacqueline Simpson |last2=Roud |first2=Stephen |author2-link=Stephen Roud |date=2000 |title=A dictionary of English folklore |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryenglis00simp |publication-place=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=79 |isbn=0-19-210019-X |lccn=2001266642}}</ref>

A superstition among children was that, if the first word uttered in the month was "[[Rabbit rabbit rabbit|Rabbit]]!", then that person would have good luck for the rest of the month. Variants include: "rabbit, rabbit, rabbit!", "rabbit, rabbit, white rabbit!", and "white rabbit!".{{r|Simpson & Roud}}

After a person died, a poor person was hired to take on their sins by eating before or after the funeral over their body- a [[sin-eater]]. The sin-eater would hence ensure that the recently deceased would be taken to heaven.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaine |first1=Tom |last2=Davidson |first2=Alan |date=2014 |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |edition=3 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7}}</ref>

=== Items ===
[[Drake's Drum|Sir Francis Drake's Drum]] is a legend about the drum of an English [[admiral]] who raided Spanish treasure fleets and Spanish ports. He was believed to have [[white magic]] which enabled him to turn into a dragon (as hinted by his name, Drake meaning dragon in Latin). When he died, the drum which he brought on his voyage around the world was sung about- that in England's peril, they could strike it and he would come to their aid. Eventually the legend evolved to be that the drum would strike itself in England's peril, and it has been heard struck since.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ditmas |first=E. M. R.|author-link=Edith Ditmas |year=1974 |title=The Way Legends Grow |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1259622 |journal=Folklore |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=244–253 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.1974.9716563 |jstor=1259622 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A [[Hag Stone|hagstone]], also called a holed stone or adder stone, is a type of stone, usually glassy, with a naturally occurring hole through it. Such stones have been discovered by archaeologists in both Britain and Egypt. In England it was used as a counter-charm for [[sleep paralysis]], called hag-riding by tradition.<ref>{{cite book |last=Grose |first=Francis |date=1787 |title=A provincial glossary, with a collection of local proverbs, and popular superstitions |location=London |publisher=S Hooper |page=62}}</ref>

A [[petrifying well]] is a well which, when items are placed into it, they appear to be covered in stone. Items also acquire a stony texture when left in the well for an extended period of time. Examples in England include [[Mother Shipton's Cave]] in [[Knaresborough]] and [[Matlock Bath]] in [[Derbyshire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Rutty |first=John |date=1757 |title=A Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters, comprehending the most celebrated medicinal waters, both cold and hot, of Great-Britain, Ireland, France, Germany, and Italy, and several other parts of the world |location=London |publisher=William Johnston |page=351}}</ref>

== Common folklore ==
* [[Charivari]]
* [[Elfshot]]
* [[Green Man (folklore)|Green Man]]
* [[Merry England]]
* [[Ned Ludd]]
* [[Nursery rhyme]] / [[Mother Goose]]
* [[Pillywiggin]]
* [[Saint George's Day in England]]
* [[Sir Gowther]]
* [[The King of the Cats]]
* [[The Three Dead Kings]]
* [[Tudor myth]]

== Folklore local to specific areas ==
=== Folklore of East Anglia ===
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* [[St. Audrey]]
* [[Babes in the Wood|Babes in the Wood at Wayland Wood]]
* [[Black Shuck|The Black Shuck]] – A [[Black dog (ghost)|Black Dog]]
* [[Borley Rectory]]
* [[Caxton Gibbet]]
* [[Edmund the Martyr|St. Edmund of East Anglia]]
* [[Green children of Woolpit]]
* [[Guthlac of Crowland|St. Guthlac of Croyland]]
* [[Hereward the Wake]]
* Hyter sprites
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* [[Valentine's Day#Folk traditions|Jack Valentine]]
* [[Lantern man]]
* The mermaid of [[Upper Sheringham#All Saint's Church|Upper Sheringham]]
* [[Molly dance]]
* [[King Cole]] and [[Helena of Constantinople|St. Helena]]
* [[Pedlar of Swaffham|The Pedlar of Swaffham]]
* Religious visions at [[Walsingham]]
* [[Tom Hickathrift]]
* [[Turpin's Cave]]
* [[Witch bottle#Witch bottles in England|Witch Bottles]] Bottles filled with nails buried under the hearth to ward off evil spirits.
* [[Gnome]] A small fat creature depicted with a white beard and moustache. (Female: Wombies).
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=== Folklore of London and the South East ===
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* Sir [[Bevis of Hampton]]
* [[Biddenden Maids]]
* [[Bran the Blessed]]'s Head at the [[Tower of London]]
* [[Brutus of Troy]], the legendary founder of London
* [[Clapham Wood Mystery|Clapham Wood]], an area of strange activity
* [[Devil's Jumps, Churt]]
* [[Devil's Jumps, Treyford]]
* [[Devil's Punch Bowl#Local legends|Devil's Punch Bowl]]
* [[50 Berkeley Square|Electric Horror of Berkeley Square]]
* [[Frithuswith|St. Frideswide]]
* [[St Bartholomew-the-Great#Folklore|Ghost of Rahere]]
* [[Gogmagog (giant)|Gog and Magog]], legendary giants and guardians of the [[City of London]]
* [[Hengest]] and [[Horsa]], legendary founders of Saxon England
* [[Herne the Hunter]] – a related to the [[Wild Hunt]]
* [[Highgate Vampire]]
* [[Hoodening]]
* [[Kit's Coty House]]
* [[Lady Lovibond]]
* [[Lazy Laurence]]
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* [[London Bridge is falling down]]
* [[London Stone]]
* [[Lud son of Heli|King Lud]], connected with the [[City of London]]
* [[Mallard Song]]
* [[Mowing-Devil|Mowing-Devil of Hertfordshire]]
* [[Oranges and Lemons]]
* [[The Ratman of Southend]]
* [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane#Hauntings|Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]]
* [[Ravens of the Tower of London]]
* [[Rollright Stones]]
* [[Stockwell ghost]]
* [[Spring Heeled Jack]]
* [[Swan Upping]]
* [[Swearing on the Horns]]
* [[Wayland Smith|Wayland the Smith]]
* [[Yernagate]], the giant guardian of the [[New forest]]
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=== Folklore of the Midlands ===
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* [[Alkborough Turf Maze]]
* [[Belgrave Hall]] and its ghosts
* [[Black Annis]]
* [[Black Lady of Bradley Woods]]
* [[Border Morris]]
* [[Bottle-kicking]]
* [[Byard's Leap]]
* [[Chained Oak]]
* [[The Derby Ram]]
* [[Dun Cow]]
* [[Fulk FitzWarin]]
* [[Godiva]]
* [[Guy of Warwick]]
* [[Haxey Hood Game]]
* [[Jack of Kent]]
* [[Lincoln Imp]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln]]
* [[Madam Pigott]]
* [[Major Oak]]
* [[Mermaid's Pool (Peak District)|Mermaid's Pool]]
* [[Nanny Rutt]]
* [[Old Rectory, Epworth#Epworth Rectory haunting|Old Jeffrey]]
* [[Bardney Abbey|Relics of St. Oswald]]
* [[Robin Hood]]
* [[Royal Shrovetide Football]]
* [[Stiperstones#Cultural references|Stiperstones]]
* [[Tiddy Mun]]
* [[Wise Men of Gotham]]
* [[Witches of Belvoir]]
* The Giant of [[the Wrekin]]
* [[Yallery-Brown]]
{{col-end}}

=== Folklore of Yorkshire and the North East ===
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{{col-break}}
* [[Barghest|The Barghest]]
* [[Cauld Lad of Hylton|The Cauld Lad of Hylton]]
* [[Cuthbert of Lindisfarne|St. Cuthbert]]
* [[Devil's Arrows|The Devil's Arrows]]
* [[Dunnie]]
* [[Duergar]]
* [[The Hedley Kow]]
* [[Jack-In-Irons]]
* [[Jingling Geordie's Hole]]
* [[Halifax Gibbet]]
* [[Kilburn White Horse]]
* John the Jibber<ref>{{cite web | url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsden_Grotto#Ghosts | title=Marsden Grotto }}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=May 2024}}
{{col-break}}
* [[The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh|Laidly Worm]]
* [[Lambton Worm|The Lambton Worm]]
* [[Legend of Upsall Castle]]
* [[Long Sword dance]]
* [[My Own Self]]
* [[Peg Powler]]
* [[Rapper sword]]
* [[Redcap]]
* [[Robin Hood]]
* [[Sedgefield Ball Game]]
* [[Ursula Southeil]]
{{col-end}}

===Folklore of the North West===
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{{col-break}}
* [[Adam Bell]]
* The Wizard of [[Alderley Edge]]
* [[Arthur o' Bower]]
* [[D'ye ken John Peel (song)]]
* [[Folklore of Lancashire]]
* [[Furness Abbey#Folklore and supernatural activity|Furness Abbey]] and its ghosts
* [[Grindylow]]
* [[Gytrash]]
* [[Jenny Greenteeth]]
{{col-break}}
* [[John Middleton (giant)|John Middleton]]
* [[Long Meg and Her Daughters]]
* [[Pendle Witches]]
* [[Samlesbury witches]]
* [[Wild Boar of Westmorland]]
{{col-end}}

=== Folklore of the South West ===
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{{col-break}}
* [[Abbotsbury Garland Day]]
* [[Barber surgeon of Avebury]]
* [[Tom Bawcock]]
* [[Belas Knap]]
* [[Bowerman's Nose]]
* [[Brutus Stone]]
* [[Cerne Abbas Giant]]
* [[Cheese rolling]]
* [[Childe's Tomb]]
* [[Corineus]], legendary founder of [[Cornwall]]
* [[Crazywell Pool]]
* [[Devil's Footprints]]
* [[Dorset Ooser]]
* [[Dunstan|St. Dunstan]] is the origin of the lucky horseshoe
* [[Stonehenge#Folklore|Folklore of Stonehenge]]
* [[Glastonbury]] and [[Glastonbury Abbey|its abbey]]
* [[Glastonbury Thorn]]
* [[Goblin Combe]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Hairy hands]]
* [[Hunky punk]]
* [[Jack the Giant Killer]] and Galligantus
* [[Jan Tregeagle]]
* [[Jay's Grave]]
* [[Lyonesse]]
* [[Moonrakers]], the story of how the inhabitants of Wiltshire got their nickname
* [[Padstow#'Obby 'Oss festival|The Obby Oss of Padstow]]
* [[Pixie]]s
* [[Punkie Night]]
* [[The Great Thunderstorm, Widecombe]]
* [[Three hares]] (Tinners' Rabbits)
* [[Tintagel]], legendary birthplace of [[King Arthur]]
* [[Warren House Inn]]
* [[Widecombe Fair]]
* [[Wookey Hole#Witch of Wookey Hole|Witch of Wookey Hole]]
{{col-end}}

==See also==
* [[Cornish mythology]]
* [[English mythology]]
* [[Once upon a time]]
* [[Scottish mythology]]
* [[Welsh mythology]]

=== Cycles of legend in the British Isles ===
* [[Matter of Britain]]
* [[Matter of England]]

=== Related figures ===
* [[Cecil Sharp]]
* [[Sabine Baring-Gould]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Raymond Wilson |date=2010 |title=Beowulf: An introduction to the study of the poem with a discussion of the stories of Offa and Finn |publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]] |isbn=978-1-4655-1214-7}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* Briggs, K. M. "Possible Mythological Motifs in English Folktales". ''Folklore'' 83, no. 4 (1972): 265–71. Retrieved June 18, 2020. {{JSTOR|1259424}}.
* Williamson, Craig; Kramer, Michael P; Lerner, L. Scott (2011). ''A Feast of Creatures: Anglo-Saxon Riddle-Songs''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-1129-0}}.
* Sax, Boria (2015). "The Magic of Animals: English Witch Trials in the Perspective of Folklore". ''Anthrozoös''. 22: 317–332 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
* Keegan-Phipps, Simon (29 Mar 2017). "Identifying the English: essentialism and multiculturalism in contemporary English folk music". ''Ethnomusicology Forum''. '''26''': 3–25 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
* {{cite book|last1=Opie |first1=Iona |last2=Opie |first2=Peter |date=1987 |title=The lore and language of schoolchildren |url=https://archive.org/details/lorelanguageof00opie |url-access=registration |publication-place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-282059-1 |lccn=87005505 |oclc=1036646141}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Opie |editor-first1=Iona |editor-last2=Opie |editor-first2=Peter |date=1997 |title=The Oxford dictionary of nursery rhymes |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_s0p8 |url-access=registration |publication-place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-860088-7 |lccn=98140995 |oclc=1302157273}}
* Opie, Iona; Tatem, Moira (1992). ''A Dictionary of Superstitions''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-172687-3}}.
* Paynter, William H.; Semmens, Jason (2008). ''The Cornish Witch-finder: William Henry Paynter and the Witchery, Ghosts, Charms and Folklore of Cornwall''. {{ISBN|0-902660-39-X}}.
* Vickery, Roy (1995). ''A dictionary of plant-lore''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-866183-5}}.
* Westwood, Jennifer; Simpson, Jacqueline (2005). ''The Lore of the Land: A Guide to England's Legends, from Spring-heeled Jack to the Witches of Warboys''. Penguin Books. {{ISBN|978-0-14-100711-3}}.
* Wright, Arthur Robinson (2013). ''English Folklore''. Read Books. {{ISBN|978-1-4733-0023-1}}.
* Fee, Christopher R.; Leeming, David Adams (2004). ''Gods, Heroes, & Kings: The Battle for Mythic Britain''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-517403-8}}.

==External links==
* [http://www.presscom.co.uk/talesparts/nrtales.html "Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales"] (1849), by James Halliwell, a discussion on the origin of English folk tales and rhymes.
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17269 "Weather and Folk Lore of Peterborough and District:], by Charles Dack, 1911, from Project Gutenberg
* [http://www.project-iona.co.uk Project-IONA] a repository of folk tales from England and the islands of the North Atlantic
* [http://www.folklore-society.com Folklore Society (UK)]
* [http://www.pretanicworld.com/folklore_folkbelief.html Pretanic World – Folklore and Folkbeliefs]
* [http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk Dartmoor Legends]

{{Commons category|Folklore of England}}

{{Europe topic|Folklore of}}

[[Category:English folklore| ]]
[[Category:European folklore]]