Editing Exotic sphere

{{Short description|Smooth manifold that is homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic to a sphere}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
In an area of mathematics called [[differential topology]], an '''exotic sphere''' is a [[differentiable manifold]] ''M'' that is [[homeomorphic]] but not [[diffeomorphic]] to the standard Euclidean [[n-sphere|''n''-sphere]]. That is, ''M'' is a sphere from the point of view of all its topological properties, but carrying a [[smooth structure]] that is not the familiar one (hence the name "exotic").

The first exotic spheres were constructed by {{harvs|authorlink=John Milnor|first=John|last=Milnor|year=1956|txt=yes}} in  dimension <math>n = 7</math> as <math>S^3</math>-[[Fiber bundle|bundles]] over <math>S^4</math>. He showed that there are at least 7 differentiable structures on the 7-sphere. In any dimension {{harvtxt|Milnor|1959}} showed that the [[diffeomorphism class]]es of oriented exotic spheres form the non-trivial elements of an [[abelian monoid]] under [[connected sum]], which is a [[Finite group|finite]] [[abelian group]] if the dimension is not 4. The classification of exotic spheres by {{harvs |authorlink1=Michel Kervaire |first1=Michel |last1=Kervaire |last2=Milnor |year=1963 |txt=yes}} showed that the [[orientability|oriented]] exotic 7-spheres are the non-trivial elements of a [[cyclic group]] of order 28 under the operation of [[connected sum]]. These groups are known as [[Kervaire–Milnor group|Kervaire–Milnor groups]].

More generally, in any dimension ''n ≠ 4'', there is a finite Abelian group whose elements  are the equivalence classes of smooth structures on ''S''<sup>n</sup>, where two structures are considered equivalent if there is an orientation preserving diffeomorphism carrying one structure onto the other. The group operation is defined by [x] + [y]  =  [x + y], where x and y are arbitrary representatives of their equivalence classes, and ''x + y'' denotes the smooth structure on the smooth ''S''<sup>n</sup> that is the connected sum of x and y. It is necessary to show that such a definition does not depend on the choices made; indeed this can be shown.

==Introduction==
The unit ''n''-sphere, <math>S^n</math>, is the set of all [[tuple|(''n''+1)-tuples]] <math>(x_1, x_2, \ldots , x_{n+1})</math> of real numbers, such that the sum <math>x_1^2 + x_2^2 + \cdots + x_{n+1}^2 = 1</math>. For instance, <math>S^1</math> is a circle, while <math>S^2</math> is the surface of an ordinary ball of radius one in 3 dimensions. Topologists consider a space ''X'' to be an ''n''-sphere if there is a [[homeomorphism]] between them, i.e. every point in ''X'' may be assigned to exactly one point in the unit ''n''-sphere by a continuous bijection with continuous inverse. For example, a point ''x'' on an ''n''-sphere of radius ''r'' can be matched homeomorphically with a point on the unit ''n''-sphere by multiplying its distance from the origin by <math>1/r</math>. Similarly, an ''n''-cube of any radius is homeomorphic to an ''n''-sphere.

In [[differential topology]], two smooth manifolds are considered smoothly equivalent if there exists a [[diffeomorphism]] from one to the other, which is a homeomorphism between them, with the additional condition that it be [[smooth function|smooth]] — that is, it should have [[derivative]]s of all orders at all its points — and its inverse homeomorphism must also be smooth. To calculate derivatives, one needs to have local coordinate systems defined consistently in ''X''. Mathematicians (including Milnor himself) were surprised in 1956 when Milnor showed that consistent local coordinate systems could be set up on the 7-sphere in two different ways that were equivalent in the continuous sense, but not in the differentiable sense. Milnor and others set about trying to discover how many such exotic spheres could exist in each dimension and to understand how they relate to each other. No exotic structures are possible on the 1-, 2-, 3-, 5-, 6-, 12-, 56- or 61-sphere.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Behrens|first1=M.|last2=Hill|first2=M.|last3=Hopkins|first3=M. J.|last4=Mahowald|first4=M.|date=2020|title=Detecting exotic spheres in low dimensions using coker J|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1112/jlms.12301|journal=Journal of the London Mathematical Society|language=en|volume=101|issue=3|pages=1173–1218|arxiv=1708.06854|doi=10.1112/jlms.12301|s2cid=119170255 |issn=1469-7750}}</ref> Some higher-dimensional spheres have only two possible differentiable structures, others have thousands. Whether exotic 4-spheres exist, and if so how many, is an [[List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]].

==Classification==
The monoid of [[smooth structure]]s on ''n''-spheres is the collection of oriented smooth ''n''-manifolds which are homeomorphic to the ''n''-sphere, taken up to orientation-preserving diffeomorphism.  The monoid operation is the [[connected sum]]. Provided <math>n\ne  4</math>,  this monoid is a group and is isomorphic to the group <math>\Theta_n</math>  of [[H-cobordism|''h''-cobordism]] classes of oriented [[homotopy sphere|homotopy ''n''-spheres]], which is finite and abelian. In dimension 4 almost nothing is known about the monoid of smooth spheres, beyond the facts that it is finite or countably infinite, and abelian, though it is suspected to be infinite; see the section on [[#4-dimensional exotic spheres and Gluck twists|Gluck twist]]s. All homotopy ''n''-spheres are homeomorphic to the ''n''-sphere by the [[generalized Poincaré conjecture]], proved by [[Stephen Smale]] in dimensions bigger than 4, [[Michael Freedman]] in dimension 4, and [[Grigori Perelman]] in dimension 3. In dimension 3, [[Edwin E. Moise]] proved that every topological manifold has an essentially unique smooth structure (see [[Moise's theorem]]), so the monoid of smooth structures on the 3-sphere is trivial.

=== Parallelizable manifolds===
The group <math>\Theta_n</math>  has a cyclic subgroup

:<math>bP_{n+1}</math>

represented by ''n''-spheres that bound [[parallelizable manifold]]s. The structures of <math>bP_{n+1}</math> and the quotient

:<math>\Theta_n/bP_{n+1}</math>

are described separately in the paper {{harvs|authorlink1=Michel Kervaire|last1=Kervaire|last2=Milnor|authorlink2=John Milnor|year=1963}}, which was influential in the development of [[surgery theory]]. In fact, these calculations can be formulated in a modern language in terms of the [[surgery exact sequence]] as indicated [[surgery exact sequence#Examples|here]].

The group <math>bP_{n+1}</math> is a cyclic group, and is trivial or order 2 except in case <math>n = 4k+3</math>, in which case it can be large, with its order related to the [[Bernoulli number]]s. It is trivial if ''n'' is even. If ''n'' is 1 mod 4 it has order 1 or 2; in particular it has order 1 if ''n'' is 1, 5,  13,  29, or 61, and {{harvs|txt|first=William|last=Browder|authorlink=William Browder (mathematician)|year=1969}} proved that it has order 2 if <math>n = 1</math> mod 4 is not of the form <math>2^k - 3</math>. It follows from the now almost completely resolved [[Kervaire invariant]] problem that it has order 2 for all ''n'' bigger than 126; the case <math>n = 126</math> is still open. The order of <math>bP_{4k}</math> for <math>k\ge 2</math> is

:<math>2^{2k-2}(2^{2k-1}-1)B,</math>

where ''B'' is the numerator of <math>4B_{2k}/k</math>, and <math>B_{2k}</math> is a [[Bernoulli number]]. (The formula in the topological literature differs slightly because topologists use a different convention for naming Bernoulli numbers; this article uses the number theorists' convention.)

===Map between quotients===
The quotient group <math>\Theta_n/bP_{n+1}</math> has a description in terms of [[stable homotopy groups of spheres]] modulo the image of the [[J-homomorphism]]; it is either equal to the quotient or index 2. More precisely there is an injective map
:<math>\Theta_n/bP_{n+1}\to \pi_n^S/J,</math>
where <math>\pi_n^S</math> is the ''n''th stable homotopy group of spheres, and ''J'' is the image of the ''J''-homomorphism. As with <math>bP_{n+1}</math>, the image of ''J'' is a cyclic group, and is trivial or order 2 except in case <math>n = 4k+3</math>, in which case it can be large, with its order related to the [[Bernoulli number]]s. The quotient group <math>\pi_n^S/J</math> is the "hard" part of the stable homotopy groups of spheres, and accordingly <math>\Theta_n/bP_{n+1}</math> is the hard part of the exotic spheres, but almost completely reduces to computing homotopy groups of spheres. The map is either an isomorphism (the image is the whole group), or an injective map with [[Index of a subgroup|index]] 2. The latter is the case if and only if there exists an ''n''-dimensional framed manifold with [[Kervaire invariant]] 1, which is known as the [[Kervaire invariant problem]]. Thus a factor of 2 in the classification of exotic spheres depends on the Kervaire invariant problem.

The Kervaire invariant problem is almost completely solved, with only the case <math>n=126</math> remaining open, although Zhouli Xu (in collaboration with Weinan Lin and Guozhen Wang), announced during a seminar at Princeton University, on May 30, 2024, that the final case of dimension 126 has been settled and that there exist manifolds of Kervaire invariant 1 in dimension 126.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Computing differentials in the Adams spectral sequence {{!}} Math |url=https://www.math.princeton.edu/events/computing-differentials-adams-spectral-sequence-2024-05-30t170000 |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=www.math.princeton.edu}}</ref> Previous work of {{harvtxt|Browder|1969}}, proved that such manifolds only existed in dimension <math>n=2^j-2</math>, and {{harvtxt|Hill|Hopkins|Ravenel|2016}}, which proved that there were no such manifolds for dimension <math>254=2^8-2</math> and above. Manifolds with Kervaire invariant 1 have been constructed in dimension 2, 6, 14, 30. While it is known that there are manifolds of Kervaire invariant 1 in dimension 62, no such manifold has yet been constructed. Similarly for dimension 126.

===Order of Θ<sub>n</sub>===
The order of the group <math>\Theta_n</math> is given in this table {{OEIS|id=A001676}} from {{harv|Kervaire|Milnor|1963}} (except that the entry for <math>n = 19</math> is wrong by a factor of 2 in their paper; see the correction in volume III p.&nbsp;97 of Milnor's collected works).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Dim  n !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! 11 !! 12 !! 13 !! 14 !! 15 !! 16 !! 17 !! 18 !! 19 !! 20
|-
! order <math>\Theta_n</math>
| 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 28 || 2 || 8 || 6 || 992 || 1 || 3 || 2 || 16256 || 2 || 16 || 16 || 523264 || 24
|-
!<math>bP_{n+1}</math>
| 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 28 || 1 || 2 || 1 || 992 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 8128 || 1 || 2 || 1 || 261632 || 1
|-
!<math>\Theta_n/bP_{n+1}</math>
| 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 2 || 2×2 || 6 || 1 || 1 || 3 || 2 || 2 || 2 || 2×2×2 || 8×2 || 2 || 24
|-
!<math>\pi_n^S/J</math> 
| 1 || 2 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 2 || 1 || 2 || 2×2 || 6 || 1 || 1 || 3 || 2×2 || 2 || 2 || 2×2×2 || 8×2 || 2 || 24
|-
!index
| – || 2 || – || – || – || 2 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 2 || – || – || – || – || – || –
|}

Note that for dim <math>n = 4k - 1</math>, then <math>\theta_n</math> are <math>28 = 2^2(2^3-1)</math>, <math>992 = 2^5(2^5 - 1)</math>, <math>16256 = 2^7(2^7 - 1) </math>, and <math>523264 = 2^{10}(2^9 - 1)  </math>. Further entries in this table can be computed from the information above together with the table of [[stable homotopy groups of spheres]].

By computations of stable homotopy groups of spheres, {{harvtxt|Wang|Xu|2017}} proves that the sphere {{math|''S''<sup>61</sup>}} has a unique smooth structure, and that it is the last odd-dimensional sphere with this property – the only ones are {{math|''S''<sup>1</sup>}}, {{math|''S''<sup>3</sup>}}, {{math|''S''<sup>5</sup>}}, and {{math|''S''<sup>61</sup>}}.

==Explicit examples of exotic spheres==

{{quote box
|align=right
|width=33%
|quote=  When I came upon such an example in the mid-50s, I was very puzzled and didn't know what to make of it. At first, I thought I'd found a counterexample to the generalized Poincaré conjecture in dimension seven. But careful study showed that the manifold really was homeomorphic to <math>S^7</math>. Thus, there exists a differentiable structure on <math>S^7</math> not diffeomorphic to the standard one.
|source={{harvs|txt|first=John|last=Milnor|year=2009|loc=p.12}}
}}

=== Milnor's construction ===
{{Main|Milnor's sphere}}
One of the first examples of an exotic sphere found by {{harvtxt|Milnor|1956|loc=section 3}} was the following. Let <math id="en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_(Mathemathics)">B^4</math> be the unit ball in <math>\R^4</math>, and let <math>S^3</math> be its [[Boundary (topology)|boundary]]—a 3-sphere which we identify with the group of unit [[quaternion]]s. Now take two copies of <math>B^4 \times S^3</math>, each with boundary <math>S^3 \times S^3</math>, and glue them together by identifying <math>(a,b)</math> in the first boundary with <math>(a,a^2ba^{-1})</math> in the second boundary. The resulting manifold has a natural smooth structure and is homeomorphic to <math>S^7</math>, but is not diffeomorphic to <math>S^7</math>. Milnor showed that it is not the boundary of any smooth 8-manifold with vanishing 4th Betti number, and has no orientation-reversing diffeomorphism to itself; either of these properties implies that it is not a standard 7-sphere. Milnor showed that this manifold has a [[Morse function]] with just two [[critical point (mathematics)|critical points]], both non-degenerate, which implies that it is topologically a sphere.

=== Brieskorn spheres ===
{{Main|Brieskorn manifold}}

As shown by {{harvs|txt=yes|first=Egbert |last=Brieskorn|author-link=Egbert Brieskorn|year=1966|year2=1966b}} (see also {{harv|Hirzebruch|Mayer|1968}}) the intersection of the [[complex manifold]] of points in <math>\Complex^5</math> satisfying
:<math>a^2 + b^2 + c^2 + d^3 + e^{6k-1} = 0\ </math>
with a small sphere around the origin for <math>k = 1, 2, \ldots, 28</math> gives all 28 possible smooth structures on the oriented 7-sphere. Similar manifolds are called [[Brieskorn sphere]]s.

==Twisted spheres==
Given an (orientation-preserving) diffeomorphism <math>f\colon S^{n-1} \to   S^{n-1}</math>, gluing the boundaries of two copies of the standard disk <math>D^n</math> together by ''f'' yields a manifold called a ''twisted sphere'' (with ''twist'' ''f''). It is homotopy equivalent to the standard ''n''-sphere because the gluing map is homotopic to the identity (being an orientation-preserving diffeomorphism, hence degree 1), but not in general diffeomorphic to the standard sphere. {{harv|Milnor|1959b}}
Setting <math>\Gamma_n</math> to be the group of twisted ''n''-spheres (under connect sum), one obtains the exact sequence
:<math>\pi_0\operatorname{Diff}^+(D^n) \to \pi_0\operatorname{Diff}^+(S^{n-1}) \to \Gamma_n \to 0.</math>

For <math>n>5</math>, every exotic ''n''-sphere is diffeomorphic to a twisted sphere, a result proven by [[Stephen Smale]] which can be seen as a consequence of the [[H-cobordism#Precise statement of the h-cobordism theorem|''h''-cobordism theorem]]. (In contrast, in the [[Piecewise linear manifold|piecewise linear]] setting the left-most map is onto via [[Alexander Trick#Radial extension|radial extension]]: every piecewise-linear-twisted sphere is standard.) The group <math>\Gamma_n</math> of twisted spheres is always isomorphic to the group <math>\Theta_n</math>. The notations are different because it was not known at first that they were the same for <math>n = 3</math> or 4; for example, the case <math>n = 3</math> is equivalent to the [[Poincaré conjecture]].

In 1970 [[Jean Cerf]] proved the [[pseudoisotopy theorem]] which implies that <math>\pi_0 \operatorname{Diff}^+(D^n)</math> is the trivial group provided <math>n \geq 6</math>, and so <math>\Gamma_n \simeq \pi_0 \operatorname{Diff}^+(S^{n-1})</math> provided <math>n \geq 6</math>.

==Applications==
If ''M'' is a [[piecewise linear manifold]] then the problem of finding the compatible smooth structures on ''M'' depends on knowledge of the groups {{nowrap|1=Γ<sub>''k''</sub> = Θ<sub>''k''</sub>}}. More precisely, the obstructions to the existence of any smooth structure lie in the groups {{nowrap|H<sub>''k+1''</sub>(''M'', Γ<sub>''k''</sub>)}} for various values of ''k'', while if such a smooth structure exists then all such smooth structures can be  classified using the groups {{nowrap|H<sub>''k''</sub>(''M'', Γ<sub>''k''</sub>)}}.
In particular the groups Γ<sub>''k''</sub> vanish if {{nowrap|''k'' &lt; 7}}, so all PL manifolds of dimension at most 7 have a smooth structure, which is essentially unique if the manifold has dimension at most 6.

The following finite abelian groups are essentially the same:
*The group Θ<sub>''n''</sub> of h-cobordism classes of oriented homotopy ''n''-spheres.
*The group  of h-cobordism classes of oriented ''n''-spheres.
*The group  Γ<sub>''n''</sub> of twisted oriented ''n''-spheres.
*The homotopy group {{pi}}<sub>''n''</sub>(PL/DIFF)
*If {{nowrap|''n'' ≠ 3}}, the homotopy group {{pi}}<sub>''n''</sub>(TOP/DIFF) (if {{nowrap|1=''n'' = 3}} this group has order 2; see [[Kirby–Siebenmann invariant]]).
*The group of smooth structures of an oriented PL ''n''-sphere.
*If {{nowrap|''n'' ≠ 4}}, the group of smooth structures of an oriented topological ''n''-sphere.
*If {{nowrap|''n'' &ne; 5}}, the group of components of the group of all orientation-preserving diffeomorphisms of ''S''<sup>''n''&minus;1</sup>.

==4-dimensional exotic spheres and Gluck twists==
In 4 dimensions it is not known whether there are any exotic smooth structures on the 4-sphere. The statement that they do not exist is known as the "smooth Poincaré conjecture", and is discussed by {{harvs|txt | last1=Freedman | first1=Michael | authorlink1=Michael Freedman| last2=Gompf | first2=Robert | authorlink2=Robert Gompf| last3=Morrison | first3=Scott | last4=Walker | first4=Kevin | year=2010}} who say that it is believed to be false.

Some candidates proposed for exotic 4-spheres are the Cappell–Shaneson spheres ({{harvs|txt|last1=Cappell|first1=Sylvain|authorlink1=Sylvain Cappell|last2=Shaneson|first2=Julius|authorlink2=Julius Shaneson|year=1976}}) and those derived by '''Gluck twists''' {{harv|Gluck|1962}}. Gluck twist spheres are constructed by cutting out a tubular neighborhood of a 2-sphere ''S'' in ''S''<sup>4</sup> and gluing it back in using a diffeomorphism of its boundary ''S''<sup>2</sup>×''S''<sup>1</sup>. The result is always homeomorphic to ''S''<sup>4</sup>. Many cases over the years were ruled out as possible counterexamples to the smooth 4 dimensional Poincaré conjecture. For example, {{harvs|txt|last=Gordon|first=Cameron|authorlink=Cameron Gordon (mathematician)| year=1976}}, {{harvs|txt|last=Montesinos|first=José|year=1983}}, {{harvs|txt|last=Plotnick|first=Steven P. |year=1984}}, {{harvtxt|Gompf|1991}}, {{harvtxt|Habiro|Marumoto|Yamada|2000}}, {{harvs|txt|last=Akbulut|first=Selman|authorlink=Selman Akbulut| year=2010}}, {{harvtxt|Gompf|2010}}, {{harvtxt|Kim | Yamada|2017}}.

==See also==
*[[Milnor's sphere]]
*[[Gromoll–Meyer sphere]], special Milnor sphere
*[[Atlas (topology)]]
*[[Clutching construction]]
*[[Exotic R4|Exotic '''R'''<sup>4</sup>]]
*[[Cerf theory]]
*[[Seven-dimensional space]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{Citation | last1=Akbulut | first1=Selman | author-link=Selman Akbulut| title=Cappell–Shaneson homotopy spheres are standard |journal=[[Annals of Mathematics]] |volume=171 | issue=3 |year=2010 |pages=2171&ndash;2175 |doi=10.4007/annals.2010.171.2171  |arxiv=0907.0136 | s2cid=754611 }}
*{{citation |mr=0198497 |last=Brieskorn |first= Egbert V. |author-link=Egbert Brieskorn| title=Examples of singular normal complex spaces which are topological manifolds |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume= 55|year= 1966|pages= 1395–1397 |issue=6 |doi=10.1073/pnas.55.6.1395 |pmid=16578636 |pmc=224331|bibcode=1966PNAS...55.1395B|doi-access=free }}
*{{citation |mr=0206972 |last=Brieskorn |first= Egbert |author-link=Egbert Brieskorn| title=Beispiele zur Differentialtopologie von Singularitäten |journal=Invent. Math. |volume=2 |year=1966b |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1007/BF01403388|bibcode=1966InMat...2....1B |s2cid=123268657 }}
*{{citation |mr=0251736 |first=William |last=Browder |author-link=William Browder (mathematician)| title=The Kervaire invariant of framed manifolds and its generalization |journal= [[Annals of Mathematics]] |volume= 90 |year=1969 |pages= 157–186 |doi=10.2307/1970686 |jstor=1970686 |issue=1}}
*{{Citation | last1=Cappell | first1=Sylvain E. | authorlink1=Sylvain Cappell| last2=Shaneson | first2=Julius L. | authorlink2=Julius Shaneson| title=Some new four-manifolds | journal= [[Annals of Mathematics]] | year=1976  | volume=104  | issue=1 | pages=61–72 | doi=10.2307/1971056 | jstor=1971056 }}
*{{Citation | last1=Freedman | first1=Michael |authorlink1=Michael Freedman|  last2=Gompf | first2=Robert | last3=Morrison | first3=Scott | last4=Walker | first4=Kevin | title=Man and machine thinking about the smooth 4-dimensional Poincaré conjecture | arxiv=0906.5177 | year=2010 | journal= Quantum Topology | volume=1 | issue=2 | pages=171–208 | doi=10.4171/qt/5| s2cid=18029746 }}
*{{citation |first=Herman |last=Gluck |title=The embedding of two-spheres in the four-sphere |journal=[[Transactions of the American Mathematical Society]] |volume=104 |year=1962 |pages=308&ndash;333 |mr= 0146807 |issue=2 |doi=10.2307/1993581 |jstor=1993581 |doi-access=free }}
*{{citation |last1=Hughes|first1=Mark|last2=Kim|first2=Seungwon|last3=Miller|first3=Maggie|title=Gluck Twists Of ''S''<sup>4</sup> Are Diffeomorphic to ''S''<sup>4</sup>|year=2018|arxiv=1804.09169v1}}
*{{citation |first=Robert E |last=Gompf |author-link=Robert Gompf| title=Killing the Akbulut-Kirby 4-sphere, with relevance to the Andres-Curtis and Schoenflies problems |journal=[[Topology (journal)|Topology]] |volume=30 |year=1991 |pages=123&ndash;136 |doi=10.1016/0040-9383(91)90036-4 |doi-access=free }}
*{{citation |first=Robert E |last=Gompf |author-link=Robert Gompf| title=More Cappell-Shaneson spheres are standard |journal=[[Algebraic & Geometric Topology]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |year=2010 |pages=1665&ndash;1681 |doi=10.2140/agt.2010.10.1665 |arxiv=0908.1914 |s2cid=16936498 }}
*{{citation |first=Cameron McA. |last=Gordon |author-link=Cameron Gordon (mathematician)| title=Knots in the 4-sphere |journal=[[Commentarii Mathematici Helvetici]] |volume=51 |year=1976 |pages=585&ndash;596 |doi=10.1007/BF02568175 |s2cid=119479183 }}
*{{citation |first1=Kazuo |last1=Habiro |first2=Yoshihiko | last2=Marumoto | first3=Yuichi| last3=Yamada |title=Gluck surgery and framed links in 4-manifolds |journal=Series on Knots and Everything |volume=24 |year=2000 |pages=80–93 | publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9810243401 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=Michael A. |last2=Hopkins |first2=Michael J. |author2-link=Michael J. Hopkins| last3=Ravenel |first3=Douglas C. |author3-link=Douglas Ravenel| date=2016 |orig-year=First published via arXiv in 2009 |title=On the non-existence of elements of Kervaire invariant one |journal=[[Annals of Mathematics]] |volume=184 |issue=1 |pages=1–262 |doi=10.4007/annals.2016.184.1.1  |arxiv=0908.3724 |s2cid=13007483 }}
*{{citation |first1=Friedrich |last1=Hirzebruch |first2= Karl Heinz |last2=Mayer |title=O(n)-Mannigfaltigkeiten, exotische Sphären und Singularitäten |series= Lecture Notes in Mathematics |volume= 57 |publisher= [[Springer-Verlag]] |location= Berlin-New York |year= 1968 |mr= 0229251 |doi=10.1007/BFb0074355|isbn=978-3-540-04227-3 }} This book describes Brieskorn's work relating exotic spheres to singularities of complex manifolds.
*{{cite journal| first1 = Michel A. | last1 = Kervaire | authorlink1 = Michel Kervaire | first2 = John W. | last2 = Milnor | authorlink2 = John Milnor | url = http://www.uni-math.gwdg.de/schick/publ/Groups%20of%20homotopy%20spheres%20I.pdf | title = Groups of homotopy spheres: I | journal = [[Annals of Mathematics]] | volume = 77 | year = 1963 | issue = 3 | pages = 504–537 | doi = 10.2307/1970128| jstor = 1970128| mr = 0148075}} – This paper describes the structure of the group of smooth structures on an ''n''-sphere for ''n'' > 4. The promised paper "Groups of Homotopy Spheres: II" never appeared, but Levine's lecture notes contain the material which it might have been expected to contain.
*{{citation| first1 = Min Hoon | last1 = Kim  | first2 = Shohei | last2 = Yamada | title = Ideal classes and Cappell-Shaneson homotopy 4-spheres | arxiv=1707.03860v1| year = 2017}}
*{{citation |first=Jerome P. |last=Levine |author-link=Jerome Levine| title=Algebraic and geometric topology |chapter=Lectures on groups of homotopy spheres |series=Lecture Notes in Mathematics |volume=1126 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=Berlin-New York |year=1985 |pages=62–95 |mr=8757031 |doi=10.1007/BFb0074439|isbn=978-3-540-15235-4 }}
*{{citation|first=John W.|last= Milnor |s2cid= 18780087 |author-link = John Milnor | title=On manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere|journal= [[Annals of Mathematics]] |volume=64|year=1956|issue= 2 |pages=399–405|mr= 0082103|doi=10.2307/1969983|jstor=1969983}}
*{{citation|first=John W.|last= Milnor|author-link = John Milnor |title=Sommes de variétés différentiables et structures différentiables des sphères|journal=[[Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France]] |volume=87|year=1959|pages= 439–444|mr= 0117744|doi= 10.24033/bsmf.1538|doi-access=free}}
*{{citation|first=John W.|last= Milnor |author-link = John Milnor | title=Differentiable structures on spheres|journal= [[American Journal of Mathematics]]|volume=81|year=1959b|issue= 4|pages= 962–972|mr= 0110107|doi=10.2307/2372998|jstor=2372998}}
*{{citation|mr=1747528|last= Milnor|first= John |author-link = John Milnor |chapter=Classification of <math>(n-1)</math>-connected <math>2n</math>-dimensional manifolds and the discovery of exotic spheres|pages=25–30| title = Surveys on Surgery Theory: Volume 1 | series = Annals of Mathematics Studies 145 | editor1-first = Sylvain | editor1-last = Cappell | editor1-link=Sylvain Cappell | editor2-first = Andrew | editor2-last = Ranicki | editor2-link=Andrew Ranicki | editor3-first = Jonathan | editor3-last = Rosenberg| editor3-link=Jonathan Rosenberg (mathematician) | year= 2000 | publisher = Princeton University Press | isbn = 9780691049380}}.
*{{Citation | last1=Milnor | first1=John Willard | author1-link=John Milnor | editor1-last=Mrowka | editor1-first=Tomasz S. | editor1-link = Tomasz Mrowka | editor2-last=Ozsváth | editor2-first=Peter S. | editor2-link= Peter Ozsváth | title=Low dimensional topology. Lecture notes from the 15th Park City Mathematics Institute (PCMI) Graduate Summer School held in Park City, UT, Summer 2006. | chapter-url=http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~jack/PREPRINTS/pcity-lec.pdf | publisher=American Mathematical Society | location=Providence, R.I. | series=IAS/Park City Math. Ser. | isbn=978-0-8218-4766-4  | mr=2503491 | year=2009 | volume=15 | chapter=Fifty years ago: topology of manifolds in the 50s and 60s | pages=9–20}}
*{{citation|first=John W.|last= Milnor |author-link=John Milnor | title=Differential topology forty-six years later|journal= [[Notices of the American Mathematical Society]] |volume=58|year=2011|issue= 6 |pages=804&ndash;809|url=https://www.ams.org/notices/201106/rtx110600804p.pdf}}
*{{citation|first=José M.|last= Montesinos |title=On twins in the four-sphere I|journal= [[The Quarterly Journal of Mathematics]] |volume=34|year=1983|issue= 6 |pages=171&ndash;199|doi=10.1093/qmath/34.2.171|url= https://eprints.ucm.es/17187/1/On%20twins%20in%20the%20four%20sphere.pdf }}
*{{citation|title=Fibered knots in <math>S^4</math> – twisted, spinning, rolling, surgery, and branching| last=Plotnick| first=Steven P|publisher=American Mathematical Society, Contemporary Mathematics Volume 35|pages=437&ndash;459 | year=1984|isbn=978-0-8218-5033-6 | editor-first=Cameron McA. |editor-last=Gordon |editor-link=Cameron Gordon (mathematician)}}.
* {{citation
 |last1= Wang
 |first1= Guozhen
 |last2= Xu
 |first2= Zhouli
 |title= The triviality of the 61-stem in the stable homotopy groups of spheres
 |journal= [[Annals of Mathematics]]
 |volume= 186
 |year= 2017
 |issue= 2
 |pages= 501–580
 |doi=10.4007/annals.2017.186.2.3
 |mr= 3702672
 |arxiv= 1601.02184
 |s2cid= 119147703
 }}.
*{{springer|title=Milnor sphere|id=M/m063800|first=Yuli B.| last=Rudyak}}

== External links ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110401030522/http://www.manifoldatlas.him.uni-bonn.de/Exotic_spheres Exotic spheres] on the Manifold Atlas
*[http://www.maths.ed.ac.uk/~aar/exotic.htm Exotic sphere home page] on the home page of Andrew Ranicki. Assorted source material relating to exotic spheres.
*[http://www.nilesjohnson.net/seven-manifolds.html An animation of exotic 7-spheres] Video from a presentation by [http://www.nilesjohnson.net/ Niles Johnson] at the [http://www.ima.umn.edu/2011-2012/SW1.30-2.1.12/ Second Abel conference] in honor of [[John Milnor]].
*[http://www.map.mpim-bonn.mpg.de/Gluck_construction#References The Gluck construction] on the Manifold Atlas

[[Category:Differential topology]]
[[Category:Differential structures]]
[[Category:Surgery theory]]
[[Category:Spheres]]