Editing Flight engineer

{{Short description|Air crew member responsible for systems monitoring}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2009}}
[[File: Lancaster flight engineer WWII IWM CH 12289.jpg|thumb|A flight engineer on an [[Avro Lancaster]] checks settings on the control panel from the fold down seat he used for take off in the cockpit]]

A '''flight engineer''' ('''FE'''), also sometimes called an '''air engineer''', is a member of an [[aircraft]]'s [[flight crew]] who is responsible for monitoring and operating its complex [[aircraft systems]]. In the early era of aviation, the position was sometimes referred to as the "air mechanic". Flight engineers can still be found on some larger [[Fixed-wing aircraft|fixed-wing]] [[airplane]]s and [[helicopter]]s. A similar crew position exists on some [[spacecraft]]. In most modern aircraft, their complex systems are both monitored and adjusted by electronic [[microprocessor]]s and [[computer]]s, resulting in the elimination of the flight engineer's position.

In earlier days, most larger aircraft were designed and built with a flight engineer's position. For U.S. civilian aircraft that require a flight engineer as part of the crew, the flight engineer must possess an FAA Flight Engineer Certificate with reciprocating, turboprop, or turbojet ratings appropriate to the aircraft. Whereas the four-engine Douglas DC-4 did not require a flight engineer, the FAA type certificates of subsequent four-engine reciprocating engine airplanes ([[Boeing 307]] and [[Boeing 377|377]], [[ Douglas DC-6|DC-6]], [[Douglas DC-7|DC-7]], [[Lockheed Constellation|Constellation]]) and early two-, three- and four-engine jets ([[Boeing 707]], [[Boeing 727|727]], early [[Boeing 747|747s]], [[McDonnell Douglas DC-8|DC-8]], [[DC-10]], [[Lockheed L-1011|L-1011]], early [[Airbus A300|A300s]]) required them. Smaller [[twinjet]]s ([[McDonnell Douglas DC-9|DC-9]], [[Boeing 737|737]], [[BAC One-Eleven|BAC 1-11]], [[Sud Aviation Caravelle|Caravelle]], [[Dassault Mercure]]) were never complex enough to require a flight engineer, while later large two, three, and four-engine jets ([[Airbus A310]], [[A300-600]], [[Boeing 767]], [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11|MD-11]], [[747-400]], and later) were designed with sufficient automation as to eliminate the need for the position.

== History ==
In order to dedicate a person to monitor an aircraft's engines and its other critical flight systems, the position of "flight engineer" (FE) was created. The FE did not actually fly the airplane; instead, the FE's position had a specialized control panel allowing for the monitoring and control of various aircraft systems. The FE is therefore an integrated member of the flight deck crew who works in close coordination with the two pilots during all phases of flight.

Traditionally, the FE station has been usually placed on the main flight deck just aft of the pilot and copilot, and close to the [[navigator]]. Earlier referred to as a "flight mechanic" on the four-engine commercial [[seaplane]]s like the [[Sikorsky S-42]], [[Martin M-130]] and the [[Boeing 314 Clipper]], the FE's role was referred to as an "engineer" (much like a ship's engineer) on the first very large flying boat, the [[Dornier Do X]]. On the Do X the FE operated a large and complex engineering station similar to later large transport aircraft to monitor the twelve engines.

The first US military aircraft to include a FE was the [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|Consolidated PBY]] which was introduced into naval service in 1936. The FE panel was located in the pylon between the fuselage and the wing. The FE did not have ignition, throttle and propeller controls, thus a person in the cockpit was also required to start the engines.<ref>US Navy. Pilot's Handbook Model PBY-5 Flying Boat</ref>

During the war the [[Avro Lancaster]] and [[Handley Page Halifax]] [[bomber]]s employed FEs, as these large aircraft employed only a single pilot. The first Allied military operation during the Second World War involving FEs occurred in February 1941 with a [[Short Stirling]]; it was the first four-engined bomber-raid of the war by the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]].<ref>Stringman, D.C. (Flt. Lt.). ''The History of the Air Engineer: Training in the Royal Air Force'', U.K.: RAF Finningley, 1984, pp. 39–43.</ref>

== Duties ==
[[File:Cockpit Il-86 RA-86095 (9294538702).jpg|thumb|left|The cockpit of a non-operational four-engine [[Ilyushin Il-86]], with its flight engineer's station at right]]

The flight engineer ("air engineer" in the Royal Air Force) is primarily concerned with the operation and monitoring of all aircraft systems,<ref name="USA Today">Cox, John. [https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/columnist/cox/2014/03/23/flight-engineer-cockpit-duties/6668151/ Ask the Captain: What does the flight engineer do?], ''[[USA Today]]'', March 23, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2014.</ref> and is required to diagnose, and where possible rectify or eliminate, any faults that may arise. On most multi-engine airplanes, the FE sets and adjusts engine power during takeoff, climb, cruise, go-arounds, or at any time the pilot flying requests a specific power setting to be set during the approach phase. The FE sets and monitors major systems,<ref name="Air & Space-2011.11" /> including fuel, pressurization and air conditioning, hydraulic, electrics (engine driven generators, [[auxiliary power unit]]s), gas turbine compressor/air turbine motor (APU, GTC, ATM), ice and rain protection (engine and nacelle anti-ice, window heat, probe heater), oxygen, fire and overheat protection of all systems, liquid cooling system, draw through cooling system, forced air cooling system, and powered flying controls.

FEs are also responsible for preflight and postflight aircraft inspections, and ensuring that the weight and balance of the aircraft is correctly calculated to ensure the [[centre of gravity]] is within limits.<ref name="Air & Space-2011.11" /> On airplanes where the FE's station is located on the same flight deck just aft of the two pilots (all western three- and four-man deck airplanes), they also monitor an aircraft's flight path, speed, and altitude. A significant portion of their time is spent cross checking pilot selections. The FE is the systems expert of the airplane with an extensive mechanical and technical knowledge of aircraft systems and aircraft performance.<ref name="Air & Space-2011.11">Eldridge, Andrea. [http://www.airspacemag.com/flight-today/confessions-of-a-flight-engineer-80609332 Confessions of a Flight Engineer: Flashlights, timers, and breath mints required], ''[[Air & Space/Smithsonian|Air & Space Smithsonian magazine]]'', November 2011.</ref> On some military airplanes ([[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy]], [[Boeing E-3 Sentry]], [[McDonnell Douglas KC-10]]) the FE sits behind the co-pilot in the [[Cockpit (aviation)|cockpit]], facing outboard to operate a panel of switches, gauges and indicators or forward to operate throttles, lighting controls, flight controls. On the [[Tupolev Tu-134]] the FE sits in the nose of the aircraft. On other western military airplanes, such as on the [[Lockheed P-3 Orion]] and [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|Lockheed C-130H Hercules]], FEs sit between, slightly aft of (and, in the case of the C-130A-H models, slightly higher than) the pilots. On the P-3 Orion, E-6B Mercury and E-3 Sentry the FE is responsible for starting and shutting down engines at the start and end of each flight, and also during in-flight shutdowns which are carried out to save fuel on long range operations. In some militaries, the aircraft's FE is also authorised to make and certify repairs to the aircraft when it is away from its base. This can eliminate the need for technical repair crews to accompany the aircraft on short deployments.

On civilian airplanes the FE is positioned so that they can monitor the forward instruments, pilot selections and adjust the thrust levers located on the centre pedestal; the FE's chair can travel forward and aft and it can swivel laterally 90 degrees, which enables them to face forward and set the engine power, then move aft and rotate sideways to monitor and set the systems panel. The FE is the aircraft systems expert onboard and responsible for troubleshooting and suggesting solutions to in-flight emergencies and abnormal technical conditions, as well as computing [[takeoff]] and [[landing]] data. The FE's seat on modern aircraft has a complete range of motion (side to side, forward to aft, swivel, up and down) to accommodate the many positions required to monitor and operate the aircraft systems.

[[File:B-24 Liberatir mid-upper turret.jpg|thumb|Flight engineers on military aircraft are sometimes responsible for operating weapons systems like the top turret on this [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator]].]]

The basic philosophy of a three-person flight deck in many flight operations, should an abnormality or emergency arise, is for the captain to hand over the actual flying of the aircraft to the first officer (co-pilot). The captain and FE together review and carry out the necessary actions required to contain and rectify the problem. This spreads the workload and ensures a system of cross-checking which maximizes safety. The captain is the manager and decision maker (pilot not flying, PNF), the first officer, or co-pilot, is the actual flier of the aircraft (pilot flying, PF), and the FE reads the check-lists and executes actions required under the auspices of the captain. There can be occasions when the roles of the pilots during an emergency are reversed, i.e. the copilot becomes the PNF and the captain becomes the PF; one such example was on the [[Airbus A300|A300]] B-Series aircraft when there was a complete loss of generator-supplied electrical power, whereupon the standby instruments that were powered were on the captain's side only, requiring the captain to be PF and the PNF and FE to resolve the issue.

During [[World War II]] many U.S. [[bomber]] aircraft incorporated a flight engineer's position. However, this position also doubled as a gunner, usually operating the upper turret, as was the case of the [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]. On some commercial airliners with a flight engineer, the FE is the third in command, after the captain and [[First Officer (civil aviation)|first officer]].

== Regulation ==
{{Globalize|section|date=January 2022}}

Unlike commercial pilots, the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] never set a mandatory retirement age for flight engineers. As a result, some pilots would voluntarily downgrade themselves when turning 60.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Amy |title=No Place to Go After 60: The Plight of Pilots and Flight Engineers in the Airline Industry |journal=Hofstra Labor Law Journal |date=1985 |volume=2 |issue=2 |url=http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlelj/vol2/iss2/4 |access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref> This policy was the subject of two [[U.S. Supreme Court]] cases in 1985, when it ruled against [[Western Airlines]] that forced retirement of flight engineers based on the regulations for pilots was a violation of the [[Age Discrimination in Employment Act]]. Earlier in the year it had rejected a policy that prevented pilots from "bumping" flight engineers from their positions upon the former reaching retirement age.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Greenhouse |first1=Linda |title=Forced Retirement at 60 Barred |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/18/business/forced-retiring-at-60-barred.html |access-date=28 January 2022 |work=New York Times |date=18 June 1985 |page=D1}}</ref>

== Elimination ==
[[File:ETHBIB.Bildarchiv 259179 Flight Engineer Jakob Kübler im Cockpit einer Boeing 747-257B der Swissair.jpg|thumb|Flight engineer's station in a [[Boeing 747#747-200|Boeing 747-200]] of [[Swissair]]. Early 747 models were among the last commercial airliners to utilize a flight engineer.]]

Starting in the 1980s, the development of powerful and small [[integrated circuit]]s and other advances in [[computer]]s and digital technology eliminated the need for flight engineers on airliners and many modern military aircraft.

On two-pilot flight deck airplanes, sensors and computers monitor and adjust systems automatically.<ref name="USA Today" /> There is no onboard technical expert and third pair of eyes. If a malfunction, abnormality or emergency occurs, it is displayed on an electronic display panel. One pilot does the flying while the other pilot starts reading and executing the quick reference handbook (QRH) to resolve the problem. Modern technological advancements in today's aircraft have reduced the dependence upon human control over systems.<ref name="USA Today" />

The most recent aircraft built with FE stations include military variants of the [[Boeing 707]], such as the [[Boeing E-3 Sentry|E-3 Sentry]] and [[Boeing E-6 Mercury|E-6 Mercury]], both built through 1991,<ref>{{cite web |title=Boeing E-3 Sentry AWACS |url=https://warriorlodge.com/pages/boeing-e-3-sentry-awacs |access-date=15 March 2022 |work=Warrior Lodge}}</ref> the [[Tupolev Tu-154]], the final example of which was delivered in 2013,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Falcus |first1=Matt |title=Last Tu-154 Handed Over |url=https://www.airportspotting.com/tu154-handed-production/ |access-date=15 March 2022 |work=Airport Spotting |date=26 February 2013}}</ref> and the [[Scaled Composites Stratolaunch]] whose sole example first flew in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Team |first1=ABW |title=Paul Allen's Stratolaunch |url=https://www.abwtec.com/news/2017/6/28/paul-allens-stratolaunch-the-engineering-behind-the-worlds-largest-airplane |access-date=15 March 2022 |work=ABW Technologies |date=28 June 2017}}</ref> The last major US passenger airline to fly aircraft equipped with a flight engineer's station was [[Northwest Airlines]], who retired their final 747-200s from charter service in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aircraft by Type |url=https://www.deltamuseum.org/exhibits/delta-history/aircraft-by-type/jet/boeing-747 |access-date=15 March 2022 |work=Delta Flight Museum}}</ref> The final major cargo operator to employ flight engineers was [[FedEx Express]] when they retired the last of their 727s in 2013.<ref>{{cite news |title=End of an Era as FedEx Express Retires Last B727 |url=https://newsroom.fedex.com/newsroom/end-of-an-era-as-fedex-express-retires-last-b727/ |access-date=15 March 2022 |work=FedEx Newsroom |date=21 June 2013}}</ref> FedEx continued to operate the DC-10 until the end of 2022, all of which were originally delivered with a flight engineer's station, however all examples that were still in the fleet had been converted to MD-10 standard, which provided for a two-crew cockpit.

== See also ==
*[[Flight management system]]

==References==
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{{Wiktionary|flight engineer}}
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[[Category:Aviation licenses and certifications]]
[[Category:Occupations in aviation]]
[[Category:Engineering occupations]]