Editing Fennel

{{Short description|Flowering plant species in the carrot family}}
{{About|the plant ''Foeniculum vulgare''}}
{{Redirect|Finocchio}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Foeniculum July 2011-1a.jpg
| image_caption = Fennel in flower
| taxon = Foeniculum vulgare
| authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]]
| synonyms =
{{Species list | hidden = yes
| Anethum dulce | DC.
| Anethum foeniculum | L.
| Anethum minus | Gouan
| Anethum panmori | Roxb.
| Anethum panmorium | Roxb. ex Fleming
| Anethum piperitum | Ucria
| Anethum rupestre | Salisb.
| Foeniculum azoricum | Mill.
| Foeniculum capillaceum | Gilib.
| Foeniculum divaricatum | Griseb.
| Foeniculum dulce | Mill.
| Foeniculum foeniculum | (L.) H.Karst.
| Foeniculum giganteum | Lojac.
| Foeniculum officinale | All.
| Foeniculum panmorium | (Roxb.) DC.
| Foeniculum piperitum | C.Presl
| Foeniculum rigidum | Brot. ex Steud.
| Ligusticum foeniculum | (L.) Roth
| Ligusticum foeniculum | (L.) Crantz
| Meum foeniculum | (L.) Spreng.
| Meum piperitum | Schult.
| Ozodia foeniculacea | Wight & Arn.
| Selinum foeniculum | E.H.L.Krause
| Seseli dulce | Koso-Pol.
| Seseli foeniculum | Koso-Pol.
| Seseli piperitum | Koso-Pol.
| Tenoria romana | Schkuhr ex Spreng.
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="WFO">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000691487 |title=''Foeniculum vulgare'' Mill. |date=2023 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116170623/http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000691487 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
{{Special characters}}

'''Fennel''' ('''''Foeniculum vulgare''''') is a [[flowering plant]] species in the [[Apiaceae|carrot family]].<ref name="WFO"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=FOENI&display=31|publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service|title=Classification for Kingdom ''Plantae'' Down to Genus ''Foeniculum Mill.''|date=2015|access-date=24 March 2015|archive-date=4 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210404001249/https://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=FOENI&display=31|url-status=live}}</ref> It is a [[Hardiness (plants)|hardy]], perennial [[herb]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.calflora.org/entry/plantchar.html?crn=3603 |title=Plant Characteristics and Associations. ''Foeniculum vulgare'' |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1 April 2020 |website=Calflora.org |publisher=Calflora |access-date=19 January 2021 |archive-date=17 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517151659/https://www.calflora.org/entry/plantchar.html?crn=3603 |url-status=live }}</ref> with yellow [[flower]]s and feathery [[leaves]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=275990 |title=Plant Finder. ''Foeniculum vulgare'' |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Missouribotanicalgarden.org |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231123226/https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=275990 |archive-date=31 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is indigenous to the shores of the [[Mediterranean]] but has become widely naturalized in many parts of the world, especially on dry soils near the sea coast and on riverbanks.

It is a highly flavorful herb used in [[cooking]] and, along with the similar-tasting [[anise]], is one of the primary ingredients of [[absinthe]]. '''Florence fennel''' or '''finocchio''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|f|ɪ|ˈ|n|ɒ|k|i|oʊ}}, {{IPAc-en|US|-|ˈ|n|oʊ|k|-}}, {{IPA|it|fiˈnɔkkjo|lang}}) is a selection with a swollen, bulb-like stem base (sometimes called ''bulb fennel'') that is used as a [[vegetable]].

== Description ==
''Foeniculum vulgare'' is a [[perennial]] herb. The stem is hollow, erect, and [[glaucous]] green, and it can grow up to {{convert|2.1|m|ft|0|abbr=off}} tall.<ref name="FieldGuide" /> The [[leaves]] grow up to {{convert|40|cm|abbr=off}} long; they are finely dissected, with the ultimate segments filiform (threadlike), about {{convert|0.5|mm|in|frac=64}} wide. Its leaves are similar to those of [[dill]], but thinner.<ref name="FieldGuide">{{Cite book |last=Spellenberg |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/nationalaudubons00spel/page/339/ |title=National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region |publisher=Knopf |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-375-40233-3 |edition=rev |pages=339–340 |orig-date=1979}}</ref>

The [[flower]]s are produced in terminal compound [[umbel]]s {{convert|5–17.5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} wide,<ref name="FieldGuide"/> each umbel section having 20–50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels. The [[fruit]] is a dry [[schizocarp]] from {{convert|4–10|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=16}} long, half as wide or less, and grooved.<ref name="blamey">Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). ''Flora of Britain and Northern Europe''. {{ISBN|0-340-40170-2}}</ref> Since the seed in the fruit is attached to the [[pericarp]], the whole fruit is often mistakenly called "seed".{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

{{gallery
|Fenouil.jpg|Florence fennel bulbs
|Fennel flower heads.jpg|Flower heads
|Foeniculum vulgare - Flickr - Kevin Thiele.jpg|Umbel
|Fennel seed.jpg|Fruits
|Foeniculum vulgare - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-148.jpg|In ''[[Köhler's Medicinal Plants]]'' (1887)
}}

=== Chemistry ===
The [[odor|aromatic]] character of fennel fruits derives from [[volatile oils]] imparting mixed aromas, including trans-[[anethole]] and [[estragole]] (resembling [[liquorice]]), [[fenchone]] ([[Mentha|mint]] and [[camphor]]), [[limonene]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badgujar |first1=Shamkant B. |last2=Patel |first2=Vainav V. |last3=Bandivdekar |first3=Atmaram H. |date=2014 |title=''Foeniculum vulgare'' Mill: A Review of Its Botany, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Contemporary Application, and Toxicology |journal=BioMed Research International |language=en |volume=2014 |page=842674 |doi=10.1155/2014/842674 |issn=2314-6133 |pmc=4137549 |pmid=25162032 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[1-octen-3-ol]] ([[mushroom]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Díaz-Maroto |first1=M. C |last2=Díaz-Maroto Hidalgo |first2=I. J |last3=Sánchez-Palomo |first3=E |last4=Pérez-Coello |first4=M. S |year=2005 |title=Volatile components and key odorants of fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'' Mill.) and thyme (''Thymus vulgaris'' L.) oil extracts obtained by simultaneous distillation-extraction and supercritical fluid extraction |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=53 |issue=13 |pages=5385–9 |doi=10.1021/jf050340+ |pmid=15969523}}</ref> Other [[phytochemical]]s found in fennel fruits include [[polyphenol]]s, such as [[rosmarinic acid]] and [[luteolin]], among others in minor content.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uusitalo |first1=L |last2=Salmenhaara |first2=M |last3=Isoniemi |first3=M |last4=Garcia-Alvarez |first4=A |last5=Serra-Majem |first5=L |last6=Ribas-Barba |first6=L |last7=Finglas |first7=P |last8=Plumb |first8=J |last9=Tuominen |first9=P |last10=Savela |first10=K |year=2016 |title=Intake of selected bioactive compounds from plant food supplements containing fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') among Finnish consumers |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=194 |pages=619–25 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.08.057 |pmid=26471600}}</ref>

=== Similar species ===
{{Unreferenced|section|date=April 2024}}

Some plants in the [[Apiaceae]] family are poisonous and often difficult to identify.

[[Dill]], [[coriander]], [[ajwain]], and [[caraway]] are similar-looking herbs but shorter-growing than fennel, reaching only {{convert|40|-|60|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Dill has thread-like, feathery leaves and yellow flowers; coriander and caraway have white flowers and finely divided leaves (though not as fine as dill or fennel) and are also shorter-lived (being annual or biennial plants). The superficial similarity in appearance between these seeds may have led to a sharing of names and etymology, as in the case of meridian fennel, a term for caraway.

[[Ferula communis|Giant fennel]] (''Ferula communis'') is a large, coarse plant with a pungent aroma, which grows wild in the Mediterranean region and is only occasionally grown in gardens elsewhere. Other species of the genus ''Ferula'' are also called giant fennel, but they are not culinary herbs.

In North America, fennel may be found growing in the same habitat and alongside natives osha (''[[Ligusticum porteri]]'') and ''[[Lomatium]]'' species, useful medicinal relatives in the [[parsley]] family.

Most ''Lomatium'' species have yellow flowers like fennel, but some{{which|reason=which species can be confused with hemlock?|date=May 2014}} are white-flowered and resemble poison hemlock. ''Lomatium'' is an important historical food plant of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] known as 'biscuit root'.  Most ''Lomatium'' spp. have finely divided, hairlike leaves; their roots have a delicate rice-like odor, unlike the musty odor of hemlock. ''Lomatium'' species prefer dry, rocky soils devoid of organic material.

== Etymology ==
Fennel came into [[Old English]] from [[Old French]] ''fenoil'' which in turn came from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|faeniculum}}, a diminutive of {{lang|la|faenum}}, meaning "hay".

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Fenouil 01.JPG|thumb|Fennel for sale in a French market]]

Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible, strongly flavored leaves and fruits. Its [[anise]]ed or [[liquorice]] flavor<ref name="Nyerges">{{cite book |last1=Nyerges |first1=Christopher |title=Foraging Wild Edible Plants of North America: More than 150 Delicious Recipes Using Nature's Edibles |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4930-1499-6 |page=77 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwDHCgAAQBAJ}}</ref> comes from [[anethole]], an aromatic compound also found in anise and [[star anise]], and its taste and aroma are similar to theirs, though usually not as strong.<ref name="katzer">Katzer's Spice Pages: [http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Foen_vul.html Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'' Mill.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515131800/http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Foen_vul.html |date=15 May 2020 }}</ref>

'''Florence fennel''' (''Foeniculum vulgare'' Azoricum Group; [[synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''F. vulgare'' var. ''azoricum'') is a [[cultivar group]] with inflated leaf bases which form a [[bulb]]-like structure. It is of cultivated origin,<ref name="grin">{{GRIN | access-date = 2017-12-10}}</ref> and has a mild anise-like flavor but is sweeter and more aromatic. Florence fennel plants are smaller than the wild type.<ref>{{cite web  | title=Green Fennel Seeds  | url=http://regencyspices.hk/green-fennel-seeds  | website=Regencyspices.hk  | access-date=2014-06-24  | archive-date=14 July 2014  | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714124111/http://regencyspices.hk/green-fennel-seeds  | url-status=dead  }}</ref> Several [[cultivar]]s of Florence fennel are also known by several other names, notably the [[Italian language|Italian]] name ''finocchio''. In North American supermarkets, it is often mislabeled as "anise."<ref>{{cite book |last=Rombauer |first=Irma |title=Joy of Cooking |year=1997 |publisher=Simon & Schuster Inc. |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-81870-2 |page=375}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ziedrich |first=Linda |title=The Joy of Pickling }}</ref>

''Foeniculum vulgare'' 'Purpureum' or 'Nigra', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is widely available as a decorative garden plant.<ref>''RHS Plant Finder 2008–2009'', Dorling Kindersley, 2008, p280</ref>

Fennel has become [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] along roadsides, in pastures, and in other open sites in many regions, including northern Europe, the United States, southern [[Canada]], and much of Asia and [[Australia]]. It propagates well by both root crown and seed and is considered an [[invasive species]] and a [[weed]] in Australia<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bie.ala.org.au/species/https://id.biodiversity.org.au/node/apni/2913766|title=Species: ''Foeniculum vulgare'' (Aniseed)|website=Bie.ala.org.au|access-date=1 March 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301172938/https://bie.ala.org.au/species/https://id.biodiversity.org.au/node/apni/2913766|url-status=live}}</ref> and the United States. It can drastically alter the composition and structure of many plant communities, including grasslands, coastal scrub, [[Riparian zone|riparian]], and wetland communities. It appears to do this by outcompeting native species for light, nutrients, and water and perhaps by exuding [[Allelopathy|allelopathic]] substances that inhibit the growth of other plants.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2017-10-16 |title=IPCW Plant Report |url=https://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/library/publications/ipcw/report51/ |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=California Invasive Plant Council |language=en-US |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510183302/https://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/library/publications/ipcw/report51/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In western North America, fennel can be found from the coastal and inland [[wildland-urban interface]] east into hill and mountain areas, excluding desert habitats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Foeniculum%20vulgare.png|title=Biota of North America Program 2014 county distribution map|website=Bonap.net|access-date=1 March 2022|archive-date=16 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616130915/http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Foeniculum%20vulgare.png|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=3603|title=Foeniculum vulgare Calflora|website=Calflora.org|access-date=1 March 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301172929/https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=3603|url-status=live}}</ref> On [[Santa Cruz Island]], California for example, fennel has achieved 50 to 90% absolute cover.<ref name=":1" />

=== Production ===
As grouped by the [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], production data for fennel are combined with similar spices &ndash; anise, star anise, and [[coriander]].<ref name="faostat14" /> In 2014, [[India]] produced 60% of the world output of fennel, with [[China]] and [[Bulgaria]] as leading secondary producers.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Production of fennel – 2014
|-
! scope="col" | Country
! scope="col" | Production<br /><small>([[tonne]]s)</small>
|-
| {{IND}} || 584,000
|-
| {{CHN}} || 48,002
|-
| {{BUL}} || 36,500
|-
| {{IRN}} || 32,771
|-
| {{MEX}} || 29,251
|-
| {{SYR}} || 27,668
|-
| '''World''' || '''970,404'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="max-width: 18em;" | <small>Data combined with related spices &ndash; anise, star anise & coriander. Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat14">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Production in 2014, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2017|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=10 November 2017|archive-date=3 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603171715/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|url-status=live}}</ref></small>
|}

== Uses ==

Fennel was prized by the ancient Greeks and Romans, who used it as medicine, food, and insect repellent. Fennel tea was believed to give courage to warriors before battle. According to Greek mythology, [[Prometheus]] used a giant stalk of fennel to carry fire from [[Mount Olympus]] to Earth. Emperor [[Charlemagne]] required the cultivation of fennel on all imperial farms.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1267&context=extension_curall|title=Fennel in the Garden|author1=Ken Adams|author2=Dan Drost|website=Digitalcommons.usu.edu|access-date=2022-03-01|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402184253/https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1267&context=extension_curall|url-status=live}}</ref>

Florence fennel is one of the three main herbs used in the preparation of [[absinthe]], an alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Europe and became, by the late 19th century, a popular alcoholic drink in France and other countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fennel (Marathos)|website=Polisherbgarden.com|url=http://www.polisherbgarden.com/menu-type/fennel-marathos/|access-date=2022-02-24|language=en-US|archive-date=24 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224063513/http://www.polisherbgarden.com/menu-type/fennel-marathos/|url-status=live}}</ref> Fennel fruit is a common and traditional spice in flavored Scandinavian [[brännvin]] (a loosely defined group of distilled spirits, which include [[akvavit]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.diffordsguide.com/beer-wine-spirits/2755/aalborg-taffel-akvavit|title=Aalborg Taffel Akvavit|website=Diffordsguide.com|access-date=8 November 2017|archive-date=8 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108205852/https://www.diffordsguide.com/beer-wine-spirits/2755/aalborg-taffel-akvavit|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/food-and-drink/drinks/aquavit-this-winters-coolest-drink/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/food-and-drink/drinks/aquavit-this-winters-coolest-drink/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Aquavit: this winter's hottest spirit  |date=8 November 2016 |access-date=8 November 2017 |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Fennel is also featured in the Chinese [[Materia medica|Materia Medica]] for its medicinal functions.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-02-26|title=Making Chinese Medicine Series 03: Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'')|url=https://purplecloudinstitute.com/making-chinese-medicine-series-03-fennel-foeniculum-vulgare/|access-date=2021-02-27|website=Purplecloudinstitute.com|language=en-AU|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308215640/https://purplecloudinstitute.com/making-chinese-medicine-series-03-fennel-foeniculum-vulgare/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A 2016 study found ''F. vulgare'' essential oil to have [[insecticidal]] properties.<ref name="Santos-et-al-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Ribeiro-Santos |first1=Regiane |last2=Andrade |first2=Mariana |last3=Sanches-Silva |first3=Ana |last4=de Melo |first4=Nathália Ramos |date=2017 |title=Essential Oils for Food Application: Natural Substances with Established Biological Activities |journal=[[Food and Bioprocess Technology]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=43–71 |doi=10.1007/s11947-017-1948-6 |issn=1935-5130 |s2cid=103935770}}</ref>

=== Nutrition ===
{{nutritional value
| name = Fennel seeds
| kJ = 1443
| water = 8.8 g
| protein = 15.8 g
| fat = 14.9 g
| satfat = 0.5 g
| monofat = 9.9 g
| polyfat = 1.7 g
| carbs = 52 g
| fiber = 40 g
| calcium_mg = 1196
| iron_mg = 18.5
| magnesium_mg = 385
| phosphorus_mg = 487
| potassium_mg = 1694
| sodium_mg = 88
| zinc_mg = 4
| manganese_mg = 6.5
| vitC_mg = 21
| thiamin_mg = 0.41
| riboflavin_mg = 0.35
| niacin_mg = 6.1
| vitB6_mg = 0.47
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171323/nutrients Link to Full USDA Database entry]
}}

A raw fennel bulb is 90% water, 1% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], 7% [[carbohydrate]]s, and contains negligible [[fat]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fennel bulb, raw per 100 g |publisher=FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture |date=30 October 2020 |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169385/nutrients |access-date=10 April 2024 |archive-date=25 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025172925/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169385/nutrients |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Dried fennel seeds are typically used as a spice in minute quantities. A reference amount of {{convert|100|g}} of fennel seeds provides {{convert|345|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[protein]], [[dietary fiber]], [[B&nbsp;vitamins]] and several [[dietary minerals]], especially [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[magnesium]] and [[manganese]], all of which exceed 90% DV. Fennel seeds are 52% carbohydrates (including 40% [[dietary fiber]]), 15% [[fat]], 16% protein, and 9% water.

=== Cuisine ===
{{Cookbook|Fennel}}

The bulb, foliage, and fruits of the fennel plant are used in many of the culinary traditions of the world. The small flowers of wild fennel (known as fennel "pollen")<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kandarian-organic-farms.highwire.com/product/organic-fennel-pollen |title=gourmet-organic-fennel-pollen |work=kandarian-organic-farms |access-date=29 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906201935/http://kandarian-organic-farms.highwire.com/product/organic-fennel-pollen |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are the most potent form of fennel, but also the most expensive.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304692804577285582237631376 |title=Fennel Pollen: Culinary Fairy Dust |date=23 March 2012 |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |access-date=7 March 2017 |archive-date=1 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301190008/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304692804577285582237631376 |url-status=live }}</ref> Dried fennel fruit is an aromatic, anise-flavored [[spice]], brown or green when fresh, slowly turning a dull grey as the fruit ages. For cooking, green fruits are optimal.<ref name="katzer" /> The leaves are delicately flavored and similar in shape to dill. The bulb is a crisp vegetable that can be sautéed, stewed, braised, grilled, or eaten raw. Tender young leaves are used for garnishes, as a salad, to add flavor to salads, to flavor sauces to be served with puddings, and in soups and fish sauce.<ref name="Kains">{{cite book |title=Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses |year=1912 |publisher=Orange Judd Company |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21414/21414-h/21414-h.htm#Page_90 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413010101/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21414/21414-h/21414-h.htm#Page_90 |author=M. G. Kains |editor=American Agriculturist |archive-date=13 April 2017 |url-status=dead |format=English }}</ref> Both the inflated leaf bases and the tender young [[Shoot (botany)|shoot]]s can be eaten like [[celery]].<ref name="Nyerges" />

Fennel fruits are sometimes confused with those of anise, which are similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. Fennel is also a flavoring in some natural [[toothpaste]]s. The fruits are used in cookery and sweet desserts.<ref name="Kains" />

Many cultures in India, [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]], and the [[Middle East]] use fennel fruits in cooking. In Iraq, fennel seeds are used as an ingredient in [[nigella]]-flavored breads.<ref name=":0" /> It is one of the most important spices in [[Kashmiri cuisine]] and [[Gujarati cuisine|Gujarati cooking]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tarladalal.com/glossary-fennel-seeds-saunf-sauf-410i|title=What is Fennel Seeds, Saunf? Glossary &#124; Uses, Benefits, Recipes|website=Tarladalal.com|access-date=1 March 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301173004/https://www.tarladalal.com/glossary-fennel-seeds-saunf-sauf-410i|url-status=live}}</ref> In Indian cuisine, whole fennel seeds and fennel powder are used as a spice in various sweet and savory dishes. It is an essential ingredient in the [[Assamese cuisine|Assamese]]/[[Bengali cuisine|Bengali]]/[[Oriya cuisine|Oriya]] spice mixture ''[[panch phoron]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-10/recipes/31312472_1_paanch-mustard-seed-spices|archive-url= https://archive.today/20120708135525/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-10/recipes/31312472_1_paanch-mustard-seed-spices|url-status= dead|archive-date= 8 July 2012|title=The power of five seeds |author=Deepika Sahu |work= [[The Times of India]]|date=10 May 2012 }}</ref> and in Chinese [[five-spice powder]]s. In many parts of India, roasted fennel fruits are consumed as ''[[mukhwas]]'', an after-meal digestive and breath freshener (saunf), or candied as [[comfit]]. Fennel seeds are also often used as an ingredient in [[paan]], a breath freshener most popularly consumed in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lakshmi|first=Padma|title=The Encyclopedia of Spices and Herbs: An Essential Guide to the Flavors of the World|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2016|isbn=978-0-06-237523-0|page=220}}</ref> In China, fennel stem and leaves are often ingredients in the stuffings of [[jiaozi]], [[baozi]], or [[Pie|pies]], as well in cold dishes as a green vegetable. Fennel fruits are present in well-known mixed spices such as the five-spice powder or {{Interlanguage link|thirteen-spice powder|lt=thirteen-spice powder|zh|十三香}}.

Fennel leaves are used in some parts of India as leafy green vegetables either by themselves or mixed with other vegetables, cooked to be served and consumed as part of a meal. In [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], the young leaves are used to make a special kind of egg omelette (along with onions and flour) called ''{{lang|ar-Latn|[[eggah|ijjeh]]}}''.

Many [[egg (food)|egg]], [[fish (food)|fish]], and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key ingredient in some Italian salads, or it can be braised and served as a warm side dish. It may be [[blanching (cooking)|blanched]] or [[marinated]], or cooked in [[risotto]].

Fennel fruits are the primary flavor component in [[Italian sausage]]. In Spain, the stems of the fennel plant are used in the preparation of pickled eggplants, ''{{lang|es|berenjenas de Almagro}}''. A [[herbal tea]] or ''tisane'' can also be made from fennel.

On account of its aromatic properties, fennel fruit forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound liquorice powder. In the Indian subcontinent, fennel fruits are eaten raw, sometimes with a sweetener.

{{gallery|mode=packed
|Saunf sweets.JPG|Sugar-coated and uncoated fennel fruits used as a [[breath freshener]]
|Fennel seeds and rock sugar, Indian aftermint.jpg|Indian ''[[mukhwas]]'' (breath freshener) made of fennel seeds and rock sugar
|Fenouil cuisiné avec du cabillaud à la crème d'aneth.JPG|French cooked fennel stuffed with [[cod]] and [[dill]] cream
|Fennel pie at Huatian Eryouju, Maliandao (20220214134542).jpg|Chinese ''[[Bing (bread)|bing]]'' with fennel filling
}}

== Culture ==

The Greek name for fennel is ''marathon'' ({{lang|grc|μάραθον}}) or ''marathos'' ({{lang|grc|μάραθος}}),<ref name="marathon(the plant)LSJreference">{{LSJ|ma/raqon|μάραθον|ref}}.</ref> and the place of the famous [[battle of Marathon]] literally means a plain with fennel.<ref name="Marathon(the place)LSJreference">{{LSJ|*maraqw/n|Μαραθών|shortref}}.</ref> The word is first attested in [[Mycenaean Greek|Mycenaean]] [[Linear B]] form as ''{{lang|gmy|ma-ra-tu-wo}}''.<ref>On tablets [[Mycenae|MY]] Ge 602, MY Ge 606 + fr., MY Ge 605 + 607 + frr. + 60Sa + 605b. {{cite web |title=The Linear B word transliterated as ma-ra-tu-wo |url=http://www.palaeolexicon.com/ShowWord.aspx?Id=16801 |publisher=Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of Ancient languages |access-date=19 March 2014 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307162420/http://palaeolexicon.com/showword.aspx?id=16801 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |last=Raymoure |first=K.A. |title=ma-ra-tu-wo |url=http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/ma/ma-ra-tu-wo/ |work=Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B |publisher=Deaditerranean |access-date=19 March 2014 |archive-date=5 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705082730/http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/ma/ma-ra-tu-wo/ |url-status=dead }} {{cite web |title=MY 602 Ge (57) |url=https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5572 |access-date=19 March 2014 |archive-date=25 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725030452/https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5572 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |title=MY 606 Ge + fr. (57) |url=https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5576 |access-date=19 March 2014 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629040154/https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5576 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |title=MY 605 Ge + 607 + fr. [+] 60Sa + fr. [+] 605b + frr. (57) |url=https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5575 |website=DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo |publisher=[[University of Oslo]] |access-date=19 March 2014 |archive-date=25 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725014908/https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5575 |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', [[Prometheus]] steals the ember of fire from the gods in a hollow fennel stalk.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hesiod |title=Hesiod, The Homeric Hymns, and Homerica |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/348/348-h/348-h.htm |access-date=18 August 2019 |website=Project Gutenberg |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107201406/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/348/348-h/348-h.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

As [[Old English]] ''{{lang|ang|finule}}'', fennel is one of the nine plants invoked in the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|pagan Anglo-Saxon]] ''[[Nine Herbs Charm]]'', recorded in the 10th century.<ref>{{cite web |title=Old English Plant Names |url=http://oldenglish-plantnames.org/lemma/full_lemma/427 |access-date=2013-01-16 |archive-date=22 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422183400/http://oldenglish-plantnames.org/lemma/full_lemma/427 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 15th century, Portuguese settlers on [[Madeira]] noticed the abundance of wild fennel and used the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''[[wikt:funcho#Portuguese|funcho]]'' (fennel) and the suffix ''{{lang|pt|-al}}'' to form the name of a new town, [[Funchal]].<ref>{{citation |author1=Frutuoso, G. |title=As Saudades da terra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIsDAAAAYAAJ |page=39 |year=1873 |publisher=Typ. funchalense |language=pt |author2=de Azevedo, A.R.}}</ref>

[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]'s 1842 poem [http://www.hwlongfellow.org/poems_poem.php?pid=75 "The Goblet of Life"] repeatedly refers to the plant and mentions its purported ability to strengthen eyesight:

<blockquote><poem>Above the lower plants, it towers,
The Fennel with its yellow flowers;
And in an earlier age than ours
Was gifted with the wondrous powers
Lost vision to restore.</poem></blockquote>
{{Clear|left}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Wikispecies|Foeniculum|''Foeniculum''}}
{{Commons|2=''Foeniculum vulgare''}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Fennel}}

{{Edible Apiaceae}}
{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q43511}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Absinthe]]
[[Category:Butterfly food plants]]
[[Category:Edible Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Mediterranean cuisine]]
[[Category:Perennial vegetables]]
[[Category:Spices]]