Editing European hare

{{short description|Large species of hare native to Europe and parts of Asia}}
{{featured article}}
{{speciesbox
| name = European hare
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref =<ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Lepus europaeus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Hacklander, K. |author2=Schai-Braun, S. |date=2019 |page=e.T41280A45187424 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T41280A45187424.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| image = Lepus europaeus (Causse Méjean, Lozère)-cropped.jpg
| genus = Lepus
| species = europaeus
| authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1778
| range_map = European Hare area.png
| range_map_caption = European hare range<br />(dark red – native, red – introduced)
}}

The '''European hare''' ('''''Lepus europaeus'''''), also known as the '''brown hare''', is a [[species]] of [[hare]] native to [[Europe]] and parts of [[Asia]]. It is among the largest hare species and is adapted to temperate, open country. Hares are [[herbivorous]] and feed mainly on grasses and herbs, supplementing these with twigs, buds, bark and field crops, particularly in winter. Their natural [[Predation|predators]] include large [[birds of prey]], [[canidae|canids]] and [[felid]]s. They rely on high-speed endurance running to escape predation, having long, powerful limbs and large nostrils.

Generally nocturnal and shy in nature, hares change their behaviour in the spring, when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another around in fields. During this spring frenzy, they sometimes strike one another with their paws ("boxing"). This is not just competition between males, but also a female hitting a male, either to show she is not yet ready to mate or to test his determination. The female nests in a depression on the surface of the ground rather than in a [[burrow]] and the young are active as soon as they are born. Litters may consist of three or four young and a female can bear three litters a year, with hares living for up to twelve years. The breeding season lasts from January to August.

The European hare is listed as being of [[least concern]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] because it has a wide range and is moderately abundant. However, populations have been declining in mainland Europe since the 1960s, at least partly due to changes in farming practices. The hare has been hunted across Europe for centuries, with more than five million being shot each year; in Britain, it has traditionally been hunted by [[beagling]] and [[hare coursing]], but these [[field sports]] are now illegal. The hare has been a traditional symbol of [[fertility]] and reproduction in some cultures and its courtship behaviour in the spring inspired the English idiom ''[[mad as a March hare]]''.

== Taxonomy and genetics ==
[[File:LiebreIberica (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Granada hare]] (''Lepus granatensis'') was once considered a subspecies of the European hare]]

The European hare was first [[Species description|described]] in 1778 by German zoologist [[Peter Simon Pallas]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Pallas | first=Peter Simon | author-link=Peter Simon Pallas | year=1778 | title=Novae Species Quadrupedum e Glirium Ordine | publisher=Wolfgangi Waltheri | place=Erlanger | page=30 | language=la | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15494839 }}</ref> It shares the genus ''[[Lepus]]'' ([[Latin]] for "hare"<ref>{{cite web|title=Lepus|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Lepus|access-date=15 September 2016}}</ref>) with 32 other hare and jackrabbit species,<ref>{{MSW3 Lagomorpha | id = 13500099 | pages = 195–205 | heading = Genus ''Lepus''}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Explore the Database |url=https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html#species-id=1001079 |access-date=2021-07-29 |website=www.mammaldiversity.org}}</ref> jackrabbits being the name given to some species of hare native to North America. They are distinguished from other [[leporid]]s (hares and rabbits) by their longer legs and wider nostrils.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/> The [[Corsican hare]], [[broom hare]] and [[Granada hare]] were at one time considered to be [[subspecies]] of the European hare, but [[DNA sequencing]] and [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] analysis support their status as separate species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Palacios, F. |year=1989 |title=Biometric and morphologic features of the species of the genus ''Lepus'' in Spain |journal=Mammalia |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=227–264 |doi=10.1515/mamm.1989.53.2.227|s2cid=84763076 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Riga, F. |author2=Trocchi, V. |author3=Randi, E. |author4=Toso, S. |year=2001 |title=Morphometric differentiation between the Italian hare (''Lepus corsicanus'' De Winton, 1898) and the European brown hare (''Lepus europaeus'' Pallas, 1778) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=253 |issue=2|pages=241–252 |doi=10.1017/S0952836901000218}}</ref>

There is some debate as to whether the European hare and the [[Cape hare]] are the same species. A 2005 [[nuclear gene]] pool study suggested that they are,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ben Slimen, H. |author2=Suchentrunk, F. |author3=Memmi, A. |author4=Ben Ammar Elgaaied, A. | year=2005 | title=Biochemical genetic relationships among Tunisian hares (''Lepus sp.''), South African Cape hares (''L. capensis''), and European brown hares (''L. europaeus'') | journal=Biochemical Genetics | volume=43 | issue=11–12 | pages=577–596 | pmid=16382363 | doi=10.1007/s10528-005-9115-6 |s2cid=28323931 }}</ref> but a 2006 study of the [[mitochondrial DNA]] of these same animals concluded that they had [[Genetic divergence|diverged]] sufficiently widely to be considered separate species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ben Slimen, H. |author2=Suchentrunk, F. |author3=Memmi, A. |author4=Sert, H. |author5=Kryger, U. |author6=Alves, P. C. |author7=Elgaaied, A. B. A. | year=2006 | title=Evolutionary relationships among hares from North Africa (''Lepus'' sp. or ''Lepus'' spp.), Cape Hares (''L. capensis'') from South Africa, and brown hares (''L. europaeus''), as inferred from mtDNA PCR-RFLP and allozyme data | journal=Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research | volume=44 | issue=1 | pages=88–99 | doi=10.1111/j.1439-0469.2005.00345.x |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2008 study claims that in the case of ''Lepus'' species, with their rapid evolution, species designation cannot be based solely on mtDNA but should also include an examination of the nuclear gene pool. It is possible that the genetic differences between the European and Cape hare are due to geographic separation rather than actual divergence. It has been speculated that in the Near East, hare populations are intergrading and experiencing [[gene flow]].<ref name=BenSlimen2008>{{cite journal |author1=Ben Slimen, H. |author2=Suchentrunk, F. |author3=Ben Ammar Elgaaied, A. | year=2008 | title=On shortcomings of using mtDNA sequence divergence for the systematics of hares (genus ''Lepus''): An example from Cape hares | journal=Mammalian Biology | volume=73 | issue=1 | pages=25–32 | doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2007.02.003 |bibcode=2008MamBi..73...25B }}</ref> Another 2008 study suggests that more research is needed before a conclusion is reached as to whether a [[species complex]] exists;<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ben Slimen, H. |author2=Suchentrunk, F. |author3=Stamatis, C. |author4=Mamuris, Z. |author5=Sert, H. |author6=Alves, P. C. |author7=Kryger, U. |author8=Shahin, A. B. |author9=Ben Ammar Elgaaied, A. | year=2008 | title=Population genetics of Cape and brown hares (''Lepus capensis'' and ''L. europaeus''): A test of Petter's hypothesis of conspecificity | journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology | volume=36 | issue=1 | pages=22–39 | doi=10.1016/j.bse.2007.06.014 |bibcode=2008BioSE..36...22B }}</ref> the European hare remains classified as a single species until further data contradicts this assumption.<ref name=iucn />

[[Cladogenesis|Cladogenetic]] analysis suggests that European hares survived the [[last glacial period]] during the [[Pleistocene]] via [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]] in southern Europe ([[Italian peninsula]] and [[Balkans]]) and [[Asia Minor]]. Subsequent colonisations of Central Europe appear to have been initiated by human-caused environmental changes.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fickel, J.|author2=Hauffe, H. C.|author3=Pecchioli, E.|author4=Soriguer, R.|author5=Vapa, L.|author6=Pitra, C.|year=2008|title=Cladogenesis of the European brown hare (''Lepus europaeus'' Pallas, 1778)|journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research|volume=54|issue=3|pages=495–510|doi=10.1007/s10344-008-0175-x|bibcode=2008EJWR...54..495F |url=http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/62899/1/european.pdf|hdl=10261/62899|s2cid=8860690|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Genetic diversity in current populations is high with no signs of [[inbreeding]]. Gene flow appears to be biased towards males, but overall populations are [[matrilineally]] structured. There appears to be a particularly large degree of genetic diversity in hares in the [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] region of Germany. It is however possible that restricted gene flow could reduce genetic diversity within populations that become isolated.<ref name=Fickel2005>{{cite journal |author1=Fickel, J. |author2=Schmidt, A. |author3=Putze, M. |author4=Spittler, H. |author5=Ludwig, A. |author6=Streich, W. J. |author7=Pitra, C. | year=2005 | title=Genetic structure of populations of European brown hare: Implications for management | journal=Journal of Wildlife Management | volume=69 | issue=2 | pages=760–770 | doi=10.2193/0022-541X(2005)069[0760:GSOPOE]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86210991 }}</ref>

Historically, up to 30 subspecies of European hare have been described, although their status has been disputed.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN>{{cite book |author1=Chapman, Joseph A. |author2=Flux, John E. C. |title=Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q994k86i0zYC&pg=PA76 |year=1990 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=978-2-8317-0019-9 |pages=62, 76–78}}</ref> These subspecies have been distinguished by differences in pelage colouration, body size, external body measurements, skull morphology and tooth shape.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Suchentrunk, F. |author2=Mamuris, Z. |author3=Sfougaris, A. I. |author4=Stamatis, C. |year=2003 |title=Biochemical genetic variability in brown hares (''Lepus europaeus'') from Greece |journal=Biochemical Genetics |volume=41 |issue=5–6 |pages=127–140 |pmid=12834043 |doi=10.1023/A:1023354709392|s2cid=7268456 }}</ref>

Sixteen subspecies are listed in the IUCN red book, following Hoffmann and Smith (2005):<ref name=iucn /> 
{{columns-list|colwidth=14em|style=font-style: italic;|
* ''Lepus europaeus caspicus''
* ''L. e. connori''
* ''L. e. creticus''
* ''L. e. cyprius''
* ''L. e. cyrensis''
* ''L. e. europaeus''
* ''L. e. hybridus''
* ''L. e. judeae''
* ''L. e. karpathorum''
* ''L. e. medius''
* ''L. e. occidentalis''
* ''L. e. parnassius''
* ''L. e. ponticus''
* ''L. e. rhodius''
* ''L. e. syriacus''
* ''L. e. transsylvanicus''
}}

Twenty-nine<!--not 30 as stated--> subspecies of "very variable status" are listed by Chapman and Flux in their book on lagomorphs, including the subspecies above (with the exceptions of ''L. e. connori'', ''L. e. creticus'', ''L. e. cyprius'', ''L. e. judeae'', ''L. e. rhodius'', and ''L. e. syriacus'') and additionally:<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/>
{{columns-list|colwidth=14em|style=font-style: italic;|
* ''L. e. alba''
* ''L. e. argenteogrisea''
* ''L. e. biarmicus''
* ''L. e. borealis''
* ''L. e. caspicus''
* ''L. e. caucasicus''
* ''L. e. flavus''
* ''L. e. gallaecius''
* ''L. e. hispanicus''
* ''L. e. hyemalis''
* ''L. e. granatensis''
* ''L. e. iturissius''
* ''L. e. kalmykorum''
* ''L. e. meridiei''
* ''L. e. meridionalis''
* ''L. e. niethammeri''
* ''L. e. niger''
* ''L. e. tesquorum''
* ''L. e. tumak''
}}

== Description ==
[[File:Lepus europaeus 03 MWNH 1534.jpg|left|thumb|Hare skull]]

The European hare, like other members of the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Leporidae]], is a fast-running terrestrial mammal; it has eyes set high on the sides of its head, long ears and a flexible neck. Its teeth grow continuously, the first [[incisor]]s being modified for gnawing while the second incisors are peg-like and non-functional. There is a gap ([[diastema]]) between the incisors and the cheek teeth, the latter being adapted for grinding coarse plant material. The dental formula is 2/1, 0/0, 3/2, 3/3.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Alves | first1=Paulo C. | last2=Ferrand | first2=Nuno | last3=Hackländer | first3=K. |title=Lagomorph Biology: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9d8_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |year=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-72446-9 |page=1}}</ref><ref name=Leach>{{cite book|author=Leach, M. |title=Hare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FMPD-1kTN1YC&pg=PA4 |year=2008 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4358-4997-6|page=4}}</ref> The dark limb musculature of hares is adapted for high-speed endurance running in open country. By contrast, [[cottontail rabbit]]s are built for short bursts of speed in more vegetated habitats.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Schnurr, D. L. |author2=Thomas, V. G. |year=1984 |title=Histochemical properties of locomotory muscles of European hares and cottontail rabbits |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=62 |issue=11 |pages=2157–2163 |doi=10.1139/z84-313|bibcode=1984CaJZ...62.2157S }}</ref> Other adaptions for high speed running in hares include wider nostrils and larger hearts.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/> In comparison to the [[European rabbit]], the hare has a proportionally smaller stomach and [[caecum]].<ref name="Stott"/>

This hare is one of the largest of the [[Lagomorpha|lagomorphs]]. Its head and body length can range from {{cvt|60|to|75|cm}} with a tail length of {{cvt|7.2|to|11|cm}}. The body mass is typically between {{cvt|3|and|5|kg}}.<ref name=Diversity/> The hare's elongated ears range from {{cvt|9.4|to|11.0|cm}} from the notch to tip. It also has long hind feet that have a length of between {{cvt|14|and|16|cm}}.<ref name=Naughton/> The skull has nasal bones that are short, but broad and heavy. The [[supraorbital ridge]] has well-developed anterior and posterior lobes and the [[lacrimal bone]] projects prominently from the anterior wall of the orbit.<ref name=Diversity/>

The fur colour is grizzled yellow-brown on the back; [[rufous]] on the shoulders, legs, neck and throat; white on the underside and black on the tail and ear tips.<ref name=Naughton/> The fur on the back is typically longer and more curled than on the rest of the body.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/> The European hare's fur does not turn completely white in the winter as is the case with some other members of the genus,<ref name=Naughton>{{cite book |author=Naughton, D. |year=2012 |title=The Natural History of Canadian Mammals |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=235–238 |isbn=978-1-4426-4483-0}}</ref> although the sides of the head and base of the ears do develop white areas and the hip and rump region may gain some grey.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/>

{{clear|left}}

== Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:Feldhase, Lepus europaeus 3a.JPG|thumb|right|Hare running in open field|alt=Photograph of a running hare]]
The European hare is native to much of [[continental Europe]] and part of Asia. Its range extends from northern Spain to southern Scandinavia, eastern Europe, and northern parts of [[Western Asia|Western]] and [[Central Asia]]. It has been extending its range into [[Siberia]].<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/> It may have been introduced to [[Great Britain]] by the [[Roman Britain|Romans]] about 2000 years ago, based on a lack of archaeological evidence before that,<ref name="Corbet" /> although new radiocarbon dates suggest that it was introduced earlier, between 500-300BCE.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news-archive.exeter.ac.uk/featurednews/title_787590_en.html | title=University of Exeter }}</ref> It is not present in [[Ireland]], where the [[mountain hare]] is the only native hare species. Undocumented introductions probably occurred in some Mediterranean Islands.<ref name="Corbet">{{cite journal|author=Corbet, G. B.|year=1986|title=Relationships and origins of the European lagomorphs|journal=Mammal Review|volume=16|issue=3–4|pages=105–110|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.1986.tb00029.x|bibcode=1986MamRv..16..105C }}</ref> It has also been introduced, mostly as [[Game (food)|game animal]], to North America in [[Ontario]] and [[New York State]], and unsuccessfully in [[Pennsylvania]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[Connecticut]], the [[Southern Cone]] in [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Paraguay]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Peru]] and the [[Falkland Islands]], [[Australia]], both islands of [[New Zealand]] and the south Pacific coast of Russia.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/><ref name=Naughton/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bonino, N. A. |author2=Cossios, D. |author3=Menegheti, J. |year=2010 |title=Dispersal of the European hare, ''Lepus europaeus'' in South America |journal=Folia Zoologica |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=9–15 |url=http://www.ivb.cz/folia_zoologica/archive/59_9-15.pdf |access-date=2016-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917083159/http://www.ivb.cz/folia_zoologica/archive/59_9-15.pdf |archive-date=2016-09-17 |url-status=dead |doi=10.25225/fozo.v59.i1.a3.2010 |s2cid=4675498}}</ref>

The European hare primarily lives in open fields with scattered brush for shelter. It is very adaptable and thrives in mixed farmland.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/> According to a study in the Czech Republic, the mean hare densities were highest at elevations below {{cvt|200|m}}, 40 to 60 days of annual snow cover, {{cvt|450|to|700|mm}} of annual precipitation, and a mean annual air temperature of around {{cvt|10|°C}}. With regards to climate, the European hare density was highest in "warm and dry districts with mild winters".<ref name=Pikula2004>{{cite journal |author1=Pikula, J. |author2=Beklová, M. |author3=Holešovská, Z. |author4=Treml, F. |year=2004 | title=Ecology of European brown hare and distribution of natural foci of Tularaemia in the Czech Republic |journal=Acta Veterinaria Brno |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=267–273 |doi=10.2754/avb200473020267 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In Poland, the European hare is most abundant in areas with few forest edges, perhaps because foxes can use these for cover. It requires cover, such as hedges, ditches and permanent cover areas, because these habitats supply the varied diet it requires, and are found at lower densities in large open fields. Intensive cultivation of the land results in greater mortality of young hares.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Panek, M. |author2=Kamieniarz, R. |year=1999 |title=Relationships between density of brown hare ''Lepus europaeus'' and landscape structure in Poland in the years 1981–1995 |journal=Acta Theriologica |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.4098/at.arch.99-7 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In Great Britain, the European hare is seen most frequently on arable farms, especially those with [[crop rotation]] and [[fallow]] land, [[wheat]] and [[sugar beet]] crops. In mainly grass farms, its numbers increased with are improved pastures, some arable crops and patches of woodland. It is seen less frequently where foxes are abundant or where there are many [[common buzzard]]s. It also seems to be fewer in number in areas with high European rabbit populations,<ref name=Vaughan2003/> although there appears to be little interaction between the two species and no aggression.<ref name=Alves>{{cite book|author1=Alves, P.C. |author2=Ferrand, N. |author3=Hackländer, K. |title=Lagomorph Biology: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9d8_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 |year= 2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-72446-9 |page=247}}</ref> Although European hares are shot as game when plentiful, this is a self-limiting activity and is less likely to occur in localities where the species is scarce.<ref name=Vaughan2003>{{cite journal |author1=Vaughan, N. |author2=Lucas, E. |author3=Harris, S. |author4=White, P. C. L. |year=2003 |title=Habitat associations of European hares ''Lepus europaeus'' in England and Wales: Implications for farmland management |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=163–175 |jstor=827268 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00784.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2003JApEc..40..163V }}</ref>

== Behaviour and life history ==
[[File:Lepus europaeus (hiding).jpg|right|thumb|European hare hiding in a "form"|alt=Photograph of a hare crouching in a hollow]]
The European hare is primarily [[nocturnal]] and spends a third of its time [[foraging]].<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/> During daytime, it hides in a depression in the ground called a "form" where it is partially hidden. It can run at {{cvt|70|km/h|mi/h}}, and when confronted by predators it relies on outrunning them in the open. It is generally thought of as asocial but can be seen in both large and small groups. It does not appear to be [[territory (animal)|territorial]], living in shared [[home range]]s of around {{cvt|300|ha}}. It communicates with each other by a variety of visual signals. To show interest it raises its ears, while lowering the ears warns others to keep away. When challenging a [[Conspecificity|conspecific]], a hare thumps its front feet; the hind feet are used to warn others of a predator. It squeals when hurt or scared, and a female makes "[[guttural]]" calls to attract her young.<ref name=Naughton/> It can live for as long as twelve years.<ref name=iucn />

=== Food and foraging ===
[[File:Feldhasen Flutmulde.jpg|thumb|left|Hares feeding in a small group|alt=Photograph of a group of feeding hares]]
The European hare is primarily [[herbivorous]] and forages for wild grasses and weeds. With the intensification of agriculture, it has taken to feeding on crops when preferred foods are not available.<ref name=iucn /> During the spring and summer, it feeds on [[soy]], [[clover]] and [[corn poppy]]<ref name="Reichlin"/> as well as grasses and herbs.<ref name=Naughton/> During autumn and winter, it primarily chooses [[winter wheat]], and is also attracted to piles of sugar beet and carrots provided by hunters.<ref name="Reichlin">{{cite journal |author=Reichlin, T. |author2=Klansek, E. |author3=Hackländer, K. |year=2006 |title=Diet selection by hares (''Lepus europaeus'') in arable land and its implications for habitat management |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=109–118 |doi=10.1007/s10344-005-0013-3 |bibcode=2006EJWR...52..109R |s2cid=44207794 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225809353}}</ref> It also eats twigs, buds and the bark of shrubs and young fruit trees during winter.<ref name=Naughton/> It avoids [[cereal]] crops when other more attractive foods are available, and appears to prefer high energy foodstuffs over crude [[dietary fiber]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schai-Braun, S.C. |author2=Reichlin, T. S. |author3=Ruf, T. |author4=Klansek, E. |author5=Tataruch, F. |author6=Arnold, W. |author7=Hackländer, K. |year=2015 |title=The European hare (''Lepus europaeus''): A picky herbivore searching for plant parts rich in fat |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=7 |page=e0134278 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0134278 |pmid=26230115 |pmc=4521881|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1034278S |doi-access=free}}</ref> When eating twigs, it strips off the bark to access the vascular tissues which store soluble [[carbohydrate]]s. Compared to the European rabbit, food passes through the gut more rapidly in the European hare, although digestion rates are similar.<ref name="Stott">{{cite journal|author=Stott, P. |year=2008 |title=Comparisons of digestive function between the European hare (''Lepus europaeus'') and the European rabbit (''Oryctolagus cuniculus''): Mastication, gut passage, and digestibility |journal=Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde |volume=73|issue=4|pages=276–286|doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2007.07.002|bibcode=2008MamBi..73..276S }}</ref> It is sometimes [[coprophagia]]l eating its own green, faecal pellets to recover undigested proteins and vitamins.<ref name=Diversity>{{cite web | url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_europaeus.html  | title=''Lepus europaeus'' European hare | work=Animal Diversity | publisher=University of Michigan |access-date= 11 May 2011}}</ref> Two to three adult hares can eat more food than a single [[sheep]].<ref name=Naughton/>

[[File:Zaječí hovínka na Bousce.JPG|thumb|right|Faecal pellets|alt=Photograph of fecal pellets]]
European hares forage in groups. Group feeding is beneficial as individuals can spend more time feeding knowing that other hares are being vigilant. Nevertheless, the distribution of food affects these benefits. When food is well-spaced, all hares are able to access it. When food is clumped together, only dominant hares can access it. In small gatherings, dominants are more successful in defending food, but as more individuals join in, they must spend more time driving off others. The larger the group, the less time dominant individuals have in which to eat. Meanwhile, the subordinates can access the food while the dominants are distracted. As such, when in groups, all individuals fare worse when food is clumped as opposed to when it is widely spaced.<ref name=Monaghan1985>{{cite journal |author1=Monaghan. P. |author2=Metcalfe, N. B. | year=1985 | title=Group foraging in wild brown hares: Effects of resource distribution and social status | journal=Animal Behaviour | volume=33 | issue=3 | pages=993–999 | doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(85)80033-6 |s2cid=53160508 }}</ref>

=== Mating and reproduction ===
{{multiple image |direction=vertical |align=right |image1=Hasenkampf.jpg |image2=Biegnące zające szaraki 20140427 2184.jpg |caption2=Fighting, and running during "March madness" |alt=Photograph of a two hares boxing (top) and a photograph of three hares running in an open field (lower)}}
European hares have a prolonged breeding season which lasts from January to August.<ref name=Holly2001>{{cite encyclopedia | author=Holly, T. | year=2001 | title=Mad World of the European Hare | editor=MacDonald, D. | encyclopedia=The New Encyclopedia of Mammals | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | pages=710–711 | isbn= 978-0-19-850823-6}}</ref><ref name=Lincoln1974>{{cite journal | author=Lincoln, G. |year=1974 | title=Reproduction and March madness in the brown hare, ''Lepus europaeus'' | journal=Journal of Zoology | volume=174 | issue=1 | pages=1–14 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1974.tb03140.x |pmid=4468894}}</ref> Females, or does, can be found pregnant in all breeding months and males, or bucks, are fertile all year round except during October and November. After this hiatus, the size and activity of the males' testes increase, signalling the start of a new reproductive cycle. This continues through December, January and February when the reproductive tract gains back its functionality. Matings start before [[ovulation]] occurs and the first pregnancies of the year often result in a single [[foetus]], with pregnancy failures being common. Peak reproductive activity occurs in March and April, when all females may be pregnant, the majority with three or more foetuses.<ref name=Lincoln1974/>

The mating system of the hare has been described as both [[Polygyny in animals|polygynous]] (single males mating with multiple females) and [[Promiscuity#Other animals|promiscuous]].<ref name="disperse">{{cite journal|author=Bray, Y.|author2=Devillard, S.|author3=Marboutin, E.|author4=Mauvy, B.|author5=Péroux, R.|year=2007|title=Natal dispersal of European hare in France|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=273|issue=4|pages=426–434|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00348.x|url=http://sebastien.devillard.perso.sfr.fr/pdf/Brayetal2007JZool.pdf|access-date=2016-09-01|archive-date=2016-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006151555/http://sebastien.devillard.perso.sfr.fr/pdf/Brayetal2007JZool.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Females have six-weekly reproductive cycles and are receptive for only a few hours at a time, making competition among local bucks intense.<ref name=Holly2001/> At the height of the breeding season, this phenomenon is known as "March madness",<ref name=Lincoln1974/> when the normally nocturnal bucks are forced to be active in the daytime. In addition to dominant animals subduing subordinates, the female fights off her numerous suitors if she is not ready to mate. Fights can be vicious and can leave numerous scars on the ears.<ref name=Holly2001/> In these encounters, hares stand upright and attack each other with their paws, a practice known as "boxing", and this activity is often between a female and a male and not purely between competing males as was previously believed.<ref name=Naughton/><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Holley | first1=A.J.F. | last2=Greenwood | first2=P.J. | year=1984 | title=The myth of the mad March hare | journal=Nature | volume=309 | issue=5968 | pages=549–550 | doi=10.1038/309549a0 | pmid=6539424 | bibcode=1984Natur.309..549H | s2cid=4275486 }}</ref> When a doe is ready to mate, she runs across the countryside, starting a chase that tests the stamina of the following males. When only the fittest male remains, the female stops and allows him to copulate.<ref name=Holly2001/> Female fertility continues through May, June and July, but [[testosterone]] production decreases in males and sexual behaviour becomes less overt. Litter sizes decrease as the breeding season draws to a close with no pregnancies occurring after August. The testes of males begin to regress and sperm production ends in September.<ref name=Lincoln1974/>

[[File:Lepus europaeus new born.jpg|thumb|Newborn leverets in a depression|alt=Photograph of newborn hares]]
Does give birth in hollow depressions in the ground. An individual female may have three litters in a year with a 41- to 42-day gestation period. The young have an average weight of around {{convert|130|g}} at birth.<ref name="Kurta"/> The leverets are fully furred and are precocial, being ready to leave the nest soon after they are born, an adaptation to the lack of physical protection relative to that afforded by a burrow.<ref name=Naughton/> Leverets disperse during the day and come together in the evening close to where they were born. Their mother visits them for nursing soon after sunset; the young suckle for around five minutes, urinating while they do so, with the doe licking up the fluid. She then leaps away so as not to leave an olfactory trail, and the leverets disperse once more.<ref name=Naughton/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Broekhuizen, S. |author2=Maaskamp, F.|year=1980|title=Behaviour of does and leverets of the European hare (''Lepus europaeus'') while nursing|journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=191 |issue=4 |pages=487–501 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01480.x}}</ref> Young can eat solid food after two weeks and are weaned when they are four weeks old.<ref name=Naughton/> While young of either sex commonly explore their surroundings,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Avril, A. |author2=Letty, J. |author3=Léonard, Y. |author4=Pontier, D. |year=2014 |title=Exploration forays in juvenile European hares (''Lepus europaeus''): dispersal preludes or hunting-induced troubles?|journal=BMC Ecology|volume=14 |issue=1 |page=16 |doi=10.1186/1472-6785-14-6|pmid=24568541 |pmc=3943402 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014BMCE...14....6A }}</ref> [[Biological dispersal|natal dispersal]] tends to be greater in males.<ref name="disperse"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Avril, A.|author2=Letty, J.|author3=Léonard, Y.|author4=Pérouxb, R.|author5=Guitton, J.-S.|author6=Pontier, D. |name-list-style=amp |year=2011|title=Natal dispersal of European hare in a high-density population |journal=Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=148–156 |doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2010.07.001|bibcode=2011MamBi..76..148A |url=https://hal-univ-lyon1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02303164/file/avril2011.pdf }}</ref> Sexual maturity occurs at seven or eight months for females and six months for males.<ref name=iucn />

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=== Health and mortality ===
[[File:Aquila chrysaetos 1 (Martin Mecnarowski).jpg|thumb|right|[[Golden eagle]] with a freshly caught hare|alt=Photograph of a golden eagle with a hare as its prey]]
European hares are large leporids and adults can only be tackled by large predators such as [[Canidae|canids]], [[Felidae|felids]] and the largest [[Bird of prey|birds of prey]].<ref name=Diversity/> In Poland it was found that the consumption of hares by foxes was at its highest during spring, when the availability of small animal prey was low; at this time of year, hares may constitute up to 50% of the biomass eaten by foxes, with 50% of the mortality of adult hares being caused by their predation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Goszczyński, J. |author2=Wasilewski, M. |year=1992 |title=Predation of foxes on a hare population in central Poland |journal=Acta Theriologica |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=329–338 |issn=0001-7051 |url= http://rcin.org.pl/Content/11806|doi=10.4098/at.arch.92-33|doi-access=free }}</ref> In Scandinavia, a natural [[epizootic]] of [[Mange#Sarcoptic mange|sarcoptic mange]] which reduced the population of red foxes dramatically, resulted in an increase in the number of European hares, which returned to previous levels when the numbers of foxes subsequently increased.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lindstrom, Eric R. |author2=Andren, Henrik |author3=Angelstam, Per |author4=Cederlund, Goran |author5=Hornfeldt, Birger |author6=Jaderberg, Lars |author7=Lemnell, Per-Arne |author8=Martinsson, Berit |author9=Skold, Kent |author10=Swenson, John E.|year=1992 |title=Disease reveals the predator: sarcoptic mange, red fox predation and prey populations |journal=Ecology |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=1042–1049 |doi= 10.2307/1939428|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229192473 |jstor=1939428 }}</ref> The [[golden eagle]] preys on the European hare in the [[Alps]], the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]], the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] and northern Spain.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Watson, Jeff|author2=Brockie, Keith|title=The Golden Eagle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1DCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |year=1997 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-85661-099-8 |page=50}}</ref> In North America, foxes and [[coyote]]s are probably the most common predators, with [[bobcat]]s and [[Canada lynx]]es also preying on them in more remote locations.<ref name="Kurta">{{cite book|author=Kurta, Allen |title=Mammals of the Great Lakes Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DAb8Su5nVUsC&pg=PA104 |year=1995 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-06497-7 |page=104}}</ref>

European hares have both external and internal parasites. One study found that 54% of animals in Slovakia were parasitised by [[nematode]]s and over 90% by [[coccidia]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dubinský, P. |author2=Vasilková, Z. |author3=Hurníková, Z. |author4=Miterpáková, M. |author5=Slamečka, J. |author6=Jurčík, R. |year=2010 |title=Parasitic infections of the European brown hare (''Lepus europaeus'' Pallas, 1778) in south-western Slovakia |journal=Helminthologia |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=219–225 |doi=10.2478/s11687-010-0034-7 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In Australia, European hares were reported as being infected by four species of nematode, six of coccidian, several [[liver fluke]]s and two canine [[Cestoda|tapeworms]]. They were also found to host [[Spilopsyllus cuniculi|rabbit fleas]] (''Spilopsyllus cuniculi''), [[Echidnophaga gallinacea|stickfast fleas]] (''Echidnophaga myrmecobii''), lice (''[[Haemodipsus setoni]]'' and ''[[Haemodipsus lyriocephalus|H. lyriocephalus]]''), and mites (''[[Leporacarus gibbus]]'').<ref name=Victoria>{{cite web |url=http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/pest-animals/a-z-of-pest-animals/european-hare |title=European hare |work=Agriculture: Pest animals |publisher=Agriculture Victoria |access-date=7 September 2016 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802215045/http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/pest-animals/a-z-of-pest-animals/european-hare |url-status=dead }}</ref>

European brown hare syndrome (EBHS) is a disease caused by a [[Caliciviridae|calicivirus]] similar to that causing [[rabbit haemorrhagic disease]] (RHD) and can similarly be fatal, but cross infection between the two mammal species does not occur.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alves, Paulo C. |author2=Ferrand, Nuno |author3=Hackländer, Klaus |title=Lagomorph Biology: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9d8_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA263 |year= 2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-72446-9 |page=263}}</ref> Other threats to the hare are [[pasteurellosis]], [[yersiniosis]] (pseudo-tuberculosis), [[coccidiosis]] and [[tularaemia]], which are the principal sources of mortality.<ref name=Lamarque1996>{{cite journal |author1=Lamarque, F. |author2=Barrat, J. |author3=Moutou, F. | year=1996 | title=Principal diagnoses for determining causes of mortality in the European brown hare (''Lepus europaeus'') found dead in France between 1986 and 1994 | journal=Gibier Faune Sauvage | volume=13 | issue=1 | pages=53–72 }}</ref>

In October 2018, it was reported that a mutated form of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus ([[Rabbit hemorrhagic disease|RHDV2]]) may have jumped to hares in the UK. Normally rare in hares, a significant die-off from the virus has also occurred in Spain.<ref name=FAQ>{{cite news|author=Yohannes Lowe|date=11 October 2018|title=Hares could be wiped out, experts warn, as mystery deaths spark fears RHD-2 has 'jumped' from rabbits|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/10/11/hares-dying-mysteriously-amid-fears-myxomatosis-has-jumped-rabbits/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/10/11/hares-dying-mysteriously-amid-fears-myxomatosis-has-jumped-rabbits/ |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=New Scientist|date=20 October 2018|page=4|title=Concern over hare deaths}}</ref>

== Relationship with humans ==
[[File:Albrecht Dürer - Hare, 1502 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|[[Albrecht Dürer]]'s watercolour ''[[Young Hare]]'', 1502|alt=Painting of a hare by Albrecht Dürer]]

=== In folklore, literature, and art ===
In Europe, the hare has been a symbol of sex and fertility since at least [[Ancient Greece]]. The Greeks associated it with the gods [[Dionysus]], [[Aphrodite]] and [[Artemis]] as well as with [[satyr]]s and [[cupid]]s. The Christian Church connected the hare with lustfulness and homosexuality, but also associated it with the persecution of the church because of the way it was commonly hunted.<ref name="Carnwell"/>

In Northern Europe, [[Easter]] imagery often involves [[Easter Bunny|hares or rabbits]]. Citing folk [[Easter customs]] in [[Leicestershire]], England, where "the profits of the land called Harecrop Leys were applied to providing a meal which was thrown on the ground at the 'Hare-pie Bank'", the 19th-century scholar [[Charles Isaac Elton]] proposed a possible connection between these customs and the worship of [[Ēostre]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Elton, Charles Isaac |author-link=Charles Isaac Elton |title=Origins of English History |date=1882 |page=391 |url=https://archive.org/stream/originsofenglis00elto#page/390/mode/2up/search/harecrop|publisher=London : B. Quaritch }}</ref> In his 19th-century study of the hare in folk custom and mythology, [[Charles J. Billson]] cites folk customs involving the hare around Easter in Northern Europe, and argues that the hare was probably a sacred animal in prehistoric Britain's festival of springtime.<ref>[[Charles J. Billson|Billson, Charles J.]] (1892). "[[:s:Folk-Lore/Volume 3/The Easter Hare|The Easter Hare]]" as published in ''[[Folk-Lore]]'', Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1892). Taylor & Francis, on behalf of Folklore Enterprises. p. 448.</ref> Observation of the hare's springtime mating behaviour led to the popular English idiom "[[mad as a March hare]]",<ref name="Carnwell">{{cite book |author=Carnwell, S. |year=2010 |title=Hare |publisher=Reaktion Books |pages=60, 67–69, 181 |isbn=978-1-86189-431-1}}</ref> with similar phrases from the sixteenth century writings of [[John Skelton (poet)|John Skelton]] and [[Thomas More|Sir Thomas More]] onwards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Early English Books Online |publisher=Text Creation Partnership |url=http://www.lib.umich.edu/tcp/eebo/proj_des/pd_more.html |access-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208224854/http://www.lib.umich.edu/tcp/eebo/proj_des/pd_more.html |archive-date=8 February 2007}}</ref> The mad hare reappears in ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]], in which Alice participates in a crazy tea-party with the [[March Hare]] and the [[The Hatter|Hatter]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Wonderland |last=Carroll |first=L. |year=1993 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-27543-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alicesadventure000carr}}</ref>

[[File:Alice par John Tenniel 25.png|thumb|right|Sir [[John Tenniel]]'s [[March Hare]] with [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]], the [[Dormouse (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dormouse]], and [[the Hatter]] from ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'', 1865|alt=Illustration of the March Hare by Sir John Tenniel]]

Any connection of the hare to [[Ēostre]] is doubtful. [[John Andrew Boyle]] cites an etymology dictionary by [[Alfred Ernout]] and [[Antoine Meillet]], who wrote that the lights of Ēostre were carried by hares, that Ēostre represented spring [[fecundity]], love and sexual pleasure. Boyle responds that almost nothing is known about Ēostre, and that the authors had seemingly accepted the identification of Ēostre with the Norse goddess [[Freyja]], but that the hare is not associated with Freyja either. Boyle adds that "when the authors speak of the hare as the 'companion of Aphrodite and of satyrs and cupids' and 'in the [[Middle Ages]] [the hare] appears beside the figure of [mythological] Luxuria', they are on much surer ground."<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Boyle, J. A. |year=1974 |title=The Hare in Myth and Reality: A Review Article |journal=Folklore |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=323–324 |url=}}</ref>

The hare is a character in some fables, such as ''[[The Tortoise and the Hare]]'' of [[Aesop]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Aesop's Fables |last=Aesop |year=2012 |publisher=Simon & Brown |isbn=978-1-61382-358-3}}</ref> The story was annexed to a philosophical problem by [[Zeno of Elea]], who created [[Zeno's paradoxes|a set of paradoxes]] to support [[Parmenides]]' attack on the idea of continuous motion, as each time the hare (or the hero [[Achilles]]) moves to where the tortoise was, the tortoise moves just a little further away.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/#AchTor |title=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |access-date=10 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Wilson2015">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=C. |title=Leibniz's Metaphysics: A Historical and Comparative Study |year=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lDWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |isbn=978-1-4008-7957-1 |page=204}}</ref> The German [[Renaissance]] artist [[Albrecht Dürer]] realistically depicted a hare in his 1502 watercolour painting ''[[Young Hare]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Trux, E. M. |title=Überlegungen zum Feldhasen und anderen Tierstudien Dürers mit einer Datierungsdiskussion |editor1=Schröder, K. A. |editor2=Sternath, M. L. |work=Albrecht Dürer |publisher=Hatje Cantz Verlag |pages=45–55| isbn=978-3-7757-1330-6 |year=2003}}</ref>

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=== Food and hunting ===
[[File:Ansdell Caledonian Coursing detail 2.jpg|thumb|Detail of ''The Caledonian Coursing Meeting near the Castle of Ardrossan, the Isle of Arran in the Distance'' by [[Richard Ansdell]], 1844, showing gentlemen on horseback [[Hare coursing|hunting hares with greyhounds]]|alt=Painting of gentlemen hunting hares by Richard Ansdell]]

Across Europe, over five million European hares are shot each year, making it probably the most important game mammal on the continent. This popularity has threatened regional varieties such as those of France and Denmark, through large-scale importing of hares from Eastern European countries such as Hungary.<ref name=ChapmanIUCN/> Hares have traditionally been hunted in Britain by [[beagling]] and [[hare coursing]]. In beagling, the hare is hunted with a pack of small hunting dogs, [[beagle]]s, followed by the human hunters on foot. In Britain, the [[2004 Hunting Act]] banned hunting of hares with dogs, so the 60 beagle packs now use artificial "trails", or may legally continue to hunt [[rabbit]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=An Introduction to Beagling |url=http://www.amhb.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=173&Itemid=61 |publisher=Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles |access-date=31 August 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817155721/http://www.amhb.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=173&Itemid=61 |archive-date=17 August 2016 }}</ref> Hare coursing with [[greyhound]]s was once an [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] pursuit, forbidden to lower [[social class]]es.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PVQCAAAAYAAJ&q=greyhounds+forbidden&pg=PA5 |title=The greyhound |journal=New Sporting Magazine |volume=4 |date=November 1832 – April 1833|access-date=2008-02-21|page=5|publisher=Baldwin & Cradock}}</ref> More recently, informal hare coursing became a lower class activity and was conducted without the landowner's permission;<ref>{{cite news  |work=Lincolnshire Echo |title=Crackdown on hare coursing gangs |date=30 January 2008}}</ref> it is also now illegal.<ref name="Bawden">{{cite news |author=Bawden, T.|title=Increase in hare coursing blamed on closure of special police unit|date=23 December 2015 |publisher=The Independent (The i)}}</ref> In Scotland concerns have been raised over the increasing numbers of hares shot under license.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Edwards |first1=Rob |title=Licensed to kill: the landowners who shoot thousands of brown hares |url=https://theferret.scot/brown-hares-landowners-farmers-licensed-kill/ |publisher=[[The Ferret (news)|The Ferret]] |access-date=3 June 2019 |date=2 June 2019}}</ref>

Hare is traditionally cooked by [[jugging]]: a whole hare is cut into pieces, marinated and cooked slowly with red wine and [[juniper berries]] in a tall jug that stands in a pan of water. It is traditionally served with (or briefly cooked with) the hare's blood and [[port wine]].<ref name=Guardian1>{{cite news |title=Chips are down for Britain's old culinary classics |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=25 July 2006 |pages=6}}</ref><ref name=Davidson>{{cite book |last1=Davidson |first1=Alan |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |date=2014 |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7 |pages=380–381}}</ref> Hare can also be cooked in a casserole.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Warner |first1=Valentine |title=Valentine Warner's good hare recipe |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/recipes/10711095/Jose-Pizarros-kid-stew-recipe.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/recipes/10711095/Jose-Pizarros-kid-stew-recipe.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=31 August 2016 |date=21 March 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The meat is darker and more strongly flavoured than that of rabbits. Young hares can be roasted; the meat of older hares becomes too tough for roasting, and may be [[slow-cooked]].<ref name=Davidson/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Fearnley-Whittingstall |first1=H. |author-link1=Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall |title=Recipes using hare |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/hare |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref>

== Status ==
[[File:01-sfel-08-009a.jpg|thumb|left|Hare on cultivated ground. The intensification of agricultural practices has caused a decline in their populations.|alt=Photograph of a hare on farmland]]
The European hare has a wide range across Europe and western Asia and has been introduced to a number of other countries around the globe, often as a game species. In general it is considered moderately abundant in its native range,<ref name=Fickel2005/> but declines in populations have been noted in many areas since the 1960s. These have been associated with the intensification of agricultural practices.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Smith, R. K. |author2=Jennings, N. V. |author3=Harris, S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=A quantitative analysis of the abundance and demography of European hares ''Lepus europaeus'' in relation to habitat type, intensity of agriculture and climate |journal=Mammal Review |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.2005.00057.x|bibcode=2005MamRv..35....1S }}</ref> The hare is an adaptable species and can move into new habitats, but it thrives best when there is an availability of a wide variety of weeds and other herbs to supplement its main diet of grasses.<ref name=iucn /> The hare is considered a pest in some areas; it is more likely to damage crops and young trees in winter when there are not enough alternative foodstuffs available.<ref name=Naughton/>

The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] has evaluated the European hare's conservation status as being of [[Least-concern species|least concern]]. However, at low population densities, hares are vulnerable to [[local extinction]]s as the available [[gene pool]] declines, making inbreeding more likely. This is the case in northern Spain and in Greece, where the restocking by hares brought from outside the region has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. To counteract this, a [[captive breeding]] program has been implemented in Spain, and the relocation of some individuals from one location to another has increased genetic variety.<ref name=iucn /> The [[Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Bern Convention]] lists the hare under Appendix III as a protected species.<ref name=Vaughan2003/> Several countries, including Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland,<ref name=iucn /> have placed the species on their Red Lists as "near threatened" or "threatened".<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Reichlin, T. |author2=Klansek, E. |author3=Hackländer, K. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=Diet selection by hares (''Lepus europaeus'') in arable land and its implications for habitat management |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=109–118 |doi=10.1007/s10344-005-0013-3 |bibcode=2006EJWR...52..109R |s2cid=44207794|url=https://boris.unibe.ch/22548/ }}</ref>

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== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080416221654/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/mammals/Lepus_europaeus/ ARKive] Photographs Videos
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/nature/sites/species/mammals/hares.shtml BBC Wales Nature: Brown hare article]
* {{Xeno-canto species|Lepus|europaeus}}
{{Lagomorpha|L.}}
{{English Game}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q26838}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Lepus]]
[[Category:Mammals of Europe|Hare, European]]
[[Category:Mammals of West Asia|Hare, European]]
[[Category:Introduced mammals of Australia]]
[[Category:Mammals of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Mammals of Grenada]]
[[Category:Mammals of Barbados]]
[[Category:Mammals of Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of Asia]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of Europe]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1778]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas]]