Editing Fagus sylvatica

{{Short description|Species of deciduous tree}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Fagus-sylvatica-cansiglio-forest-italy.jpg
| image_caption = [[Alps conifer and mixed forests|Alpine forest]] ([[Italy]])
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn |author=Barstow, M. |author2=Beech, E. |year=2018 |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T62004722A62004725 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T62004722A62004725.en |access-date=21 July 2023}}
</ref>
| genus = Fagus
| species = sylvatica
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| range_map = Fagus sylvatica range.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution map<br/>{{Color box|#70A800}} Native<br/>{{Color box|#FFD37F}} Introduced and naturalized
| synonyms = {{hidden begin}}
*''Castanea fagus'' Scop.
*''Fagus aspleniifolia'' (Dum.Cours.) Raf.
*''Fagus comptoniifolia'' Desf.
*''Fagus cuprea'' Hurter ex A.DC.
*''Fagus echinata'' Gilib.
*''Fagus incisa'' Dippel
*''Fagus laciniata'' A.DC.
*''Fagus purpurea'' (Aiton) Dum.Cours.
*''Fagus purpurea var. roseomarginata'' Cripps
*''Fagus purpurea tricolor'' (Simon-Louis ex K.Koch) Pynaert
*''Fagus sylvatica var. aenea'' Dum.Cours.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. albovariegata'' Weston
*''Fagus sylvatica f. albovariegata'' (Weston) Domin
*''Fagus sylvatica var. aspleniifolia'' Dum.Cours.
*''Fagus sylvatica f. aspleniifolia'' (Dum.Cours.) C.K.Schneid.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. atropunicea'' Weston
*''Fagus sylvatica f. atropunicea'' (Weston) Domin
*''Fagus sylvatica f. aureovariegata'' C.K.Schneid.
*''Fagus sylvatica f. bornyensis'' Simon-Louis ex Beissn.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. cochleata'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica var. colorata'' A.DC.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. coriacea'' Wallr.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. cristata'' Dum.Cours.
*''Fagus sylvatica f. cristata'' (Dum.Cours.) Schelle
*''Fagus sylvatica f. fastigiata'' Simon-Louis ex K.Koch
*''Fagus sylvatica var. foliis-striatis'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica var. grandidentata'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica var. heterophylla'' Loudon
*''Fagus sylvatica var. laciniata'' Vignet
*''Fagus sylvatica f. laciniata'' (Vignet) Domin
*''Fagus sylvatica var. latifolia'' Loudon
*''Fagus sylvatica f. luteovariegata'' (Weston) Domin
*''Fagus sylvatica var. luteovariegata'' Weston
*''Fagus sylvatica var. miltonensis'' A.Henry
*''Fagus sylvatica pendula'' (Dum.Cours.) Lodd.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. pendula'' Dum.Cours.
*''Fagus sylvatica f. pendula'' (Dum.Cours.) Schelle
*''Fagus sylvatica pendula-purpurea'' Graebener
*''Fagus sylvatica var. purpurea'' Aiton in Hortus Kew. 3: 362 (1789)
*''Fagus sylvatica f. purpurea'' (Aiton) Schelle
*''Fagus sylvatica purpurea-latifolia'' Jacob-Makoy
*''Fagus sylvatica purpurea-pendula'' Van Geert
*''Fagus sylvatica var. purpureopendula'' H.Jaeger
*''Fagus sylvatica f. purpureopendula'' (H.Jaeger) Rehder
*''Fagus sylvatica var. pyramidalis'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica f. quercifolia'' C.K.Schneid.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. quercifolia'' (C.K.Schneid.) Geerinck
*''Fagus sylvatica var. quercoides'' Pers.
*''Fagus sylvatica f. quercoides'' (Pers.) Aug.DC.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. remillyensis'' (Simon-Louis) A.Henry
*''Fagus sylvatica remillyensis'' Simon-Louis
*''Fagus sylvatica f. retroflexa'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica rohanii'' Körb.
*''Fagus sylvatica f. rohanii'' (Körb.) C.K.Schneid.
*''Fagus sylvatica f. roseomarginata'' (Cripps) Domin
*''Fagus sylvatica f. roseomarginatis'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica rotundifolia'' Jackman
*''Fagus sylvatica f. rotundifolia'' (Jackman) Rehder
*''Fagus sylvatica f. salicifolia'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica var. sanguinea'' Amo
*''Fagus sylvatica subsp. Sanguinea'' (Amo) Arcang.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. suentelensis'' Schelle
*''Fagus sylvatica var. suntalensis'' Beissn.
*''Fagus sylvatica var. tortuosa'' Pépin
*''Fagus sylvatica proles tortuosa'' (Pépin) Rouy
*''Fagus sylvatica f. tortuosa'' (Pépin) Hegi
*''Fagus sylvatica f. tricolor'' Simon-Louis ex K.Koch
*''Fagus sylvatica var. variegata'' Dippel
*''Fagus sylvatica var. vulgaris'' Aiton
*''Fagus sylvatica var. zlatia'' Späth ex E.Goeze
*''Fagus sylvatica f. zlatia'' (Späth ex E.Goeze) Schelle
*''Fagus sylvestris'' Gaertn.
*''Fagus tortuosa'' (Dippel) F.Boden
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=Powo>{{Cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:305836-2 |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' L. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=1 June 2023 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415161807/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:305836-2 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

'''''Fagus sylvatica''''', the '''European beech''' or '''common beech''', is a large, graceful [[deciduous]] tree in the [[Fagaceae|beech]] family with smooth silvery-gray bark, large leaf area, and a short trunk with low branches.<ref>{{cite web |title=European beech |url=https://mortonarb.org/plant-and-protect/trees-and-plants/european-beech/ |website=The Morton Arboretum |access-date=20 October 2023}}</ref>

== Description ==
[[File:Fagus sylvatica Purpurea JPG4a.jpg|thumb|Copper beech in autumn]]
[[File:European Beech.jpg|thumb|Shoot with nut cupules]]
''Fagus sylvatica'' is a large [[tree]], capable of reaching heights of up to {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=off}} tall<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bomeninfo.nl/tall%20trees.htm |title=Tall Trees |website=Bomeninfo.nl |access-date=2010-08-30 |archive-date=2014-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717004538/http://bomeninfo.nl/tall%20trees.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and {{cvt|3|m|ft|frac=2}} trunk diameter, though more typically {{cvt|25|–|35|m}} tall and up to {{cvt|1.5|m|ft|frac=2}} trunk diameter. A 10-year-old sapling will stand about {{cvt|4|m|ft}} tall. Undisturbed, the European beech has a lifespan of 300 years; one tree at the Valle Cervara site was more than 500 years old—the oldest known in the northern hemisphere.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Packham |first1=John R. |last2=Hobson |first2=Peter R. |last3=Norris |first3=Catherine |title=Common beech Fagus sylvatica L; survival and longevity in changing times |journal=Arboricultural Journal |date=June 2013 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1080/03071375.2013.767078|bibcode=2013ArbJ...35...64P }}</ref> In cultivated forest stands trees are normally harvested at 80–120 years of age.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wühlisch, G. |title=European beech – ''Fagus sylvatica'' |journal=EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation and Use |date=2008 |url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/1322_European_beech__Fagus_sylvatica_.pdf |access-date=2016-10-20 |archive-date=2019-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819110558/http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/1322_European_beech__Fagus_sylvatica_.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> 30 years are needed to attain full maturity (as compared to 40 for [[Fagus grandifolia|American beech]]). Like most trees, its form depends on the location: in forest areas, ''F.&nbsp;sylvatica'' grows to over {{cvt|100|ft|m|order=flip}}, with branches being high up on the trunk. In open locations, it will become much shorter (typically {{cvt|50|–|80|ft|m|disp=or|order=flip}}) and more massive.

The leaves are alternate, simple, and entire or with a slightly [[crenate]] margin, {{convert|5|-|10|cm|abbr=on|frac=8}} long and {{convert|3|-|7|cm|abbr=on}} broad, with 6–7 veins on each side of the leaf (as opposed to 7–10 veins in ''[[Fagus orientalis|F.&nbsp;orientalis]]''). When crenate, there is one point at each vein tip, never any points between the veins. The [[bud]]s are long and slender, {{convert|15|–|30|mm|frac=8|abbr=on}} long and {{cvt|2|–|3|mm|frac=32}} thick, but thicker, up to {{convert|4|–|5|mm|frac=8|abbr=on}}, where the buds include flower buds.

The leaves of beech are often not [[abscission|abscissed]] (dropped) in the autumn and instead remain on the tree until the spring. This process is called [[marcescence]]. This particularly occurs when trees are [[sapling]]s or when plants are clipped as a hedge (making beech hedges attractive screens, even in winter), but it also often continues to occur on the lower branches when the tree is mature.

Small quantities of seeds may be produced around 10 years of age, but not a heavy crop until the tree is at least 30 years old. ''F.&nbsp;sylvatica'' male flowers are borne in the small [[catkin]]s which are a hallmark of the [[Fagales]] order (beeches, chestnuts, oaks, walnuts, hickories, birches, and hornbeams). The female flowers produce beechnuts, small triangular [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]] {{cvt|15|–|20|mm|frac=8}} long and {{cvt|7|–|10|mm|frac=8}} wide at the base; there are two nuts in each cupule, maturing in the autumn 5–6 months after pollination. Flower and seed production is particularly abundant in years following a hot, sunny and dry summer, though rarely for two years in a row.

== Distribution and habitat ==
{{See also|Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe}}
[[File:Fagus sylvatica pliocenica MHNT.PAL.VEG.2002.31.jpg|thumb|''Fagus sylvatica pliocenica'' – [[:fr:muséum de Toulouse|Museum of Toulouse]] ]]
The European beech is the most abundant hardwood species in Austrian, German and Swiss forests.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pramreiter |first1=Maximilian |last2=Grabner |first2=Michael |title=The Utilization of European Beech Wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Europe |journal=Forests |date=11 July 2023 |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1419 |doi=10.3390/f14071419|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Fore...14.1419P }}</ref> The native range extends from the north, in [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], Norway,  Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Bulgaria, western parts of Ukraine, Romania, through Europe to France, southern England, Spain (on the [[Cantabrian Mountains|Cantabrian]], [[Sistema Ibérico|Iberian]] and [[Sistema Central|Central]] mountain ranges),<ref>{{cite web |title=Fagus sylvatica |url=http://www.floraiberica.es/floraiberica/texto/pdfs/02_041_01_Fagus.pdf |publisher=[[Flora Iberica]] |access-date=19 November 2023}}</ref> and east to northwest Turkey,<ref name=Powo/> where it exhibits an interspecific [[Cline (biology)|cline]] with the oriental beech (''[[Fagus orientalis]]''), which replaces it further east. In the Balkans, it shows some [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]] with oriental beech; these hybrid trees are named ''[[Fagus × taurica]]'' Popl. [''Fagus moesiaca'' (Domin, Maly) Czecz.]. In the southern part of its range around the Mediterranean, and [[Sicily]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brullo |first1=S. |last2=Guarino |first2=R. |last3=Minissale |first3=P. |last4=Siracusa |first4=G. |last5=Spampinato |first5=G. |year=1999 |title=Syntaxonomical analysis of the beech forests from Sicily |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213185119/http://annalidibotanica.uniroma1.it/index.php/Annalidibotanica/article/view/9052/8992 |journal=Annali di Botanica |volume=57 |pages=121–132 |issn=2239-3129 |url=http://annalidibotanica.uniroma1.it/index.php/Annalidibotanica/article/view/9052/8992 |access-date=5 December 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-13}}</ref> it grows only in mountain forests, at {{cvt|600|-|1800|m|0}} altitude.

Although often regarded as native in southern England, recent evidence suggests that ''F. sylvatica'' did not arrive in England until about 4000 BC, or 2,000 years subsequent to the English Channel forming following the ice ages; it could have been an early introduction by [[Stone Age]] humans, who used the [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]] for food.<ref>Harris, E. (2002) Goodbye to Beech? Farewell to Fagus? ''Quarterly Journal of Forestry'' 96 (2):97.</ref> The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods.<ref>[http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/1A301105A92950FE80257012002508A0 International foresters study Lake District's 'greener, friendlier forests'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128215333/http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/1A301105A92950FE80257012002508A0 |date=2010-01-28 }} ''forestry.gov.uk''</ref> Localised pollen records have been recorded in the North of England from the Iron Age by Sir [[Harry Godwin]]. Changing climatic conditions may put beech populations in southern England under increased stress and while it may not be possible to maintain the current levels of beech in some sites it is thought that conditions for beech in north-west England will remain favourable or even improve. It is often planted in Britain. Similarly, the nature of Norwegian beech populations is subject to debate. If native, they would represent the northern range of the species. However, molecular genetic analyses support the hypothesis that these populations represent intentional introduction from Denmark before and during the [[Viking Age]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Myking |first1=T. |last2=Yakovlev |first2=I. |last3=Ersland |first3=G. A. |doi=10.1007/s11295-010-0358-y |title=Nuclear genetic markers indicate Danish origin of the Norwegian beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' L.) populations established in 500–1,000 AD |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=587–596 |year=2011 |s2cid=27550587}}</ref> However, the beech in Vestfold and at Seim north of Bergen in Norway is now spreading naturally and regarded as [[native plant|native]].<ref>[http://www.skogoglandskap.no/Artsbeskrivelser/boek Bøk – en kulturvekst?] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312050111/http://www.skogoglandskap.no/Artsbeskrivelser/boek |date=2017-03-12 }} {{in lang|no}}</ref>

Though not demanding of its soil type, the European beech has several significant requirements: a humid atmosphere (precipitation well distributed throughout the year and frequent fogs) and well-drained soil (being intolerant of excessive stagnant water). It prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic, therefore it is found more often on the side of a hill than at the bottom of clayey basin. It tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. In Norway's oceanic climate planted trees grow well north to [[Bodø Municipality]], and produce seedlings and can spread naturally in Trondheim.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntnu.no/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=3f0f72a1-d68e-4b96-938e-b6b290fa5324&groupId=10476 |title=Lade i Trondheim: naturtyper, flora og grunnlag for skjøtselsplan |author=Eli Fremstad |language=no |website=Ntnu.no |access-date=2022-04-02 |archive-date=2021-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613150811/https://www.ntnu.no/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=3f0f72a1-d68e-4b96-938e-b6b290fa5324&groupId=10476 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Sweden, beech trees do not grow as far north as in Norway.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QusRAAAAYAAJ |title=System of Universal Geography: Founded on the Works of Malte-Brun and Balbi: Embracing a Historical Sketch of the Progress of Geographical Discovery … |last1=Laurie |first1=James |last2=Balbi |first2=Adriano |date=1842-01-01 |publisher=A. and C. Black |language=en}}</ref>

A beech forest is very dark and few species of plant are able to survive there, where the sun barely reaches the ground. Young beeches prefer some shade and may grow poorly in full sunlight. In a clear-cut forest a European beech will germinate and then die of excessive dryness. Under [[oak]]s with sparse leaf cover it will quickly surpass them in height and, due to the beech's dense foliage, the oaks will die from lack of sunlight.

== Ecology ==
The root system is shallow, even superficial, with large roots spreading out in all directions. European beech forms [[ectomycorrhiza]]s with a range of fungi including many ''[[Russula]]'' species, as well as ''[[Laccaria amethystina]]'',<ref name=Packham>{{cite journal |last1=Packham |first1=John R. |last2=Thomas |first2=Peter A. |last3=Atkinson |first3=Mark D. |last4=Degen |first4=Thomas |title=Biological Flora of the British Isles: ''Fagus sylvatica'' |journal=Journal of Ecology |date=19 October 2012 |volume=100 |issue=6 |pages=1557–1608 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2745.2012.02017.x |bibcode=2012JEcol.100.1557P |s2cid=85095298}}</ref> and with the species ''[[Ramaria flavosaponaria]]''.<ref name="Agerer">{{cite book |editor1-last=Agerer |editor1-first=Reinhard |title=Colour Atlas of Ectomycorrhizae |date=1987–2012 |publisher=Einhorn-Verlag |location=Schwäbisch Gmünd |isbn=978-3-921703-77-9 |chapter-url=http://www.sysbot.biologie.uni-muenchen.de/en/people/agerer/book_ectomyc_atlas.html |access-date=19 July 2018 |language=en |oclc=263940450 |chapter=Tables of identified ectomycorrhizae |quote=''Ramaria flavo-saponaria'' + ''Fagus selvatica'' (Raidl, Scattolin) |archive-date=30 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230131458/http://www.sysbot.biologie.uni-muenchen.de/en/people/agerer/book_ectomyc_atlas.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Tomentella]]'' Pat. species and ''[[Cenococcum geophilum]]'' have been found in Danish and Spanish beech forests. These fungi are important in enhancing uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.<ref name=Packham/>

In the woodlands of southern Britain, beech is dominant over oak and elm south of a line from about north Suffolk across to Cardigan. Oak are the dominant forest trees north of this line. One of the most beautiful European beech forests called [[Sonian Forest]] (''Forêt de Soignes/Zoniënwoud'') is found in the southeast of Brussels, Belgium. Beech is a dominant tree species in France and constitutes about 10% of French forests. The largest [[virgin forest]]s made of beech trees are Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh ({{convert|8800|ha|abbr=off|disp=or}}) in [[Ukraine]]<ref name=Commarmot>{{Cite book |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814185502/http://www.wsl.ch/dienstleistungen/publikationen/pdf/12494.pdf |title=Inventory of the Largest Primeval Beech Forest in Europe |last1=Commarmot |first1=Brigitte |last2=Brändli |first2=Urs-Beat |last3=Hamor |first3=Fedir |last4=Lavnyy |first4=Vasyl |date=2013 |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL |url=http://www.wsl.ch/dienstleistungen/publikationen/pdf/12494.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-14 |language=en}}</ref> and Izvoarele Nerei ({{cvt|5012|ha|disp=or}} in one forest body) in [[Semenic-Cheile Carașului National Park]], [[Romania]]. These habitats are the home of Europe's largest predators, (the brown bear, the grey wolf and the lynx).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzYLRt9yVhIC |title=Romania & Moldova |date=1998-01-01 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-0-86442-329-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RWZGAAAAQBAJ |title=Limnology of the Red Lake, Romania: An Interdisciplinary Study |last1=Romanescu |first1=Gheorghe |last2=Stoleriu |first2=Cristian Constantin |last3=Enea |first3=Andrei |date=2013-05-23 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9789400767577 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ycg5PtQPugC&q=romania+lynx+beech&pg=PA320 |title=European Ungulates and Their Management in the 21st Century |last1=Apollonio |first1=Marco |last2=Andersen |first2=Reidar |last3=Putman |first3=Rory |date=2010-02-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76061-4 |language=en |access-date=2020-10-07 |archive-date=2023-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902124832/https://books.google.com/books?id=-ycg5PtQPugC&q=romania+lynx+beech&pg=PA320 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many trees are older than 350 years in Izvoarele Nerei<ref>{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309110256/http://pnscc.ro/zone-de-conservare/ |title=Zone de conservare – Parcul National Semenic Cheile-Carasului |website=Pnscc.ro |url=http://pnscc.ro/zone-de-conservare/ |access-date=2 April 2022 |archive-date=2022-03-09}}</ref> and even 500 years in Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh.<ref name=Commarmot />

Spring leaf budding by the European beech is triggered by a combination of day length and temperature. Bud break each year is from the middle of April to the beginning of May, often with remarkable precision (within a few days). It is more precise in the north of its range than the south, and at {{cvt|600|m}} than at [[sea level]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mW4xBwAAQBAJ |title=Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Region II |last=Efe |first=Recep |date=2014-03-17 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-5773-4 |language=en}}</ref>

The European beech invests significantly in summer and autumn for the following spring. Conditions in summer, particularly good rainfall, determine the number of leaves included in the buds. In autumn, the tree builds the reserves that will sustain it into spring. Given good conditions, a bud can produce a shoot with ten or more leaves. The terminal bud emits a hormonal substance in the spring that halts the development of additional buds. This tendency, though very strong at the beginning of their existence, becomes weaker in older trees.

It is only after the budding that root growth of the year begins. The first roots to appear are very thin (with a diameter of less than 0.5&nbsp;mm). Later, after a wave of above ground growth, thicker roots grow in a steady fashion.

=== Diseases and pathogens ===

''Fagus sylvatica'' and other beeches are prone to false heartwood ('red heart') a condition where drought, nutrient deficient soil, branch breakage, pathogen infestation or other stressor induces formation of protection wood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dzurenda |first1=Ladislav |last2=Dudiak |first2=Michal |last3=Kučerová |first3=Viera |title=Differences in Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Beechwood with False Heartwood, Mature Wood and Sapwood |journal=Forests |date=29 May 2023 |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1123 |doi=10.3390/f14061123 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Fore...14.1123D }}</ref> False heartwood often manifests in the areas of the trunk associated with [[symplast]]less branches. As branch symplast dies, the trunk wood becomes depleted of nitrogen-containing molecules essential for life; this increases risk of catastrophic trunk failure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hörnfeldt |first1=Roland |last2=Drouin |first2=Myriam |last3=Woxblom |first3=Lotta |title=False heartwood in beech Fagus sylvatica, birch Betula pendula, B. papyrifera and ash Fraxinus excelsior - an overview |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41442020 |journal=Ecological Bulletins |pages=61–76 |date=2010|issue=53 |jstor=41442020 }}</ref>

As the European beech exhibits deterministic leaf and shoot development and has a larger leaf area than other European hardwood trees, it is relatively more sensitive to drought and may respond to a dry summer with pre-senescent [[abscission|leafdrop]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leuschner |first1=Christoph |title=Drought response of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.)—A review |journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics |date=December 2020 |volume=47 |pages=125576 |doi=10.1016/j.ppees.2020.125576|bibcode=2020PPEES..4725576L }}</ref>

[[File:Detail of Biscogniauxia nummularia.JPG|thumb|upright|Detail of the tarcrust's structure]]

''[[Biscogniauxia nummularia]]'' (beech tarcrust) is an [[Ascomycota|ascomycete]] primary pathogen of beech trees, causing strip-canker and wood rot. It can be found at all times of year and is not edible.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Blanchette |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-zwCAAAQBAJ&q=Biscogniauxia+nummularia&pg=PA113 |title=Defense Mechanisms of Woody Plants Against Fungi |last2=Biggs |first2=Alan |date=2013-11-11 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-662-01642-8 |language=en |access-date=2020-10-07 |archive-date=2023-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902124833/https://books.google.com/books?id=h-zwCAAAQBAJ&q=Biscogniauxia+nummularia&pg=PA113 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Møns Klint beech trees in gorge 2015-04-01-4864.jpg|thumb|A look down a steep gorge with European beech leading down to the ocean at [[Møns Klint]], [[Denmark]]]]
European beech is a very popular ornamental tree in parks and large gardens in [[temperateness|temperate]] regions of the world. In North America, they are preferred for this purpose over the native [[Fagus grandifolia|''F. grandifolia'']], which despite its tolerance of warmer climates, is slower growing, taking an average of 10 years longer to attain maturity. The town of [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] has one of the largest, if not the largest, grove of European beech trees in the United States. The {{cvt|2.5|acre|adj=on|sigfig=1}} public park, called 'The Longwood Mall', was planted sometime before 1850 qualifying it as the oldest stand of European beeches in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brooklinema.gov/Facilities/Facility/Details/Longwood-Mall-109 |title=Longwood Mall |website=Brookline, MA |access-date=2015-10-17 |archive-date=2019-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220042634/https://www.brooklinema.gov/Facilities/Facility/Details/Longwood-Mall-109 |url-status=live }}</ref>

It is frequently kept clipped to make attractive hedges.

Since the early 19th century there have been numerous [[cultivar]]s of European beech made by horticultural selection, often repeatedly; they include:
*copper beech or purple beech (''Fagus sylvatica purpurea'')<ref>{{cite web |title=Copper Beech |url=http://www.tree-guide.com/copper-beech |website=Tree-Guide.com |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012252/http://www.tree-guide.com/copper-beech |url-status=live }}</ref> – a mutation of the European beech which was first noted in 1690 in the "Possenwald" forest near the town of [[Sondershausen]] in Thuringia, Germany. It is assumed that about 99% of all copper beeches in the world are descendants of this copper beech. Its leaves are purple, in many selections turning deep spinach green by mid-summer. In the United States Charles Sprague Sargent noted the earliest appearance in a nurseryman's catalogue in 1820, but in 1859 "the finest copper beech in America... more than fifty feet high" was noted in the grounds of Thomas Ash, Esq., [[Throggs Neck]], New York;<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing and Henry Winthrop Sargent, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'' 1859:150.</ref> it must have been more than forty years old at the time.
*fern-leaf beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' Heterophylla Group) – leaves deeply serrated to thread-like
*[[dwarf beech]] (''Fagus sylvatica'' Tortuosa Group) – distinctive twisted trunk and branches
*[[weeping beech]] (''Fagus sylvatica'' Pendula Group) – branches pendulous
*Dawyck beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Dawyck') – fastigiate (columnar) growth – occurs in green, gold and purple forms; named after [[Dawyck Botanic Garden]] in the Scottish Borders
*golden beech (''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Zlatia') – leaves golden in spring

===Cultivars===
The following [[cultivars]] have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]:-<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf |title=AGM Plants – Ornamental |date=July 2017 |page=38 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=26 February 2018 |archive-date=3 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503221317/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*''F. sylvatica''<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' AGM |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/7127/Fagus-sylvatica/Details |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=1 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701144153/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/7127/Fagus-sylvatica/Details |url-status=live }}</ref> 
*'Dawyck'<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Dawyck' AGM |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/95987/Fagus-sylvatica-Dawyck/Details |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=3 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703120329/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/95987/Fagus-sylvatica-Dawyck/Details |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'Dawyck Gold'<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Dawyck Gold' AGM |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98653/Fagus-sylvatica-Dawyck-Gold/Details |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702030221/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98653/Fagus-sylvatica-Dawyck-Gold/Details |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'Dawyck Purple'<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Dawyck Purple' AGM |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98654/Fagus-sylvatica-Dawyck-Purple/Details |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702220638/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98654/Fagus-sylvatica-Dawyck-Purple/Details |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'Pendula' (weeping beech)<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Pendula' AGM |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/91418/Fagus-sylvatica-Pendula/Details |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=1 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701141348/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/91418/Fagus-sylvatica-Pendula/Details |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'Riversii'<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' (Atropurpurea Group) 'Riversii' AGM |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98911/Fagus-sylvatica-(Atropurpurea-Group)-Riversii/Details |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702203529/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98911/Fagus-sylvatica-(Atropurpurea-Group)-Riversii/Details |url-status=live }}</ref>
*''F. sylvatica'' [[var.]] ''heterophylla'' 'Aspleniifolia'<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fagus sylvatica'' var ''heterophylla'' 'Aslpeniifolia' AGM |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/60571/Fagus-sylvatica-var-heterophylla-Aspleniifolia/Details |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702185449/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/60571/Fagus-sylvatica-var-heterophylla-Aspleniifolia/Details |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{div col end}}

== Uses ==
The nuts are eaten by humans and animals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Little |first=Elbert L. |title=The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Western Region |publisher=Knopf |year=1994 |isbn=0394507614 |edition=Chanticleer Press |page=390 |orig-year=1980}}</ref> Slightly toxic to humans if eaten in large quantities due to the [[tannin]]s and [[alkaloid]]s they contain, the nuts were nonetheless pressed to obtain an oil in 19th-century England that was used for cooking and in lamps. They were also ground to make flour, which could be eaten after the tannins were leached out by soaking.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fergus |first1=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJfhE3IothQC |title=Trees of New England: A Natural History |last2=Hansen |first2=Amelia |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=Globe Pequot |isbn=978-0-7627-3795-6 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fergus |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4LKBcxNzHZAC |title=Trees of Pennsylvania and the Northeast |date=2002-01-01 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-2092-2 |language=en |access-date=2016-03-16 |archive-date=2023-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902124835/https://books.google.com/books?id=4LKBcxNzHZAC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Susanna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLEQAQAAMAAJ |title=Fruit & nuts: a comprehensive guide to the cultivation, uses and health benefits of over 300 food-producing plants |date=2006-03-20 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=9780881927597}}</ref> Additionally, 
''Primary Product AM 01'', a smoke flavouring, is produced from ''Fagus sylvatica.''<ref>European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1396 Scientific Opinion on Safety of smoke flavour – Primary Product – AM 01] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504093638/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1396 |date=2018-05-04 }} 8 January 2010</ref>

=== Timber ===
The [[wood]] of the European beech is used in the manufacture of numerous objects and implements. Its fine and short grain makes it an easy wood to work with, easy to soak, dye, varnish and glue. Steaming makes the wood even easier to machine. It has an excellent finish and is resistant to compression and splitting, and it is stiff when flexed. Milling is sometimes difficult due to cracking. The density of the wood is {{convert|720|kg|abbr=off}} per cubic metre.<ref>[http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/european-hardwood/steamed-beech/ Steamed Beech] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111114332/http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/european-hardwood/steamed-beech/ |date=2010-11-11 }}. Niche Timbers. Accessed 20-08-2009.</ref> It is particularly well suited for minor carpentry, particularly furniture. From chairs to [[parquetry]] (flooring) and staircases, the European beech can do almost anything other than heavy structural support, so long as it is not left outdoors. Its hardness make it ideal for making wooden [[mallet]]s and [[workbench]] tops. The wood rots easily if it is not protected by a tar based on a distillate of its own bark (as used in [[railroad tie|railway sleepers]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Association |first=American Wood-Preservers' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u5VOAAAAMAAJ |title=Railroad Tie Decay: Comprising The Decay of Ties in Storage, by C. J. Humphrey ... Defects in Cross Ties, Caused by Fungi, by C. Audrey Richards |date=1939-01-01 |publisher=American wood-preservers' association |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goltra |first=William Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uMkqAAAAYAAJ |title=Some Facts about Treating Railroad Ties |date=1912-01-01 |publisher=Press of The J.B. Savage Company |language=en}}</ref> It is better for [[pulp (paper)|paper pulp]] than many other broadleaved trees though is only sometimes used for this, the high cellulose content can also be spun into [[Modal (textile)|modal]], which is used as a textile akin to cotton. The code for its use in Europe is {{smallcaps|fasy}} (from ''FA''gus ''SY''lvatica). Common beech is also considered one of the best [[firewood]]s for fireplaces.<ref>{{cite web |title=The burning properties of wood |url=http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/hqdocs/facts/pdfs/fs315001.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223202805/http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/hqdocs/facts/pdfs/fs315001.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2012 |access-date=26 July 2013 |work=Scoutbase (Scout Information Centre) |publisher=Scout Association}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Hyde park tree.jpg|The famous Upside-down Tree, [[Hyde Park, London]], an example of ''F. sylvatica'' 'pendula'
File:Weeping-beech-leaves.jpg|Leaves of a weeping cultivar of European beech
File:March dyke sourlie.JPG|Beech planted on a march dyke (boundary hedge) in Scotland
File:Leaves of a "Fagus sylvatica Asplenifolia" tree in summer - Belfast (Botanic Gardens) 2015-08-21.JPG|Leaves of var. ''heterophylla'' 'Aspleniifolia', [[Botanic Gardens (Belfast)|Belfast Botanic Garden]]
File:Brussels Zonienwoud.jpg|Old stand of beech prepared for regeneration (note the young undergrowth) in the [[Sonian Forest]]
File:FagusSylvaticaBark.jpg|European beech bark
File:Fagus sylvatica MHNT.BOT.2010.6.81.jpg|''Fagus sylvatica'' wood – [[MHNT]]
File:Fagus sylvatica MHNT.BOT.2004.0.312.jpg|''Fagus sylvatica'' – [[MHNT]]
File:Purple-Fagus-sylvatica-leaves.jpg|Purple cultivar of Fagus sylvatica with developing beech-nuts
File:Entzia - Brotes de haya 01.jpg|Seedlings
File:Mølleparken (maj 02).jpg|Copper beech (spring)
File:Copperbeechmystic.jpg|A dark purple example of a copper beech in [[Mystic, Connecticut]]
File:BoisDeMadame.jpg|''Fagus sylvatica''
File:Beuk (Fagus sylvatica), zwellende bladknop. 24-04-2022 (d.j.b.).jpg|Swollen leaf bud
File:Fagus sylvatica 1 (cropped).JPG|Inflorescence
File:Vrucht van een beuk (Fagus sylvatica) 21-07-2023 (d.j.b.).jpg| Immature fruit of a beech
File:Zaaddozen_van_een_beuk_(Fagus_sylvatica)_13-09-2024_(d.j.b.).jpg|Half-opened seed pods of a beech (''Fagus sylvatica'')
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Refbegin}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20200807012919/http://beechtreecollection.com/gallery/ Beech Tree Collection] – Photographs by Louis K. Meisel, NY
*[http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/photos-europeanbeech/ Images, location details, and measurements of remarkable beeches]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605205632/http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/photos-europeanbeech/ |date=2012-06-05 }}.
*[http://www.euforgen.org/species/fagus-sylvatica/ ''Fagus sylvatica''] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020174028/http://www.euforgen.org/species/fagus-sylvatica/ |date=2016-10-20 }}) – distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources. [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN).
{{Refend}}

{{Nuts}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q146149}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Fagus|sylvatica]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Europe]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Trees of Europe]]
[[Category:Trees of humid continental climate]]
[[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]]
[[Category:Trees of temperate climates]]