Editing Epenthesis

{{short description|Phonological process involving the addition of one or more sounds to a word}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=April 2009}}
{{Sound change}}
{{IPA notice}}

In [[phonology]], '''epenthesis''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|ˈ|p|ɛ|n|θ|ə|s|ɪ|s|,_|ɛ|-}}; [[Greek language|Greek]] {{wikt-lang|grc|ἐπένθεσις}}) means the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially in the first syllable (''[[prothesis (linguistics)|prothesis]]''), the last syllable (''[[paragoge]]''), or between two syllabic sounds in a word. The opposite process in which one or more sounds are removed is referred to as [[syncope (phonology)|syncope]] or [[elision]].<ref name = "Kim2024">{{Cite book
| veditors=Kim JY, Miatto V, Petrović A, Repetti L
| title = Epenthesis and beyond Recent approaches to insertion in phonology and its interfaces
| place = Berlin
| publisher = Language Science Press
| date = 2024
| format = pdf
| url = http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/469
| doi = 10.5281/zenodo.14193821
| doi-access = free
| isbn = 9783961104932
| last1 = Kim
| first1 = Ji Yea
| last2 = Miatto
| first2 = Veronica
| last3 = Petrović
| first3 = Andrija
| last4 = Repetti
| first4 = Lori
}}
</ref>

==Etymology==
The word ''epenthesis'' comes from {{wikt-lang|en|epi-}} {{Gloss|in addition to}} and ''en-'' {{Gloss|in}} and ''thesis'' {{Gloss|putting}}. Epenthesis may be divided into two types: '''excrescence''' for the addition of a [[consonant]], and for the addition of a [[vowel]], '''svarabhakti''' (in Sanskrit) or alternatively '''anaptyxis''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|ə|p|ˈ|t|ɪ|k|s|ɪ|s}}).

==Uses==
Epenthesis arises for a variety of reasons. The [[phonotactics]] of a given language may discourage vowels in [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] or [[consonant clusters]], and a consonant or vowel may be added to help pronunciation. Epenthesis may be represented in writing, or it may be a feature only of the spoken language.

===Separating vowels===
A consonant may be added to separate vowels in hiatus, as is the case with [[linking and intrusive R]] in English.

* ''drawing'' →  ''draw-'''r'''-ing''

===Bridging consonant clusters===
A consonant may be placed between consonants in a consonant cluster where the [[place of articulation]] is different (such as if one consonant is [[labial consonant|labial]] and the other is [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]).

* ''something'' → ''some'''p'''thing''
*''[[hamster]]'' → ''ham'''p'''ster''
* ''*a-mrotos'' → ''am'''b'''rotos'' (see [[#amrotos|below]])

===Breaking consonant clusters===
A vowel may be placed between consonants to separate them.

*''[[Hamtramck, Michigan|Hamtramck]]''  →  ''Hamtram'''i'''ck''

===Other contexts===
While epenthesis most often occurs between two vowels or two consonants, it can also occur between a vowel and a consonant or at the ends of words. For example, the Japanese prefix {{Nihongo||真〜（ま〜）|ma-|'pure …, complete …'}} transforms regularly to {{Nihongo||真っ〜（まっ〜）|ma'-|(gemination of following consonant)}} when it is followed by a consonant, as in {{Nihongo||真っ白（まっしろ）|masshiro|'pure white'}}. The English suffix {{wikt-lang|en|-t}}, often found in the form {{wikt-lang|en|-st}}, as in {{wikt-lang|en|amongst}} (from {{wikt-lang|en|among}} + {{wikt-lang|en|-st}}), is an example of terminal excrescence.

==Excrescence==
{{See also|Sandhi|Linking and intrusive R|Liaison (French)}}'''Excrescence''' is the epenthesis of a consonant.

===Historical sound change===
* [[Latin]] {{lang|la|tremulare}} > French {{lang|fr|trembler}} ({{Gloss|to tremble}})
* [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|þunor}} > English ''thunder''
* French {{lang|fr|messager}}, {{lang|fr|passager}} > English ''messenger'', ''passenger''
* French {{lang|fr|message}}, {{lang|fr|messager}} > Portuguese {{lang|pt|mensagem}}, {{lang|pt|mensageiro}}
* (Reconstructed) [[Proto-Germanic]] {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*sēaną}} > Old English {{wikt-lang|ang|sāwan}}, Old Saxon {{lang|osx|sāian}} ({{Gloss|to sow}})
* {{Anchor|amrotos}}(Reconstructed) [[Proto-Greek]] {{lang|grk-x-proto|*amrotos}} > [[Ancient Greek]] {{wikt-lang|grc|ἄμβροτος}} {{grc-transl|ἄμβροτος}} ({{Gloss|immortal}}; cf. ''[[ambrosia]]'')
* Latin {{lang|la|homine(m)}} > ''homne'' > ''homre'' > [[Spanish language|Spanish]] {{lang|es|hom'''b'''re}} ({{Gloss|man}})
* Latin {{lang|la|audire(m)}} > ''ouir'' > [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] {{lang|pt|ou'''v'''ir}} ({{Gloss|to hear}})

===Synchronic rule===
In [[French language|French]], {{lang|fr|-t-}} {{IPA|/t/}} is inserted between an [[Inversion (linguistics)|inverted subject and verb]], when the verb ends in a vowel and the subject is a pronoun beginning with a vowel: {{lang|fr|il a}} ('he has') > {{lang|fr|a-t-il}} ('has he'); {{lang|fr|elle s'exclama}} ('she exclaimed') > {{lang|fr|s'exclama-t-elle}} ('exclaimed she'). There is no epenthesis from a historical perspective since the {{lang|fr|a-t}} is derived from Latin {{lang|la|habet}} ('he has'), and so the {{lang|fr|t}} is the original third-person verb inflection. It is incorrect to call it epenthesis unless it is viewed [[synchronic analysis (linguistics)|synchronically]] since the modern basic form of the verb is {{lang|fr|a}} and so the [[psycholinguistic]] process is the addition of {{lang|fr|t}} to the base form.

A similar example is the [[English language|English]] [[indefinite article]] ''a'', which becomes ''an'' before a vowel. It originated from [[Old English]] {{wikt-lang|ang|ān}} ({{Gloss|one, a, an}}), which retained an ''n'' in all positions, so a [[diachrony|diachronic]] analysis would see the original ''n'' disappearing except if a following vowel required its retention: ''an'' > ''a''. However, a synchronic analysis, in keeping with the perception of most native speakers, would (though incorrectly) see it as epenthesis: ''a'' > ''an''.

In [[Dutch language|Dutch]], whenever the suffix {{wikt-lang|nl|-er}} (which has several meanings) is attached to a word already ending in ''-r'', an additional {{lang|nl|-d-}} is inserted in between. For example, the comparative form of the adjective {{wikt-lang|nl|zoet}} ({{Gloss|sweet}}) is {{wikt-lang|nl|zoeter}}, but the comparative of {{wikt-lang|nl|zuur}} ({{Gloss|sour}}) is {{wikt-lang|nl|zuur'''d'''er}} and not the expected **{{lang|nl|zurer}}. Similarly, the agent noun of {{wikt-lang|nl|verkopen}} ({{Gloss|to sell}}) is {{wikt-lang|nl|verkoper}} ({{Gloss|salesperson}}), but the agent noun of {{wikt-lang|nl|uitvoeren}} ({{Gloss|to perform}}) is {{wikt-lang|nl|uitvoer'''d'''er}} ({{Gloss|performer}}).

===Variable rule===
{{further|Prince–prints merger}}
In English, a [[stop consonant]] is often added as a transitional sound between the parts of a nasal + fricative sequence:

* English ''hamster'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|æ|m|s|t|ər}} often pronounced with an added ''p'' sound, [[General American|GA]]: {{IPA|[ˈhɛəmpstɚ]}} or [[Received Pronunciation|RP]]: {{IPA|[ˈhampstə]}}
* English ''warmth'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|ɔr|m|θ}} often pronounced with an added ''p'' sound, GA: {{IPA|[ˈwɔɹmpθ]}} or RP: {{IPA|[ˈwɔːmpθ]}}
* English ''fence'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ɛ|n|s}} often pronounced {{IPA|[ˈfɛnts]}}

===Poetic device===
* Latin {{lang|la|reliquiās}} {{Gloss|remnants, survivors}} (accusative plural) > poetic {{lang|la|relliquiās}}

The three short syllables in {{lang|la|reliquiās}} do not fit into [[dactylic hexameter]] because of the [[dactyl (poetry)|dactyl]]'s limit of two short syllables so the first syllable is lengthened by adding another ''l''. However, the pronunciation was often not written with double ''ll'', and may have been the normal way of pronouncing a word starting in ''rel-'' rather than a poetic modification.

===In Japanese===
A limited number of words in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] use epenthetic consonants to separate vowels. An example is the word {{Nihongo||[[wikt:春雨|春雨]]（はるさめ）|harusame|'spring rain'}}, a compound of {{Lang|ja-latn|haru}} and {{Lang|ja-latn|ame}} in which an {{IPA|/s/}} is added to separate the final {{IPA|/u/}} of ''{{Lang|ja-latn|haru}}'' and the initial {{IPA|/a/}} of ''{{Lang|ja-latn|ame}}''. That is a ''synchronic'' analysis. As for a diachronic (historical) analysis, since epenthetic consonants are not used regularly in modern Japanese, the epenthetic {{IPA|/s/}} could be from [[Old Japanese]]. It is also possible that Old Japanese /ame<sub>2</sub>/ was once pronounced */same<sub>2</sub>/; the {{IPA|/s/}} would then be not epenthetic but simply an archaic pronunciation. Another example is {{Nihongo||[[wikt:小雨|小雨]]（こさめ）|kosame|'light rain'}}.

A complex example of epenthesis is {{Nihongo||[[wikt:真っ青|真っ青]]（まっさお）|massao|'deep blue, ghastly pale'}}, from {{Nihongo||[[wikt:真|真]]〜（ま〜）|ma-|'pure, complete'}} + {{Nihongo||[[wikt:青|青]]（あお）|ao|'blue'}}. It exhibits epenthesis on both morphemes: {{Nihongo||真〜（ま〜）|ma-}} → {{Nihongo||真っ〜（まっ〜）|ma'-|(gemination of following consonant)}} is common (occurring before a consonant), and {{Nihongo||青（あお）|ao}} → {{Nihongo||青（さお）|sao}} occurs only in the example; it can be analyzed as {{Transliteration|ja|maao}} → {{Transliteration|ja|masao}} (intervocalic) → {{Transliteration|ja|massao}}; akin to {{Nihongo||[[wikt:霧雨|霧雨]]（きりさめ）|kirisame|'drizzle, light rain'}} from {{Nihongo||[[wikt:霧|霧]]（きり）|kiri|'fog, mist'}} + {{Nihongo||[[wikt:雨|雨]]（あめ）|ame|'rain'}}.

One [[hypothesis]] argues that Japanese {{IPA|/r/}} developed "as a default, epenthetic consonant in the intervocalic position".{{sfn|Labrune|2012|loc=3.13 /r/, pp. 92–95, citing unpublished "The phonology of Japanese /r/: a panchronic account" by same author, originally from Ph.D. thesis ''Le statut phonologique de /r/ en japonais et en coréen : histoire, typologie, structure interne des segments'' ["The Phonological Status of /r/ In Japanese and in Korean: History, Typology, Internal Structure of Segments"], Paris 7 University, 1993}}

{{Anchor|Anap}}

==Anaptyxis ==
Epenthesis of a vowel is known as '''anaptyxis''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|ə|p|ˈ|t|ɪ|k|s|ɪ|s}}, from Greek {{lang|grc|ἀνάπτυξις}} {{Gloss|unfolding}}). Some accounts distinguish between "intrusive" optional vowels, vowel-like releases of consonants as phonetic detail, and true epenthetic vowels that are required by the phonotactics of the language and are [[acoustics|acoustically]] identical with [[phoneme|phonemic]] vowels.

===Historical sound change===
====End of word====
Many languages insert a so-called ''prop vowel'' at the end of a word, often as a result of the common sound change where vowels at the end of a word are deleted. For example, in the [[Gallo-Romance languages]], a prop [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ə/}} was added when final non-open vowels were dropped leaving /Cr/ clusters at the end, e.g., Latin {{Lang|la|nigrum}} '(shiny) black' > *{{IPA|[ˈnegro]}} > [[Old French]] {{Lang|fro|negre}} {{IPA|/ˈnegrə/}} 'black' (thus avoiding the impermissible {{IPA|/negr/}}, cf. {{Lang|la|carrum}} > {{Lang|fr|char}} 'cart').

====Middle of word====
Similarly as above, a vowel may be inserted in the middle of a word to resolve an impermissible word-final consonant cluster. An example of this can be found in [[Lebanese Arabic]], where {{IPA|/ˈʔaləb/|lang=apc}} 'heart' corresponds to [[Modern Standard Arabic]] {{lang|ar|قلب|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/qalb/|lang=arb}} and [[Egyptian Arabic]] {{IPA|/ʔælb/|lang=arz}}. In the development of [[Old English]], [[Proto-Germanic]] {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*akraz}} 'field, acre' would have ended up with an impermissible {{IPA|/kr/}} final cluster ({{Lang|gem-x-proto|*æcr}}), so it was resolved by inserting an {{IPA|/e/}} before the [[rhotic consonant]]: {{wikt-lang|ang|æcer}} (cf. the use of a [[syllabic consonant]] in [[Gothic language|Gothic]] {{wikt-lang|got-Latn|akrs}}).

Vowel insertion in the middle of a word can be observed in the history of the [[Slavic languages]], which had a preference for [[open syllable]]s in medieval times. An example of this is the [[Proto-Slavic]] form {{lang|sla-x-proto|*gordŭ}} 'town', in which the [[East Slavic languages]] inserted an epenthetic [[Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony|copy vowel]] to open the [[closed syllable]], resulting in {{lang|orv|городъ}} ({{Transliteration|orv|gorodŭ}}), which became {{wikt-lang|ru|город}} ({{Transliteration|ru|gorod}}) in modern Russian and Ukrainian. Other Slavic languages used [[metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] for the vowel and the syllable-final consonant, producing *''grodŭ'' in this case, as seen in Polish {{lang|pl|gród}}, [[Old Church Slavonic]] {{Lang|cu|градъ}} {{Lang|cu-latn|gradŭ}}, Serbo-Croatian {{lang|sh|grad}} and Czech {{lang|cs|hrad}}.

Another environment can be observed in the history of Modern [[Persian language|Persian]], in which former word-initial consonant clusters, which were still extant in [[Middle Persian]], are regularly broken up: Middle Persian {{Lang|pal-latn|brādar}} 'brother' > modern [[Iranian Persian]] {{lang|pes|برادر|rtl=yes}} {{Transliteration|pes|barādar}} {{IPA|/bærɑˈdær/|lang=pes}}, Middle Persian {{Lang|pal-latn|stūn}} 'column' > [[Early New Persian]] {{lang|fa|ستون|rtl=yes}} {{Transliteration|fa|sutūn}} > modern Iranian Persian {{lang|pes|ستون|rtl=yes}} {{Transliteration|pes|sotun}} {{IPA|/soˈtun/|lang=pes}}.

In Spanish, as a phonetic detail, it is usual to find a [[schwa]] vowel in sequences of a consonant followed by a flap. For instance, {{lang|es|vinagre}} 'vinegar' may be {{IPA|[biˈnaɣɾe]|lang=es}} but also {{IPA|[biˈnaɣᵊɾe]|lang=es}}. {{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Many [[Indo-Aryan language]]s carry an inherent vowel after each consonant. For example, in [[Assamese language|Assamese]], the inherent vowel is "o" ({{Lang|as|অ}}), while in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]], it is "a" ({{Lang|hi|अ}}). Sanskrit words like {{Lang|sa-latn|maaŋsa}} ({{Gloss|meat}}, {{Lang|sa|মাংস}}), {{Lang|sa-latn|ratna}} ({{Gloss|jewel}}, {{Lang|sa|ৰত্ন}}), {{Lang|sa-latn|yatna}} ({{Gloss|effort}}, {{Lang|sa|যত্ন}}), {{Lang|sa-latn|padma}} ({{Gloss|lotus}}, {{Lang|sa|পদ্ম}}), {{Lang|sa-latn|harsha}} ({{Gloss|joy}}, {{Lang|sa|হৰ্ষ}}), {{Lang|sa-latn|dvaara}} ({{Gloss|door}}, {{Lang|sa|দ্বাৰ}}) etc. become {{Lang|as-latn|moŋoh}} ({{Lang|as|মাংস}} > {{Lang|as|মঙহ}}), {{Lang|as-latn|roton}} ({{Lang|as|ৰত্ন}} > {{Lang|as|ৰতন}}), {{Lang|as-latn|zoton}} ({{Lang|as|যত্ন}} > {{Lang|as|যতন}}), {{Lang|as-latn|podum}} ({{Lang|as|পদ্ম}} > {{Lang|as|পদুম}}), {{Lang|as-latn|horix}} ({{Lang|as|হৰ্ষ}} > {{Lang|as|হৰিষ}}), {{Lang|as-latn|duwar}} ({{Lang|as|দ্বাৰ}} > {{Lang|as|দুৱাৰ}}) etc. in Assamese.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Deka|first=Dharma Singha|title=Rosona Bisitra|publisher=Assam Book Depot|year=2019|isbn=978-93-82384-00-7|location=[[Guwahati]]|pages=3–4}}</ref> Other, non-[[Tatsama]] words also undergo anaptyxis, for example, the English word ''glass'' becomes {{Lang|as-latn|gilas}} ({{Lang|as|গিলাছ}}).

====Beginning of word====
In the [[Western Romance languages]], a prothetic vowel was inserted at the beginning of any word that began with {{IPA|/s/}} and another consonant, e.g. Latin {{lang|la|spatha}} 'two-edged sword, typically used by cavalry' becomes the normal word for 'sword' in Romance languages with an inserted {{IPA|/e/}}: Spanish/Portuguese {{lang|es|espada}}, Catalan {{lang|ca|espasa}}, Old French {{lang|fro|espede}} > modern {{lang|fr|épée}} (see also {{wikt-lang|fr|espadon}} '[[swordfish]]').

French in fact presents three layers in the vocabulary in which initial vowel epenthesis is or is not applied, depending on the time a word came into the language:

* insertion of epenthetic {{IPA|/e/}} in inherited and commonly-used learned and semi-learned words, which then drop the following {{IPA|/s/}} after the medieval period: Latin {{lang|la|stēlla, stēla}} > [[Old French]] {{lang|fro|esteile}} > modern {{lang|fr|étoile}} 'star', {{lang|la|studium}} > Old French {{lang|fro|estude}} > modern {{lang|fr|étude}} 'study', {{lang|la|schola}} > OF {{lang|fro|escole}} > modern {{lang|fr|école}} 'school'
* insertion of {{IPA|/e/}} and keeping {{IPA|/s/}} in learned words borrowed during the [[Middle Ages]] or the [[Renaissance]]: {{lang|la|speciēs}} > {{lang|fr|espèce}}, {{lang|la|spatium}} > {{lang|fr|espace}}
* then in the modern period, {{IPA|/e/}} is not inserted and uncommon old learned borrowings are remolded to look more like Latin: {{lang|la|scholāris}} > {{lang|fr|scolaire}}, {{lang|la|spatiālis}} > {{lang|fr|spatial}}, {{lang|la|speciālis}} > learned Old French {{lang|fro|especiel}} > remolded to modern {{lang|fr|spécial}}

Similarly, at some point in the [[Proto-Armenian language]] and [[Classical Armenian]], the prothetic vowel {{Lang|xcl|ե}} was placed at the beginning of the word before the sound {{Lang|xcl|ր}}, leading to words like {{Lang|xcl|երախ}} ({{Gloss|animal mouth}}, {{Lang|xcl-latn|erax}}) from Iranian {{Lang|ira-latn|rax}} ({{Gloss|animal mouth}}), or {{Lang|xcl|երազ}} ({{Gloss|dream}}, {{Lang|xcl-latn|eraz}}) from Iranian {{Lang|ira-latn|raz}} ({{Gloss|mystery}}).

===Grammatical rule===
Epenthesis often breaks up a [[consonant cluster]] or vowel sequence that is not permitted by the [[phonotactics]] of a language. Regular or semi-regular epenthesis commonly occurs in languages with [[affix]]es. For example, a [[reduced vowel]] {{IPA|/ɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ə/}} (here abbreviated as {{IPA|/ᵻ/}}) is inserted before the English plural suffix {{IPA|-/z/}} and the past tense suffix {{IPA|-/d/}} when the root ends in a similar consonant: ''glass'' → ''glasses'' {{IPA|/ˈɡlæsᵻz/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɡlɑːsᵻz/}}; ''bat'' → ''batted'' {{IPA|/ˈbætᵻd/}}. However, this is a [[Synchrony and diachrony|synchronic]] analysis as the vowel was originally present in the suffix but has been lost in most words.

===Borrowed words===
Vocalic epenthesis typically occurs when words are borrowed from a language that has consonant clusters or [[syllable coda]]s that are not permitted in the borrowing language.

Languages use various vowels, but schwa is quite common when it is available:

* [[Hebrew]] uses a single vowel, the [[schwa]] (pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in [[Israeli Hebrew]]).{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]] generally uses {{IPA|/ɯ/}} except after {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}}, when it uses {{IPA|/o/}}, and after {{IPA|/h/}}, when it uses an [[echo vowel]]. For example, English ''cap'' becomes {{lang|ja|キャップ}} {{IPA|/kjappɯ/|lang=ja}} in Japanese; English ''street'', {{lang|ja|ストリート}} {{IPA|/sɯtoɺiːto/|lang=ja}}; the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name {{lang|nl|Gogh}}, {{lang|ja|ゴッホ}} {{IPA|/ɡohho/|lang=ja}}; and the [[German language|German]] name {{lang|de|Bach}}, {{lang|ja|バッハ}} {{IPA|/bahha/|lang=ja}}.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
* [[Korean language|Korean]] uses {{IPA|/ɯ/}} in most cases. {{IPA|/i/}} is used after borrowed {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, or {{IPA|/ç/}}, although {{IPA|/u/}} may also be used after borrowed {{IPA|/ʃ/}} depending on the source language. {{IPA|/u/}} is used when {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is followed by a consonant or when a syllable ends with {{IPA|/ɲ/}}. For example, English ''strike'' becomes {{lang|ko|스트라이크}} {{IPA|/sɯ.tʰɯ.ɾa.i.kʰɯ/|lang=ko}}, with three epenthetic {{IPA|/ɯ/}} vowels and a split of English diphthong {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} into two syllables.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
* [[Brazilian Portuguese]] uses {{IPA|/i/}}, which, in most dialects, triggers [[palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of a preceding {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/d/}}: ''nerd'' > {{IPA|/ˈnɛʁdʒi/|lang=pt-br}}; ''stress'' > {{IPA|/isˈtɾɛsi/|lang=pt-br}}; ''McDonald's'' > {{IPA|/mɛkiˈdonawdʒis/|lang=pt-br}} with normal [[l-vocalization|vocalization]] of {{IPA|/l/}} to {{IPA|/w/}}. Most speakers pronounce borrowings with [[spelling pronunciation]]s, and others try to approximate the nearest equivalents in Portuguese of the phonemes in the original language. The word ''stress'' became ''[[:pt:Estresse|estresse]]'' as in the example above.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
* [[Classical Arabic]] does not allow clusters at the beginning of a word, and typically uses {{IPA|/i/}} to break up such clusters in borrowings: Latin {{wikt-lang|la|strāta}} > {{wikt-lang|ar|صِرَاط}} {{IPA|/sˤiraːtˤ/|lang=ar}} 'street'. In [[Modern Standard Arabic]] and [[Egyptian Arabic]], copy vowels are often used as well, e.g. English/French ''[[klaxon]]'' (car horn) > Egyptian Arabic {{Lang|arz|كلكس|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/kæˈlæks/|lang=arz}} 'car horn', but note French {{Lang|fr|blouse}} > Egyptian Arabic {{Lang|arz|بلوزة|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/beˈluːzæ/|lang=arz}} (where {{IPA|/e/}} corresponds to Modern Standard Arabic {{IPA|/i/}}). Many other modern varieties such as [[North Levantine Arabic]] and [[Moroccan Arabic]] allow word-initial clusters, however.
*[[Persian language|Persian]] also does not allow clusters at the beginning of a word and typically uses {{IPA|/æ/}} to break up such clusters in borrowings except between {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/t/}}, when  {{IPA|/o/}} is added.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] does not allow clusters at the beginning of a word with an {{IPA|/s/}} in them and adds ''e-'' to such words: Latin {{lang|la|species}} > {{lang|es|especie}}, English ''stress'' > {{lang|es|estrés}}.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] prefixes [[close vowel]]s to loanwords with [[initial (linguistics)|initial]] [[consonant cluster|cluster]]s of [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] [[fricative]]s followed by another consonant: {{lang|tr|Isparta}} < Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|Σπάρτη}} ({{Transliteration|grc|Sparti}}), {{lang|tr|setuskur}} < ''set screw'', {{lang|tr|uskumru}} < Greek {{wikt-lang|el|σκουμπρί}} ({{Transliteration|el|skoúmbri}}), {{lang|tr|Üsküdar}} < Byzantine Greek {{lang|grc|Σκουτάριον}} ({{Transliteration|grc|Skoutárion}}), {{lang|tr|istimbot}} < ''steamboat'', {{lang|tr|İskoçya}} < ''Scotland'', {{lang|tr|istavrit}} < Greek {{lang|el|σταυροειδής}} ({{Transliteration|el|stavroïdís}}),  {{lang|tr|İzmir}} < Greek {{lang|el|Σμύρνη}} ({{Transliteration|el|Zmírni}}). The practice is no longer productive as of late 20th century and a few such words have changed back: {{lang|tr|spor}} < {{lang|tr|ıspor}} < French {{wikt-lang|fr|sport}}.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===Informal speech===
Epenthesis most often occurs within unfamiliar or complex consonant clusters. For example, in English, the name ''Dwight'' is commonly pronounced with an epenthetic [[schwa]] between the {{IPA|/d/}} and the {{IPA|/w/}} ({{IPA|[dəˈwaɪt]}}), and many speakers insert a schwa between the {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} of ''realtor''.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/glossonomia/Glossonomia/Glossonomia_Podcast/Entries/2010/3/15_Episode_7__Schwa_%5B%5D.html |title=Glossonomia: Episode 7: Schwa [ə] |date=March 15, 2010 |last=Thompson |first=Phil |last2=Armstrong |first2=Eric |type=Podcast |publisher=[[York University]] |access-date=March 31, 2024}}</ref> [[Irish English]] and [[Scottish English]] are some of the dialects that may insert a schwa between {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} in words like ''film'' ({{IPA|[ˈfɪləm]}}) under the influence of [[Celtic languages]], a phenomenon that also occurs in [[Indian English]] due to the influence of [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindi]].

Epenthesis is sometimes used for humorous or childlike effect. For example, the cartoon character [[Yogi Bear]] says "pic-a-nic basket" for ''picnic basket''. Another example is found in the chants of [[England]] football fans in which England is usually rendered as {{IPA|[ˈɪŋɡələnd]}} or the pronunciation of ''athlete'' as "ath-e-lete". Some apparent occurrences of epenthesis, however, have a separate cause: the pronunciation of ''nuclear'' as ''{{Sic|nucular|hide=yes}}'' ({{IPA|/ˈn(j)ukjəlɚ/}}) in some North American dialects arises out of analogy with other -''cular'' words (''binocular'', ''particular'', etc.) rather than from epenthesis.

In colloquial registers of Brazilian Portuguese, {{IPA|[i]}} is sometimes inserted between consonant clusters except those with {{IPA|/l/}} ({{lang|pt-br|atleta}}), {{IPA|/ɾ/}} ({{lang|pt-br|prato}}) or syllable-ending {{IPA|/s/}} ({{lang|pt-br|pasta}}; note syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ʃ]}} in a number of dialects). Examples would be {{lang|pt-br|tsunami}} {{IPA|/tʃisuˈnami/|lang=pt-br}}, {{lang|pt-br|advogado}} {{IPA|/adʒivoˈɡadu/|lang=pt-br}} and {{lang|pt-br|abdômen}} {{IPA|[abiˈdomẽj]|lang=pt-br}}. Some dialects also use {{IPA|[e]}}, which is [[accent (dialect)#Social factors|deemed as stereotypical]] of people from lower classes, such as those arriving from [[rural flight]] in internal migrations to cities such as [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brasília]] and [[São Paulo]].

===In Finnish===
In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], there are two epenthetic vowels and two nativization vowels. One epenthetic vowel is the [[echo vowel|preceding vowel]], found in the [[illative case]] ending {{lang|fi|-(h)*n}}: {{lang|fi|maa}} → {{lang|fi|maahan}}, {{lang|fi|talo}} → {{lang|fi|taloon}}. The second is {{IPA|[e]}}, connecting stems that have historically been consonant stems to their case endings: {{lang|fi|nim+n}} → {{lang|fi|nimen}}.

In Standard Finnish, consonant clusters may not be broken by epenthetic vowels; foreign words undergo consonant deletion rather than addition of vowels: {{lang|fi|ranta}} ({{Gloss|shore}}) from Proto-Germanic {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*strandō}}. However, modern loans may not end in consonants. Even if the word, such as a personal name, is native, a [[paragoge|paragogic vowel]] is needed to connect a consonantal case ending to the word. The vowel is {{IPA|/i/}}: {{lang|fi|(Inter)net}} → {{lang|fi|netti}}, or in the case of personal name, {{lang|fi|Bush}} + {{lang|fi|-sta}} → {{lang|fi|Bushista}} {{Gloss|about Bush}} ([[elative case]]).

Finnish has [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]ic consonants: {{lang|fi|l}}, {{lang|fi|h}} and {{lang|fi|n}} are of interest. In Standard Finnish, they are slightly intensified before a consonant in a medial cluster: {{lang|fi|-'''h'''j-}}. Some dialects, like [[Savonian dialects|Savo]] and [[Finnish language#Western dialects|Ostrobothnia]]n, have epenthesis instead and use the preceding vowel in clusters of type {{lang|fi|-l[[Consonant|C]]-}} and {{lang|fi|-h[[Consonant|C]]-}}, in Savo also {{lang|fi|-nh-}}. (In Finnish linguistics, the phenomenon is often referred to as {{lang|fi|švaa}}; the same word can also mean {{Gloss|schwa}}, but it is not a [[phoneme]] in Finnish so there is usually no danger of confusion.)

For example, {{lang|fi|Pohjanmaa}} {{Gloss|Ostrobothnia}} → {{lang|fi|Pohojammaa}}, {{lang|fi|ryhmä}} → {{lang|fi|ryhymä}}, and Savo {{lang|fi|vanha}} → {{lang|fi|vanaha}}. Ambiguities may result: {{lang|fi|salmi}} {{Gloss|strait}} vs. {{lang|fi|[[salami]]}}. (An exception is that in Pohjanmaa, {{lang|fi|-lj-}} and {{lang|fi|-rj-}} become {{lang|fi|-li-}} and {{lang|fi|-ri-}}, respectively: {{lang|fi|kirja}} → {{lang|fi|kiria}}. Also, in a small region in Savo, {{IPA|/e/}} is used instead.)<ref name="Savolainen" />

===In constructed languages===
[[Lojban]], a [[constructed language]] that seeks [[logic]]ally-oriented grammatical and phonological structures, uses a number of consonant clusters in its words. Since it is designed to be as universal as possible, it allows a type of anaptyxis called "buffering" to be used if a speaker finds a cluster difficult or impossible to pronounce. A vowel sound that is nonexistent in Lojban (usually /ɪ/ as in {{Gloss|hit}}) is added between two consonants to make the word easier to pronounce. Despite altering the phonetics of a word, the use of buffering is completely ignored by grammar. Also, the vowel sound used must not be confused with any existing Lojban vowel.

An example of buffering in Lojban is that if a speaker finds the cluster {{IPA|[ml]}} in the word {{wikt-lang|jbo|mlatu}} ({{Gloss|cat}}) (pronounced {{IPA|['mlatu]|lang=jbo}}) hard or impossible to pronounce, the vowel {{IPA|[ɐ]}} can be pronounced between the two consonants, resulting in the form {{IPA|[mɐˈlatu]|lang=jbo}}. Nothing changes grammatically, including the word's spelling and the [[syllabication]].

==In sign language==
A type of epenthesis in [[sign language]] is known as "movement epenthesis" and occurs, most commonly, during the boundary between signs while the hands move from the posture required by the first sign to that required by the next.<ref name="Valli">{{citation|title=Linguistics of American Sign Language|year=2011|first1=Scott|last1=Liddell|first2=Robert|last2=Johnson|editor1-first=Clayton|editor1-last=Valli|editor2-first=Ceil|editor2-last=Lucas|editor-link1=Clayton Valli|editor-link2=Ceil Lucas|editor3-first=Kristin|editor3-last=Mulrooney|editor4-first=Miako|display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Villanueva|publisher=Gallaudet University Press|location=Washington, DC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3j26MwEACAAJ&q=editions:Hv6NxJ0MotIC|pages=315–316|chapter=American Sign Language: The Phonological Base|edition=5|isbn=9781563685071}}</ref>

==Related phenomena==
* [[Infix]]ation: the insertion of a [[morpheme]] within a word
* [[Metathesis (linguistics)|Metathesis]]: the reordering of sounds within a word
* [[Paragoge]]: the addition of a sound to the end of a word
* [[Prothesis (linguistics)|Prothesis]]: the addition of a sound to the beginning of a word
* [[Tmesis]]: the inclusion of a whole word within another one

==See also==
{{Div col}}
* [[Assibilation]]
* [[Assimilation (linguistics)|Assimilation]]
* [[Coarticulation]] ([[Co-articulated consonant]], [[Secondary articulation]])
* [[Consonant harmony]]
* [[Crasis]]
* [[Dissimilation]]
* [[Labialisation]]
* [[Language game]]
* [[Lenition]]
* [[Metathesis (linguistics)|Metathesis]]
* [[Palatalization (sound change)|Palatalization]]
* [[Pharyngealisation]]
* [[Sandhi]]
* [[Velarization]]
* [[Vowel harmony]]
{{Div col end}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|refs=
*<ref name="Savolainen">
{{cite web
|url = http://www.internetix.fi/opinnot/opintojaksot/8kieletkirjallisuus/aidinkieli/murteet/valivok.html
|title = Välivokaali
|access-date = 2010-08-26
|last = Savolainen
|first = Erkki
|work = Suomen murteet
|year = 1998
|publisher = Internetix
|language = fi
}}</ref>
}}

== General and cited sources ==
* {{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Terry |year=1997 |title=An Introduction to Historical Linguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi03edcrow |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-558378-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Labrune |first=Laurence |year=2012 |title=The Phonology of Japanese |url=http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199545834.do |series=The Phonology of the World's Languages |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954583-4}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041028064427/http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/Figures/E/epenthesis.htm Definition at BYU]

[[Category:Figures of speech]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Phonotactics]]