Editing Evolutionary ecology

{{Short description|Interaction of biology and evolution}}
{{about|the biological concept|the sociological concept|Ecological-evolutionary theory|the academic journal|Evolutionary Ecology (journal)}}

[[Image:Tree of life.svg|right|thumb|A [[phylogenetic tree]] of living things]]
'''Evolutionary ecology''' lies at the intersection of [[ecology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]. It approaches the study of ecology in a way that explicitly considers the evolutionary histories of species and the interactions between them. Conversely, it can be seen as an approach to the study of evolution that incorporates an understanding of the interactions between the species under consideration. The main subfields of evolutionary ecology are [[Life history theory|life history evolution]], [[sociobiology]] (the [[evolution]] of social [[Ethology|behavior]]), the evolution of interspecific interactions (e.g. [[cooperation]], [[Predator-prey interaction|predator–prey interactions]], [[parasitism]], [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]]) and the evolution of [[biodiversity]] and of [[Community (ecology)|ecological communities]].

Evolutionary ecology mostly considers two things: how interactions (both among species and between species and their physical environment) shape species through selection and adaptation, and the consequences of the resulting evolutionary change.

==Evolutionary models==
{{Evolutionary biology}}
A large part of evolutionary ecology is about utilising models and finding empirical data as proof.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morozov|first=Andrew|date=2013-12-06|title=Modelling biological evolution: recent progress, current challenges and future direction|journal=Interface Focus|volume=3|issue=6|page=20130054|doi=10.1098/rsfs.2013.0054|issn=2042-8898|pmc=3915852}}</ref> Examples include the Lack clutch size model devised by [[David Lack]] and his study of [[Darwin's finches]] on the Galapagos Islands. Lack's study of Darwin's finches was important in analyzing the role of different ecological factors in [[speciation]]. Lack suggested that differences in species were adaptive and produced by [[natural selection]], based on the assertion by G.F. Gause that two species cannot occupy the same niche.<ref>{{ cite encyclopedia| entry=Lack, David Lambert| title= Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography|volume=17|publisher= Charles Scribner's Sons|date= 2008|pages= 521–523|via= Gale Virtual Reference Library | access-date= 10 November 2017 | entry-url= https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX2830905204/GVRL | entry-url-access=subscription | author= Sharon Kingsland}}</ref>

[[Richard Levins]] introduced his model of the specialization of species in 1968, which investigated how habitat specialization evolved within heterogeneous environments using the fitness sets an organism or species possesses. This model developed the concept of spatial scales in specific environments, defining fine-grained spatial scales and coarse-grained spatial scales.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Brown|first1= Joel S.|first2=Noel B. |last2=Pavlovic|title=Evolution in heterogeneous environments: Effects of migration on habitat specialization| journal= Evolutionary Ecology|volume= 6|number= 5|date= 1992|pages= 360–382|doi=10.1007/bf02270698|bibcode= 1992EvEco...6..360B}}.</ref> The implications of this model include a rapid increase in environmental ecologists' understanding of how spatial scales impact species diversity in a certain environment.<ref>{{ cite journal| last1=Hart|first1= Simon P.|first2=Jacob |last2=Usinowicz |first3= Jonathan M. |last3=Levine |title=The spatial scales of species coexistence|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|volume= 1|number= 8|date= 2017|pages= 1066–1073 | doi=10.1038/s41559-017-0230-7|pmid= 29046584|bibcode= 2017NatEE...1.1066H}}</ref>

Another model is Law and Diekmann's 1996 models on [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]], which is defined as a relationship between two organisms that benefits both individuals.<ref>Bronstein, Judith. "Mutualisms and Symbioses." Oxford Bibliographies, 20 Nov 2017, www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0006.xml.</ref> Law and Diekmann developed a framework called adaptive dynamics, which assumes that changes in plant or animal populations in response to a disturbance or lack thereof occurs at a faster rate than mutations occur. It is aimed to simplify other models addressing the relationships within communities.<ref>{{ cite book | author-last=Akçay|author-first= Erol | date=2015|chapter= Evolutionary models of mutualism|editor= Judith L. Bronstein |title= Mutualism |pages= 57–76|place= New York|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

== Tangled nature model ==
The [[tangled nature model]] provides different methods for demonstrating and predicting trends in evolutionary ecology. The model analyzes an individual prone to [[mutation]] within a population as well as other factors such as extinction rate.<ref>{{citation |editor1=Andreas Deutsch |editor2=Rafael Bravo de la Parra |editor3=Rob J. de Boer |editor4=Odo Diekmann |editor5=Peter Jagers |editor6=Eva Kisdi |editor7=Mirjam Kretzschmar |editor8=Petr Lansky |editor9=Hans Metz |title=Mathematical Modeling of Biological Systems, vol. II: Epidemiology, Evolution and Ecology, Immunology, Neural Systems and the Brain, and Innovative Mathematical Methods |author1=Simon Laird |author2=Daniel Lawson |author3=Henrik Jeldtoft Jensen |chapter=The Tangled Nature Model of Evolutionary Ecology: An Overview |s2cid=27173854 |pages= 49–62 |doi=10.1007/978-0-8176-4556-4_5 |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8176-4555-7 | publisher= Birkhäuser}}</ref> The model was developed by Simon Laird, Daniel Lawson, and Henrik Jeldtoft Jensen of the Imperial College London in 2002. The purpose of the model is to create a simple and logical ecological model based on observation. The model is designed such that ecological effects can be accounted for when determining form, and fitness of a population.

== Ecological genetics ==
{{Main|Ecological genetics}}
Ecological genetics tie into evolutionary ecology through the study of how traits evolve in natural populations.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0021214.html |title=Ecological Genetics |publisher=Wiley |date=September 2016 |doi=10.1002/047001590X |isbn=978-0-470-01617-6 |access-date=November 4, 2017}}</ref> Ecologists are concerned with how the environment and timeframe leads to genes becoming dominant. Organisms must continually adapt in order to survive in natural habitats. Genes define which organisms survive and which will die out. When organisms develop different genetic variations, even though they stem from the same species, it is known as polymorphism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Polymorphism |title=Polymorphism |publisher=biology online |date=December 6, 2008 |access-date=November 4, 2017}}</ref> Organisms that pass on beneficial genes continue to evolve their species to have an advantage inside of their niche.

==Evolutionary ecologists==
[[Image:Charles Darwin by Julia Margaret Cameron, c. 1868.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Julia Margaret Cameron]]'s portrait of Darwin]]

=== Charles Darwin ===

The basis of the central principles of evolutionary ecology can be attributed to [[Charles Darwin]] (1809–1882), specifically in referencing his theory of [[natural selection]] and [[population dynamics]], which discusses how populations of a species change over time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sites.nicholas.duke.edu/ecologyapp/modules/population-dynamics/|title=Population Dynamics |work= Nicholas School of the Environment e-cology Project |publisher=Duke University|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-08 | date=2016}}</ref> According to [[Ernst Mayr]], professor of zoology at Harvard University, Darwin's most distinct contributions to evolutionary biology and ecology are as follows: "The first is the non-constancy of species, or the modern conception of [[evolution]] itself. The second is the notion of branching evolution, implying the common descent of all species of living things on earth from a single unique origin."<ref name=mayr>{{Cite news|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/darwins-influence-on-modern-thought/|title=Darwin's Influence on Modern Thought|last=Mayr|first=Ernst|work=Scientific American|access-date=2017-12-08|language=en | date= 2009 | author-link= Ernst Mayr}}</ref> Additionally, "Darwin further noted that evolution must be gradual, with no major breaks or discontinuities. Finally, he reasoned that the mechanism of evolution was natural selection."<ref name=mayr />

=== George Evelyn Hutchinson ===
[[G. Evelyn Hutchinson|George Evelyn Hutchinson's]] (1903–1991) contributions to the field of ecology spanned over 60 years, in which he had significant influence in systems ecology, radiation ecology, [[limnology]], and [[entomology]].<ref name="Slobodkin 1993">{{Cite journal|last=Slobodkin|first=L.B.|date=1993|title=An Appreciation: George Evelyn Hutchinson|jstor=5370|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology|volume=62|issue=2|pages=390–394|doi=10.2307/5370|bibcode=1993JAnEc..62..390S }}</ref> Described as the "father of modern ecology" <ref name="Slobodkin 1993"/> by [[Stephen Jay Gould]], Hutchinson was one of the first scientists to link the subjects of ecology and mathematics. According to Hutchinson, he constructed "mathematical models of populations, the changing proportions of individuals of various ages, birthrate, the [[ecological niche]], and population interaction in this technical introduction to population ecology."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Population Ecology|last=Rockwood|first= Larry L.|date=2006|publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-3263-3|location=Malden, MA|oclc=60322007}}</ref>  He also had a vast interest in limnology, due to his belief that lakes could be studied as a [[microcosm (experimental ecosystem)|microcosm]] that provides insight into system behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hyland|first=Callen|date=Summer 2011|title=The Art of Ecology, Writings of G. Evelyn Hutchinson|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=84|issue=2|pages=175–176|issn=0044-0086|pmc=3117418}}</ref> Hutchinson is also known for his work Circular Causal Systems in Ecology, in which he states that "groups of organisms may be acted upon by their environment, and they may react upon it. If a set of properties in either system changes in such a way that the action of the first system on the second changes, this may cause changes in properties of the second system which alter the mode of action of the second system on the first."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchinson|first=G. Evelyn|date=1948-10-01|title=Circular Causal Systems in Ecology|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=50|issue=4|pages=221–246|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1948.tb39854.x|pmid=18886382|issn=1749-6632|bibcode=1948NYASA..50..221H|s2cid=29091812|df=dmy|author-link=G. Evelyn Hutchinson}}</ref>

=== Robert MacArthur ===

[[Robert H. MacArthur|Robert MacArthur]] (1930–1972) is best known in the field of Evolutionary Ecology for his work ''[[The Theory of Island Biogeography]]'', in which he and his co-author propose "that the number of species on any island reflects a balance between the rate at which new species colonize it and the rate at which populations of established species become [[Extinction|extinct]]."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/Island_Biogeography.html|title=Island Biogeography|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=2017-12-08}}</ref>

=== Eric Pianka ===

According to the University of Texas, [[Eric Pianka]]'s (1939–2022) work in evolutionary ecology includes foraging strategies, reproductive tactics, competition and niche theory, community structure and organization, species diversity, and understanding rarity.<ref name=sps>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/THOC/ERP-Contributions.html|title=Eric Pianka's Contributions to Ecology|website=FS 301. The Human Overpopulation Crisis | author= Eric R. Pianka | publisher= University of Texas Austin |access-date=2017-12-08 | date= 2008 | type= undergraduate course material}}</ref> Pianka is also known for his interest in lizards to study ecological occurrences, as he claimed they were "often abundant, making them relatively easy to locate, observe, and capture."<ref name=sps />{{self-published inline|date=December 2023}}

=== Michael Rosenzweig ===

[[Michael Rosenzweig|Michael L. Rosenzweig]] (1941–present) created and popularized [[Reconciliation ecology]], which began with his theory that designated nature preserves would not be enough land to conserve the [[biodiversity]] of Earth, as humans have used so much land that they have negatively impacted [[biogeochemical cycle]]s and had other ecological impacts that have negatively affected species compositions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Win-win ecology: how the earth's species can survive in the midst of human enterprise|last=Rosenzweig |first=Michael L. |date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-515604-1|location=Oxford|oclc=62866022|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/winwinecologyhow00rose_0}}</ref>

=== Other notable evolutionary ecologists ===
* [[R. A. Fisher]] (1890–1962), whose 1930 [[fundamental theorem of natural selection]] recognised the power of rigorous application of the theory of natural selection to population biology.<ref>Eric R. Pianka. 2011. Evolutionary Ecology. Seventh Edition – eBook. p. 13. Accessed 7 June 2014.</ref>
* [[David Lack]] (1910–1973), a follower of [[Charles Darwin]], worked to merge the fields of [[evolutionary biology]] and [[ecology]], focusing mainly on birds and [[evolution]].
* [[Thierry Lodé]] (1956–present), a French ecologist whose work focused on how sexual conflict in populations of species impacts evolution.<ref>Thierry Lodé 2014. Manifeste pour une écologie évolutive. Eds Odile Jacob, Paris.</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | doi-access= free | last2= Holveck | last1=Lodé| first1= Thierry|first2=Marie-Jeanne |title=Asynchronous arrival pattern, operational sex ratio and occurrence of multiple paternities in a territorial breeding anuran, ''Rana dalmatina'' | journal= Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume= 86|number= 2|date= 2005|pages= 191–200|doi= 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00521.x | author1-link= Thierry Lodé | first3= David | last3= Lesbarrères }}</ref>

==Research==
Michael Rosenzweig's idea of [[reconciliation ecology]] was developed based on existing research, which was conducted on the principle first suggested by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] stating that larger areas of land will have increased species diversity as compared to smaller areas. This research focused on [[Species–area relationship|species-area relationships]] (SPARs) and the different scales on which they exist, ranging from sample-area to interprovincial SPARs. Steady-state dynamics in diversity gave rise to these SPARs, which are now used to measure the reduction of species diversity on Earth. In response to this decline in diversity, Rosenzweig's reconciliation ecology was born.<ref>Rosenzweig, Michael L. "Reconciliation ecology and the future of species diversity." Oryx, vol. 37, no. 02, 10 Feb. 2003, {{doi|10.1017/s0030605303000371}}.</ref>

Evolutionary ecology has been studied using symbiotic relationships between organisms to determine the evolutionary forces by which such relationships develop. In symbiotic relationships, the [[symbiont]] must confer some advantage to its host in order to persist and continue to be evolutionarily viable. Research has been conducted using aphids and the symbiotic bacteria with which they coevolve. These bacteria are most frequently conserved from generation to generation, displaying high levels of [[vertical transmission]]. Results have shown that these symbiotic bacteria ultimately confer some resistance to parasites to their host aphids, which both increases the fitness of the aphids and lead to symbiont-mediated coevolution between the species.<ref>Vorburger, Christoph, et al. "Comparing constitutive and induced costs of symbiont-Conferred resistance to parasitoids in aphids." Ecology and Evolution, vol. 3, no. 3, 2013, pp. 706–13. {{doi|10.1002/ece3.491}}.</ref>

== Examples ==
=== Color variation in cichlid fish ===

The effects of evolutionary ecology and its consequences can be seen in the case of color variation among African [[cichlid]] fish. With over 2,000 species, cichlid fishes are very species-rich and capable of complex social interactions.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Functional diversity in the color vision of cichlid fishes |journal=BMC Biology |volume=8 |page=133 |date=October 28, 2010 |doi=10.1186/1741-7007-8-133 |pmid=21029409 |pmc=2988715 |last1=Sabbah |first1=Shai |last2=Laria |first2=Raico |last3=Gray |first3=Suzanne M |last4=Hawryshyn |first4=Craig W |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Polychromatism]], the variation of color patterns within a population, occurs within cichlid fishes due to environmental adaptations and to increase chances of sexual reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evolution of colour patterns in East African cichlid fish |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=12 |issue=3 |page=514 |date=December 25, 2001 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00055.x |last1=Seehausen |last2=Mayhew |last3=Alphen |first3=J. J. M. Van |s2cid=19031252 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Evolutionary Ecology (journal)]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|2}}
* Fox, C.W., Roff, D.A. and Fairbairn, D.J. 2001. Evolutionary Ecology: Concepts and Case Studies. Oxford University Press.
* Mayhew, P.J. 2006. Discovering Evolutionary Ecology: Bringing Together Ecology and Evolution. Oxford University Press.
* Pianka, E.R. 2000. Evolutionary Ecology, 6th ed. Benjamin Cummings.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://www.evolutionary-ecology.com/ ''Evolutionary Ecology Research''] – a journal in the field.
*[http://www.methodsinecologyandevolution.org ''Methods in Ecology and Evolution''] – a journal in the field.
*[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)2045-7758 ''Ecology and Evolution''] – Wiley
*[https://link.springer.com/journal/10682  ''Evolutionary Ecology''] – Springer

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[[Category:Evolutionary ecology| ]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]