Editing Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

{{Short description|Species of pathogenic bacterium}}
{{About|the disease called "erysipelas" in livestock and wild animals|the disease called "erysipelas" in humans|erysipelas}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Diseases of Swine 31-1.png
| image_caption = Cellular and colonial morphology of ''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae''
| taxon = Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
| authority = [[Walter Migula|Migula]], 1900
}}

'''''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'''''  is a [[Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive]], [[catalase]]-negative, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming, nonacid-fast, nonmotile  [[Bacteria|bacterium]]. Distributed worldwide, ''E. rhusiopathiae'' is primarily considered an animal [[pathogen]], causing the disease known as '''erysipelas''' that may affect a wide range of animals. Pigs, turkeys and laying hens are most commonly affected, but cases have been reported in other mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles.<ref name=Brooke_1999>{{cite journal |author1=C. Josephine Brooke |author2=Thomas V. Riley |title=''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'': bacteriology, epidemiology and clinical manifestations of an occupational pathogen |journal=[[Journal of Medical Microbiology]] |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=789–799 |year=1999 |pmid=10482289 |doi=10.1099/00222615-48-9-789|doi-access=free }}</ref> In pigs, the disease is known as diamond skin disease. The bacterium can also cause [[Zoonosis|zoonotic]] infections in humans, called [[erysipeloid]]. The human disease called [[erysipelas]] is not caused by ''E. rhusiopathiae'', but by various members of the genus ''[[Streptococcus]]''.

==History==
''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'' was first isolated by [[Robert Koch]] in 1876. A few years later the bacterium was recognised as the cause of erysipelas in pigs and in 1884 the organism was first established as a human pathogen.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Dworkin |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Falkow |editor2-first=Stanley |editor3-last=Rosenberg |editor3-first=Eugene |editor4-last=Schleifer |editor4-first=Karl-Heinz |editor5-last=Stackebrandt |editor5-first=Erko |title=Bacteria: Firmicutes, Cyanobacteria |date=2006 |publisher=Springer |location=New York, NY |isbn=0387254943 |pages=492–510 |edition= 3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenbach |first1=F.J. |title=Experimentelle, morphologische und klinische Studie über die krankheitserregenden Mikrooganismen des Schweinerotlaufs, des Erysipeloids und der Mäusesepsis |journal=Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten |date=1909 |volume=63 |pages=343–371|doi=10.1007/BF02227897 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2132783 }}</ref> In 1909, the genus was named ''Erysipelothrix''. In 1918 the name ''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'' was introduced and in 1920 it was designated as the type species of the genus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Winslow |first1=CE |last2=Broadhurst |first2=J |last3=Buchanan |first3=RE |last4=Krumwiede |first4=C |last5=Rogers |first5=LA |last6=Smith |first6=GH |title=The Families and Genera of the Bacteria: Final Report of the Committee of the Society of American Bacteriologists on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types. |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |date=May 1920 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=191–229 |pmid=16558872|pmc=378870 }}</ref>

==Epidemiology==
''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'' may be isolated from soil, food scraps, and water contaminated by infected animals. It can survive in soil for several weeks. In pig faeces, the survival period of this bacterium ranges from 1 to 5 months.<ref name=Veraldi_2009>{{cite journal |author1=S. Veraldi |author2=V. Girgenti |author3=F. Dassoni |author4=R. Gianotti |title=''Erysipeloid: a review'' |journal=[[Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dermatology]] |volume=34|issue=8 |pages=859–862 |year=2009|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2230.2009.03444.x |pmid=19663854 }}</ref>
Erysipeloid is transmitted by several animals, particularly pigs, in which the disease (very common in the past) has several names (swine erysipelas in English, ''rouget du porc'' in French and ''mal rossino'' in Italian). [[Hives|Urticaria]]-like lesions, [[arthralgia]], arthritis, [[endocarditis]], and [[sepsis]] are the most characteristic features of swine erysipelas. Other animals that can transmit the infection are sheep, rabbits, chickens, turkeys, ducks, emus, scorpion fish, and lobsters.
Erysipeloid is an occupational disease, mainly found in animal breeders, veterinarians, slaughterhouse workers, [[Fur clothing#Processing of fur|furriers]], butchers, fishermen, fishmongers, housewives, cooks, and grocers. One epidemic of erysipeloid was described in workers involved in manufacturing buttons from animal bone.<ref name="Veraldi_2009"/> The disease is of economic importance to the pig industries of North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.<ref name=Wang_2010>{{cite journal |author1=Q. Wang |author2=B.J. Chang |author3=Th.V. Riley |title=''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'' |journal=[[Journal of Veterinary Microbiology]] |volume=140|issue=3–4 |pages=405–417 |year=2010|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.08.012 |pmid=19733019 }}</ref>

==Clinical disease==
=== Humans ===
In humans, ''E. rhusiopathiae'' infections most commonly present in a mild [[Skin|cutaneous]] form known as [[erysipeloid]].<ref name=Brooke_1999 /> Less commonly, it can result in sepsis; this scenario is often associated with endocarditis. Erysipeloid, also named in the past Rosenbach's disease, Baker–Rosenbach disease, and pseudoerysipelas, is a bacterial infection of the skin caused by traumatic penetration of ''E. rhusiopathiae''.<ref name=Veraldi_2009 />

It occurs most commonly as an occupational disease. The disease is characterized clinically by an erythematous oedema, with well-defined and raised borders, usually localized to the back of one hand and/or fingers. The palms, forearms, arms, face, and legs are rarely involved.<ref name="Veraldi_2009"/> Vesicular, bullous, and erosive lesions may also be present. The lesion may be asymptomatic or accompanied by mild pruritus, pain, and fever.

=== Animals ===
''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'' may infect a wide range of animals, with or without causing the clinical disease that in animals is termed erysipelas.

==== Pigs ====
In [[pig]]s, three forms of erysipelas may be seen; acute, subacute or chronic. The acute form is characterised by high fever, anorexia, depression and death of one or more animals. Also, diamond-shaped cutaneous lesions may be seen, these are [[pathognomonic]] for erysipelas in pigs. During subacute erysipelas, similar but milder signs than in the acute form are seen. The chronic form may follow from acute or subacute cases or subclinical infections. The chronic form is mostly characterised by arthritis but sudden deaths, due to valvular lesions in the heart, may occur.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Opriessnig |first1=T |last2=Wood |first2=RL |editor1-last=Zimmerman|editor1-first=Jeffrey J |editor2-last=Karriker |editor2-first=Locke A |editor3-last=Ramirez |editor3-first=Alejandro |editor4-last=Schwartz |editor4-first=Kent J |editor5-last=Stevenson |editor5-first=Gregory W |title=Diseases of Swine |date=2012 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Chichester, West Sussex |isbn=978-0-813-82267-9 |pages=750–59 |edition= 10th}}</ref>

==== Poultry ====
The bacterium has been isolated from a wide range of avian species and differences in [[susceptible individual|susceptibility]] depending on species have been suggested. Erysipelas outbreaks have been reported in almost all [[poultry]] species. Historically, erysipelas has been considered a disease of significant importance primarily in [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bricker|first1=JM|last2=Saif|first2=YM|editor1-last=Swayne|editor1-first=David E.|editor2-last=Glisson|editor2-first=J.R.|editor3-last=McDougald|editor3-first=L.R.|editor4=Nolan|editor4-first=L.K.|editor5-last=Suarez|editor5-first=D.L.|editor6-last=Nair|editor6-first=V.L.|title=Diseases of poultry |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Ames, Iowa |isbn=978-0-470-95899-5 |pages=986–994 |edition=13th}}</ref> However, an increasing number of outbreaks in laying hen flocks have been reported in several countries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eriksson |first1=Helena |last2=Bagge |first2=Elisabeth |last3=Båverud |first3=Viveca |last4=Fellström |first4=Claes |last5=Jansson |first5=Désirée S. |title=Contamination in the poultry house environment during erysipelas outbreaks in organic laying hen flocks |journal=Avian Pathology |date=22 April 2014 |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=231–237 |doi=10.1080/03079457.2014.907485|pmid=24661145 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Signs seen during an outbreak of erysipelas in a laying hen flock include sudden onset of high mortality and egg production losses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eriksson |first1=Helena |last2=Brännström |first2=Sara |last3=Skarin |first3=Hanna |last4=Chirico |first4=Jan |title=Characterization of isolates from laying hens and poultry red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) from an outbreak of erysipelas |journal=Avian Pathology |date=10 December 2010 |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=505–509 |doi=10.1080/03079457.2010.518313|pmid=21154061 }}</ref>

===Muskox===
Due to unregulated hunting of [[muskox]] the species was almost wiped out in the late 19th century. However, by 1917 regulations were in place and the herds began to recover to such an extent that regulated hunting was permitted in the 1980s. By the 1990s hunters were permitted to take 10,000 muskox on [[Banks Island]] alone and in 2001 it was estimated that there were more than 68,000 muskox on the island making it the largest population in the world. However, since then the numbers have dropped by 70% due to ''E. rhusiopathiae''.<ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn | last1 = Gunn |first1 = A. | last2 = Forchhammer | first2 = M. | title = ''Ovibos moschatus'' |errata=2016 | year = 2008 | page = e.T29684A86066477 | access-date = 24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/migratory-bird-sanctuaries/locations/banks-island-number-2.html |title = Banks Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary No. 2 | work=[[Parks Canada]]| access-date=2020-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kutz |first1=S. |last2=Bollinger |first2=T. |last3=Branigan |first3=M. |last4=Checkley |first4=S. |last5=Davison |first5=T. |last6=Dumond |first6=M. |last7=Elkin |first7=B. |last8=Forde |first8=T. |last9=Hutchins |first9=W. |last10=Niptanatiak |first10=A. |last11=Orsel |first11=Karin |title=Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae associated with recent widespread muskox mortalities in the Canadian Arctic |journal=Canadian Veterinary Journal |date=June 2015 |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=560–563 |pmid=26028673 |pmc=4431149}}</ref>

==Virulence factors==
Various virulence factors have been suggested as being involved in the pathogenicity of ''E. rhusiopathiae''. The presence of a [[hyaluronidase]] and [[neuraminidase]] has been recognized, and neuraminidase was shown to play a significant role in bacterial attachment and subsequent invasion into host cells. The role of hyaluronidase in the disease process is controversial. The presence of a heat-labile capsule has been reported as important in virulence.<ref name="Wang_2010"/>

==Diagnosis==

[[File:Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 01.png|thumb|Blood agar plate culture of ''E. rhusiopathiae'']]

=== Isolation ===
Traditionally, culture methods for the isolation of ''E. rhusiopathiae'' involve the use of selective and enrichment media. Commercially available blood culture media are satisfactory for primary isolation from blood, since ''E. rhusiopathiae'' is not particularly fastidious. A number of selective media for the isolation of ''Erysipelothrix'' have been described, also. A commonly used medium is ''Erysipelothrix'' selective broth (ESB), a nutrient broth containing serum, tryptose, kanamycin, [[neomycin]], and [[vancomycin]]. Modified blood azide medium (MBA) is a selective agar containing [[sodium azide]] and horse blood or serum. Packer's medium is a selective medium for grossly contaminated specimens, which contains sodium azide and crystal violet. Bohm's medium uses sodium azide, kanamycin, phenol, and water blue. Shimoji's selective enrichment broth contains [[tryptic soy broth]], [[Polysorbate 80|Tween 80]], [[tris]]-aminomethane, [[crystal violet]], and sodium azide.<ref name="Wang_2010"/>

===Species identification===
Conventional species identification is based on colony morphology, [[Gram-staining]] and biochemical tests. Colonies are small with a narrow zone of alpha [[Hemolysis (microbiology)|hemolysis]] on blood agar plates. Laboratory smears show Gram-positive rods (though Gram stain has low sensitivity for this microbe). It is nonmotile, catalase-negative, microaerophilic, capnophilic, and non-spore-forming. It can also produce H<sub>2</sub>S (gas), which is a unique characteristic for a Gram-positive bacillus. Acid is produced from glucose, fructose, galactose, and lactose, but not from maltose, xylose, and mannitol. Sucrose is fermented by most strains of ''E. tonsillarum'', but not by ''E. rhusiopathiae''. Hydrogen sulfide H<sub>2</sub>S is produced by 95% of strains of ''Erysipelothrix'' species as demonstrated on triple sugar iron (TSI) agar. ''E. rhusiopathiae'' can be differentiated from other Gram-positive bacilli, in particular, from ''Arcanobacterium (Corynebacterium) pyogenes'' and ''Arcanobacterium (Corynebacterium) haemolyticum'', which are hemolytic on blood agar and do not produce hydrogen sulfide in TSI agar slants, and from ''Listeria monocytogenes'', which is catalase positive, motile, and  sensitive to neomycin. Rapid identification of ''E. rhusiopathiae'' can be achieved with the API Coryne System. It is a commercial strip system based on a number of biochemical reactions for the identification of coryneform bacteria and related genera, including ''E. rhusiopathiae''. The system permits reliable and rapid identification of bacteria and has been considered to be a good alternative to traditional biochemical methods.<ref name=Wang_2010 />

=== Other assays ===
Several [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) based methods have also been developed for detection of ''E. rhusiopathiae''.<ref name=Wang_2010 />
Laboratory investigations of humans may reveal leucocytosis, slightly increased serum c-globulins, and an increase in inflammatory markers (erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, and a-1 acid glycoprotein).<ref name=Veraldi_2009 />

==Treatment==
=== Humans ===
[[Penicillin]] is the treatment of choice for both disease states in humans. ''E. rhusiopathiae'' is sensitive ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo'' mainly to penicillins, but also to cephalosporins (cefotaxime, ceftriaxone), tetracyclines (chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline), quinolones (ciprofloxacin, pefloxacin), clindamycin, erythromycin, imipenem, and piperacillin. It is resistant to vancomycin, chloramphenicol, daptomycin, gentamicin, netilmicin, polymyxin B, streptomycin, teicoplanin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Penicillins and cephalosporins are the first-line choices for treatment. A 7-day course is appropriate, and clinical improvement is usually observed 2–3 days after the beginning of the treatment.<ref name=Veraldi_2009 />

=== Poultry ===
Only a few poultry isolates have been investigated for antimicrobial susceptibility.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eriksson |first1=Helena |last2=Jansson |first2=Désirée S. |last3=Johansson |first3=Karl-Erik |last4=Båverud |first4=Viveca |last5=Chirico |first5=Jan |last6=Aspán |first6=Anna |title=Characterization of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolates from poultry, pigs, emus, the poultry red mite and other animals |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |date=May 2009 |volume=137 |issue=1–2 |pages=98–104 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.12.016}}</ref> Penicillin is the drug of choice for treatment of poultry,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hofacre |first1=C.L. |last2=Fricke |first2=J.A. |last3=Inglis |first3=T. |editor1-last=Giguère |editor1-first=Steeve |editor2-last=Prescott |editor2-first=John F. |editor3-last=Dowling |editor3-first=Patricia M. |title=Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine |date=2013 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken |isbn=9781118675106 |pages=569–587 |edition= 5th}}</ref> however the disease may reoccur. Therefore, antibiotic treatment may be combined with vaccination.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://bacdive.dsmz.de/index.php?search=5367&submit=Search Type strain of ''Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae'' at Bac''Dive'' -  the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase]

{{Gram-positive bacterial diseases}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2346390}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mollicutes]]
[[Category:Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN]] <!-- Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae -->