Editing Flavr Savr

{{short description|Genetically engineered food}}
'''Flavr Savr''' (also known as '''CGN-89564-2'''; pronounced "flavor saver"), a [[genetically modified tomato]], was the first commercially grown [[Genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] food to be granted a license for human consumption. It was developed by the Californian company [[Calgene]] in the 1980s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=June 24, 2013 |title=Transcript: GMO Food Fears and the First Test Tube Tomato |url=https://www.retroreport.org/transcript/test-tube-tomato/ |access-date=March 6, 2022 |publisher=Retro Report |archive-date=March 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306145519/https://www.retroreport.org/transcript/test-tube-tomato/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The tomato has an improved shelf-life, increased fungal resistance, and a slightly increased viscosity compared to its unmodified counterpart.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Redenbaugh, Keith |author2=Bill Hiatt |author3=Belinda Martineau |author4=Matthew Kramer |author5=Ray Sheehy |author6=Rick Sanders |author7=Cathy Houck |author8=Don Emlay|year=1992|title=Safety Assessment of Genetically Engineered Fruits and Vegetables: A Case Study of the Flavr Savr Tomato|publisher=CRC Press|page=288}}</ref> It was meant to be harvested ripe for increased flavor for long-distance shipping.<ref name=":1" /> The Flavr Savr contains two [[Gene|genes]] added by Calgene; a reversed [[antisense]] [[polygalacturonase]] gene, which inhibits the production of a rotting enzyme, and a gene responsible for the creation of [[Kanamycin kinase|APH(3')II]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 17, 1994 |title=Agency Summary Memorandum Re: Consultation with Calgene Inc., Concerning Flavr Savr™ Tomatoes |url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GEPlants/Submissions/ucm225043.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113011436/http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GEPlants/Submissions/ucm225043.htm |access-date=February 17, 2022 |website=FDA |archive-date=January 13, 2017 }}</ref> which confers resistance to certain aminoglycoside [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]], including [[Kanamycin A|kanamycin]] and [[neomycin]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 1, 2009 |title=Code of Federal Regulations |url=http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/aprqtr/21cfr173.170.htm |access-date=March 6, 2022 |website=govinfo.gov}}</ref> On May 18, 1994,<ref>{{cite web|last=Stone|first=Brad|title=The Flavr Savr Arrives|url=http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BA/Flavr_Savr_Arrives.php|access-date=December 29, 2012}}</ref> the FDA completed its evaluation of the Flavr Savr tomato and the use of APH(3')II, concluding that the tomato "is as safe as tomatoes bred by conventional means" and "that the use of aminoglycoside 3'-phosphotransferase II is safe for use as a processing aid in the development of new varieties of tomato, [[rapeseed oil]], and cotton intended for food use." It was first sold in 1994, and was only available before production ceased in 1997.<ref name="fray">Weasel, Lisa H. 2009. ''Food Fray.'' Amacom Publishing</ref> Calgene made history, but mounting costs prevented the company from becoming profitable,<ref name=":2" /> and it was eventually acquired by [[Monsanto Company]].<ref name=":1" />

== Characteristics ==
Tomatoes have a short shelf-life in which they remain firm and [[Ripening|ripe]]. This lifetime may be shorter than the time needed for them to reach market when shipped from winter growing areas to markets in the north, and the softening process can also lead to more of the fruit being damaged during transit. If picked while ripe, tomatoes can spoil before reaching far-away consumers due to their short lifetime. To address this, tomatoes intended for shipping are often picked while they are unripe, or "green", and then prompted to ripen just before delivery through the use of [[ethylene]] gas, which acts as a [[plant hormone]]. The downside to this approach is that the tomato does not complete its natural growing process, and the final flavor suffers as a result.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/the-original-genetically-modified-tomato-youll-never-ea-559924439|title=The Original Genetically Modified Tomato You'll Never Eat Again|website=Gizmodo|date=24 June 2013 }}</ref>

Through genetic engineering, Calgene hoped to slow down the ripening process of the tomato, thus preventing it from softening too early, while still allowing the tomato to retain its natural color and flavor. This would allow it to fully ripen on the [[vine]] and still be shipped long distances without it going soft.<ref name="fray" /> Calgene scientists used the modified bacterial parasite ''[[Agrobacterium tumefaciens]]'' to transfer genetic material into Flavr Savr plant cells. The bacterium normally "infects" plants  with foreign genes as a part of its lifecycle. The harmful, parasitic genetic material was removed from the bacterial T-plasmid and was replaced by the favored genes.<ref name=":0" /> 

The Flavr Savr was made more resistant to [[Decomposition|rotting]] by the addition of an [[antisense]] [[gene]] which interferes with the production of the [[enzyme]] [[Polygalacturonase|beta polygalacturonase]]. The enzyme normally contributes to spoilage by degrading [[pectin]] in [[plant cell wall|cell wall]]s and results in the softening of fruit, which makes them more susceptible to being damaged by [[fungal]] infections and physical actions.

Flavr Savr turned out to disappoint researchers in that respect, as the antisense version of the PG gene had a positive effect on shelf life, but not on the fruit's firmness. The Flavr Savr was too soft to be reliably machine-picked and transported when harvested while ripe, so the tomatoes still had to be harvested like any other unmodified vine-ripe tomato.<ref>Martineau, Belinda. 2001. ''First Fruit: The Creation of the Flavr Savr Tomato and the Birth of Biotech Food''. McGraw-Hill.</ref> An improved flavor, later achieved through traditional breeding of Flavr Savr and better-tasting varieties, would contribute to selling Flavr Savr at a premium price at the supermarket.

The Flavr Savr also contained a kanamycin-resistance gene. This gene gave bacterial cells and [[Chloroplast|chloroplasts]] resistance to multiple antibiotics, including kanamycin. The kanamycin-resistance gene was used during the tomato's creation phase to help scientists identify plants with the genes successfully added. Kanamycin is toxic to chloroplasts and is deadly for some plants. When researchers exposed tomato plants to high levels of kanamycin, only plants with the added genes survived.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Susan |date=May 27, 1994 |title=Genetic first upsets food lobby |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14219270-700-genetic-first-upsets-food-lobby/ |access-date=February 17, 2022 |website=New Scientist}}</ref>

== Controversy ==
The FDA stated that special labeling for these modified tomatoes was not necessary because they have the essential characteristics of unmodified tomatoes. Specifically,  no evidence for health risks was found, and the nutritional content was unchanged.<ref name="fray" /> According to the existing policy at the time, genetically modified products were only required to be labeled if a significant alteration was made.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Susan |date=August 5, 1994 |title=Genetically Engineered Foods |url=https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1994080500 |access-date=2022-03-13 |journal=CQ Researcher |volume=4 |issue=29 |pages=673–696 |language=en}}</ref> Most GMOs were not subjected to mandatory labeling, which allowed for the vast majority of commercially sold, genetically modified foods to remain unlabeled.

Flavr Savr tomatoes were still labeled as genetically altered, though it was not a requirement.<ref name=":1" /> The FDA's no-label policy was criticized because people believed that consumers deserved the right to know what was in their food.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=About Just Label It {{!}} Just Label It |url=https://www.justlabelit.org/about-just-label-it/ |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=www.justlabelit.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Safety concerns were also cited.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Thousands of comments were sent to the FDA asking for a change to the labeling guidelines.<ref name=":3" /> However, the FDA still did not implement mandatory labeling of foods derived from biotechnology until January 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New USDA guidance requires foods with GMO ingredients be labeled 'bioengineered' |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/new-fda-guidance-requires-foods-gmo-ingredients-labeled-bioengineered-rcna11265 |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=NBC News |date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Some did not trust the tomato's safety. Because some members of the public were misinformed on genetic technology, people feared the Flavr Savr and other genetically modified products to be potentially hazardous to human health or the environment.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} Some chefs and food distributors boycotted the Flavr Savr and refused to sell the tomatoes in their stores.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1992-10-06 |title=CHEFS BOYCOTT GENETICALLY ALTERED FOOD |url=https://www.deseret.com/1992/10/6/19008834/chefs-boycott-genetically-altered-food |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=Deseret |language=en}}</ref> [[Jeremy Rifkin]], an antibiotechnology activist, said, "It may be benign, but [the Flavr Savr] may turn out to be toxic."<ref name=":1" /> He founded the Pure Food Campaign, which opposed the introduction of genetically modified foods into consumer markets.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Naik |first=Paul |date=1999 |title=Jeremy Rifkin: An Examination of the Efforts of an Anti-Biotechnology Activist |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8965540/Naik.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=March 25, 2022 |website=Harvard}}</ref>

== Acquisition by Monsanto ==
Because of high research and production costs and low profits, Calgene was sold to [[Monsanto]] in 1997 for more than $200 million.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=1997-01-29 |title=MONSANTO OFFERS $218 MILLION FOR REST OF CALGENE |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/29/business/monsanto-offers-218-million-for-rest-of-calgene.html |access-date=2022-05-21 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Monsanto buys Calgene - Apr. 1, 1997 |url=https://money.cnn.com/1997/04/01/deals/monsanto/ |access-date=2022-05-21 |website=money.cnn.com}}</ref> Monsanto acquired all of Calgene's products, including the Flavr Savr. The company was more interested in Calgene's patents to certain key technologies, and the Flavr Savr has since been shelved and is currently out of production.<ref name=":1" />

The failure of the Flavr Savr has been attributed to Calgene's inexperience in the business of growing and shipping tomatoes.<ref>Charles, Dan. 2001. ''Lords of The Harvest''. Perseus Publishing. 144-148.</ref>

== Tomato paste ==

In the UK, [[Zeneca]] produced a tomato paste that used technology similar to the Flavr Savr.<ref>{{cite web|author=Center for Environmental Risk Assessment|title=GM Crop Database:Tomato|publisher=International Life Sciences Institute|url=http://cera-gmc.org/index.php?evidcode=&hstIDXCode=11&gType=&AbbrCode=&atCode=&stCode=&coIDCode=&action=gm_crop_database&mode=Submit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725152329/http://cera-gmc.org/index.php?evidcode=&hstIDXCode=11&gType=&AbbrCode=&atCode=&stCode=&coIDCode=&action=gm_crop_database&mode=Submit|url-status=usurped|archive-date=July 25, 2011}}{{dl|date=July 2021}}</ref> [[Don Grierson (geneticist)|Don Grierson]] was involved in the research to make the genetically modified tomato.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=108313&sectioncode=26 |title=A puree genius at his work |publisher=Times Higher Education |date=1998-07-17 |access-date=2010-08-23}}</ref> Due to the characteristics of the tomato, it was cheaper to produce than conventional tomato paste, resulting in the product being 20% cheaper. Between 1996 and 1999, 1.8 million cans, clearly labelled as genetically engineered, were sold in the major [[supermarket]] chains [[Sainsbury's]] and [[Safeway UK]]. At one point, the paste outsold normal tomato paste, but sales fell in the autumn of 1998.

The [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom]] published a report in which they stated that the decline in sales during this period was linked to changing consumer perceptions of [[genetically modified crop]]s.<ref>{{cite web |author1=House of Commons Science |author2=Technology Committee | title = Scientific Advisory System: Genetically Modified Foods | date=May 18, 1999 | url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199899/cmselect/cmsctech/286/28605.htm | access-date=May 4, 2011}}</ref> The report identified several possible factors, including product labeling and perception of choice, lobbying campaigns, and media attention. It concluded that the tone of media reports on the subject underwent a "fundamental shift" in response to a high-profile incident in which Dr. [[Arpad Pusztai]], a researcher for Rowett Research Institute, was fired after making a televised claim about detrimental health effects in laboratory rats fed a diet of [[genetically modified potato]]es (see the [[Pusztai affair]]). Subsequent peer review and testimony by Dr. Pusztai led the House Science and Technology Select Committee to conclude that his initial claim was "contradicted by his own evidence." In the intervening period, Sainsbury's and Safeway both pledged that none of their house-brand products would contain genetically modified ingredients.<ref name=":2">[https://calag.ucanr.edu/Archive/?article=ca.v054n04p6#:~:text=The%20FLAVR%20SAVR%20tomato%20was,success%2C%20and%20then%20commercial%20demise. The case of the FLAVR SAVR tomato] July 1, 2000. G. Bruening & J.M. Lyons, ''California Agriculture'' 54(4):6-7</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kv5TlkAN3z8 "Test Tube Tomato"] A ten minute long video providing an overview of the Flavr Savr and its controversy.
* [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rhetoric/105H16/cofp/tmrcofp.html "The transgenic tomato"] "''Purpose: To show a general reading audience (perhaps readers of a popular science magazine) that genetically engineered crops are needed and safe to consume by discussing the development of a successful genetically engineered crop, the FLAVR SAVR tomato.''"
*{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-06-04-fo-1061-story.html|title=The Biotech Debate|work=Los Angeles Times|author=Daniel Puzo|date=1992-06-04|access-date=2015-11-08}}
{{Genetic engineering}}
{{Tomatoes}}

[[Category:Genetically modified organisms in agriculture]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Genetic engineering in the United States]]
[[Category:Monsanto]]
[[Category:1992 in biotechnology]]
[[Category:Tomatoes]]