Editing Frankish language

{{Short description|West Germanic language spoken by the Franks from the 5th to 10th centuries}}
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{About|the extinct Germanic language spoken by the Franks from the 5th to 10th centuries|the modern Romance language|French language}}
{{About|Franconian dialects spoken from the 5th to 10th centuries|their descendant language also known as Old Low Franconian|Old Dutch}}
{{missing information|Frankish phonology|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Frankish
| altname          = Old Franconian, Old Frankish
| nativename       = {{lang|frk|*Frankisk}}
| states           = [[Francia]]
| region           = [[Western Europe]]
| ethnicity        = [[Franks]]
| era              = Fully diverged into Old Low Franconian ([[Old Dutch]]) and the Old High Franconian dialects ([[Central Franconian]], [[East Franconian]] and [[Rhine Franconian]]) by the 10th century,<ref>Stefan Müller, ''Germanic syntax: A constraint-based view'', series: ''Textbooks in Language Sciences'' 12, Language Science Press, Berlin, 2023, p. 3</ref><ref>Graeme Davis, ''Comparative Syntax of Old English and Old Icelandic: Linguistic, Literary and Historical Implications'', series: ''Studies in Historical Linguistics'' vol. 1, Peter Lang, Oxford / Bern / Berlin / Bruxelles / Frankfurt am Main / New York / Wien, 2006, p. 93f.</ref><ref>Wise, ''The vocabulary of modern French: origins, structure and function'', pg 35.</ref><ref name="google.fr">{{Cite book |last1=Nadeau |first1=Jean-Benoit |author-link=Jean-Benoît Nadeau |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYDOrzMpgGcC&pg=PT34 |title=The Story of French |last2=Barlow |first2=Julie |author-link2=Julie Barlow |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4299-3240-0 |pages=34ff |access-date=18 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175328/https://books.google.com/books?id=JYDOrzMpgGcC&pg=PT34#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=18 May 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> which dissolved with other [[West Germanic]] varieties into [[Old High German]], and influenced [[Old French]] as a [[superstrate]].
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4             = [[Weser–Rhine Germanic]]
| iso3             = frk
| linglist         = frk
| glotto           = fran1264
| glottorefname    = Old Frankish
| glotto2          = oldd1237
| glottorefname2   = Old Dutch-Old Frankish
| script           = [[Elder Futhark]] (not widely used)
}}
[[File:Altfränkische Sprache 600-700.png|thumb|upright=1.45|Approximation of the Old Frankish [[Sprachraum]] in late antiquity, without smaller exclaves in [[Gallia Belgica]]<ref>Map made after: P. A. Kerkhof: ''Language, law and loanwords in early medieval Gaul: language contact and studies in Gallo-Romance phonology.'' Leiden, 2018, S. 24 und H. Ryckeboer: ''Het Nederlands in Noord-Frankrijk. Sociolinguïstische, dialectologische en contactlinguïstische aspecten.'' Gent, 1997, S. 183–184.</ref><br />'''Legend:'''<br />{{Legend|#4ae57e|Old Frankish Varieties (1.)}}{{Legend|#ffffd0|North Sea (2.) and Elbe Germanic (3.) Varieties}}{{Legend|#f7d3aa|Romance Varieties}}<br />{{Legend|#9e0b0f|Somme–Aisne Line, north of which Germanic toponyms dominate}}{{Legend|#ffff00|Border of the later High German consonant shift, which spread from Elbe Germanic areas in the 7th century<ref>H. K. J. Cowan: ''Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde.'' Jahrgang 71. E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1953, S. 166–186.</ref><ref>Note: The line  is not the same as the later [[Benrath Line]], which reached this position only in the High Middle Ages.</ref>}}]]

'''Frankish''' ([[language reconstruction|reconstructed]] endonym: *{{lang|frk|Frankisk|italic=yes}}),<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo2MGkyEfbMC&pg=PA5 |title=Dutch: Biography of a Language |last=Willemyns |first=Roland |date=2013-04-11 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=9780199858712 |page=5 |access-date=2017-05-23 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjE9DwAAQBAJ&q=Frenkisk&pg=PA114|title=The ʿAbbasid and Carolingian Empires: Comparative Studies in Civilizational Formation|last=Tor|first=D. G.|date=2017-10-20|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004353046|language=en|access-date=2020-10-02}}</ref> also known as '''Old Franconian''' or '''Old Frankish''', was the [[West Germanic language]] spoken by the [[Franks]]  from the 5th to 10th centuries.

Franks under king Chlodio would settle in [[Roman Gaul]] in the [[5th century]]. One of his successors, named [[Clovis I]], would take over the [[Roman province]] of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]] (in modern day France). Outnumbered by the local populace, the ruling Franks there would adapt to its language which was a [[Vulgar Latin|Proto-Romance]] dialect. However, many modern [[French language|French]] words and place names are still of Frankish origin. 

Between the 5th and 10th centuries, Frankish spoken in Northeastern France, present-day Belgium, and the Netherlands is subsequently referred to as [[Old Dutch]], whereas the Frankish varieties spoken in the [[Rhineland]] were heavily influenced by [[Elbe Germanic|Elbe Germanic dialects]] and the [[Second Germanic consonant shift]] and would form part of the modern [[Central Franconian]] and [[Rhine Franconian]] dialects of [[German Language|German]] and [[Luxembourgish]].<ref>Harbert, Wayne Eugene (2007). The Germanic Languages. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge / New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–17.</ref>

The Old Frankish language is poorly attested and mostly reconstructed from Frankish loanwords in [[Old French]], and inherited words in Old Dutch, as recorded between the 6th to 12th centuries. A notable exception is the [[Bergakker inscription]], which may represent a primary record of 5th-century Frankish, though it is debated whether the inscription is written in Frankish, or Old Dutch.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.museumhetvalkhof.nl/collecties/archeologie/collectie-topstukken-archeologie/runeninscriptie-met-het-oudste-nederlands |title=Runeninscriptie met het oudste Nederlands(?) |series=Museum piece information |publisher=[[Valkhof Museum]] |language=nl |trans-title=Runic inscription with the oldest Dutch(?) |access-date=10 November 2017 |quote=All experts agree on the meaning of the second word: "I (he) grant(s)", and many consider the first word to be the name of the owner of the sword that the scabbard belonged to. Opinions vary on how this name should be read, just as the latter two words have been interpreted very differently. Keeping in mind the function of the piece, some academics read the last word as "sword(s)". |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501103908/https://www.museumhetvalkhof.nl/collecties/archeologie/collectie-topstukken-archeologie/runeninscriptie-met-het-oudste-nederlands |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Nomenclature==
{{main|Name of the Franks}}

[[Germanic philology]] and [[German studies]] have their origins in the first half of the 19th century when [[Romanticism]] and Romantic thought heavily influenced the lexicon of the [[linguist]]s and [[philologist]]s of the time, including pivotal figures such as the [[Brothers Grimm]]. As a result, many contemporary linguists tried to incorporate their findings in an already existing historical framework of "[[stem duchies]]" and {{lang|de|Altstämme}} (lit. "old tribes", i.e. the six Germanic tribes then thought to have formed the "German nation" in the traditional German nationalism of the elites) resulting in a [[taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]] which spoke of "[[Bavarii|Bavarian]]", "[[Saxons|Saxon]]", "[[Frisii|Frisian]]", "[[Thuringii|Thuringian]]", "[[Suebi|Swabian]]" and "[[Franks|Frankish]]" dialects. While this nomenclature became generally accepted in traditional Germanic philology, it has also been described as "inherently inaccurate" as these ancient ethnic boundaries (as understood in the 19th century) bore little or limited resemblance to the actual or historical linguistic situation of the Germanic languages. Among other problems, this traditional classification of the continental [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic dialects]] can suggest stronger ties between dialects than is linguistically warranted. The Franconian group is a well known example of this, with [[East Franconian German|East Franconian]] being much more closely related to [[Bavarian language|Bavarian dialects]] than it is to [[Dutch language|Dutch]], which is traditionally placed in the [[Low Franconian]] sub-grouping and with which it was thought to have had a common, tribal origin.<ref>{{lang|de|Hans-Werner Goetz: ''Die „Deutschen Stämme“ als Forschungsproblem''.|italic=unset}} In: {{lang|de|Heinrich Beck, Dieter Geuenich, [[Heiko Steuer]], Dietrich Hakelberg}} (ed.): {{lang|de|Zur Geschichte der Gleichung „germanisch-deutsch“|italic=yes}}. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mlpNMpXV9BEC&pg=RA1-PA229  pp. 229–253] (p. 247).</ref>

In a modern [[linguistics|linguistic]] context, the language of the early Franks is variously called "Old Frankish" or "Old Franconian" and refers to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the [[High German consonant shift]], which took place between 600 and 700&nbsp;AD. After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern [[Low Franconian]] not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so [[Rhenish fan|to varying degrees]].<ref>{{lang|de|[http://www.rheinische-landeskunde.lvr.de/kompetenz/Sprache/rheinischer_sprachatlas/ Rheinischer Fächer – Karte des Landschaftsverband Rheinland]}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.rheinische-landeskunde.lvr.de/kompetenz/Sprache/rheinischer_sprachatlas/ |title=LVR Alltagskultur im Rheinland |access-date=October 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215032712/http://www.rheinische-landeskunde.lvr.de/kompetenz/Sprache/rheinischer_sprachatlas/ |archive-date=February 15, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As a result, the distinction between [[Old Dutch]] and Old Frankish is largely negligible, with Old Dutch (also called [[Old Low Franconian]]) being the term used to differentiate between the affected and non-affected variants following the aforementioned Second Germanic consonant shift.<ref name="mees">Bernard Mees, [https://books.google.com/books?id=W91nBn0l96wC&pg=PA23 "The Bergakker Inscription and the Beginnings of Dutch"], in: {{lang|de|Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik: Band 56 — 2002|italic=yes}}, edited by Erika Langbroek, Arend Quak, Annelies Roeleveld, Paula Vermeyden, published by Rodopi, 2002, {{ISBN|9042015799}}, {{ISBN|9789042015791}}, pp. 23–26</ref>

==History==

===Origins===
[[File:Germanic dialects ca. AD 1.png|270px|thumb|left|A proposed distribution of five primary Proto-Germanic dialect groups in Europe around 1–300 AD:
{{legend|Blue|[[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] (→[[Proto-Norse]] by 300 AD)}}
{{legend|Red|[[North Sea Germanic]] (Ingvaeonic)}}
{{legend|Orange|[[Weser–Rhine Germanic]] (Istvaeonic)}}
{{legend|Yellow|[[Elbe Germanic]] (Irminonic)}}
{{legend|Green|[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] (→[[Gothic language|Gothic]] by 300 AD)}}]]
The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: [[West Germanic languages|West]], [[East Germanic languages|East]] and [[North Germanic languages|North]] Germanic.<ref name=Hawkins>{{cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John A.|chapter=Germanic languages|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comr/page/68 68–76]|editor=Bernard Comrie|editor-link=Bernard Comrie|title=The World's Major Languages|url=https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comr|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1987|isbn=0-19-520521-9}}</ref> Their exact relation is difficult to determine, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the [[Migration Period]], rendering some individual varieties difficult to classify.

The language spoken by the Franks was part of the West Germanic language group, which had features from [[Proto-Germanic]] in the late [[Jastorf culture]] (c.&nbsp;1st century BC). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of [[phonology|phonological]] and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] innovations not found in North and East Germanic.<ref name=Robinson>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Orrin W.|author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist)|title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives|isbn=0-8047-2221-8|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1992}}</ref> The West Germanic varieties of the time are generally split into three dialect groups: [[Ingvaeonic languages|Ingvaeonic]] (North Sea Germanic), [[Istvaeones|Istvaeonic]] (Weser–Rhine Germanic) and [[Irminones|Irminonic]] (Elbe Germanic). While each had its own distinct characteristics, there certainly must have still been a high degree of mutual intelligibility between these dialects. In fact, it is unclear whether the West Germanic continuum of this time period, or indeed Franconian itself, should still be considered a single language or if it should be considered a collection of similar dialects.<ref>[[Graeme Davis (mediaevalist)|Graeme Davis]] (2006:154) notes "the languages of the Germanic group in the Old period are much closer than has previously been noted. Indeed it would not be inappropriate to regard them as dialects of one language." In: {{cite book
 |last=Davis
 |first=Graeme
 |title=Comparative Syntax of Old English and Old Icelandic: Linguistic, Literary and Historical Implications
 |publisher=Peter Lang
 |year=2006
 |location=Bern
 |isbn=3-03910-270-2}}
</ref>

In any case, it appears that the Frankish tribes, or the later Franks, fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group, with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest (still seen in modern Dutch), and more Irminonic (High German) influences towards the southeast.

===Salian and Ripuarian Franks (3rd–5th centuries)===
The scholarly consensus concerning the [[Migration Period]] is that the Frankish identity emerged during the first half of the 3rd century out of various earlier, smaller [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] groups, including the [[Salian Franks|Salii]], [[Sicambri]], [[Chamavi]], [[Bructeri]], [[Chatti]], [[Chattuarii]], [[Ampsivarii]], [[Tencteri]], [[Ubii]], [[Batavians|Batavi]], and [[Tungri]]. It is speculated that these tribes originally spoke a range of related Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic. Sometime in the 4th or 5th centuries, it becomes appropriate to speak of Old Franconian rather than an Istvaeonic dialect of Proto-Germanic.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2715&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF |title=THE LANGUAGE OF THE FRANKS l |access-date=December 2, 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Bergakker runes.png|thumb|Bergakker inscription]]
Very little is known about what the language was like during this period. One older runic sentence (dating from around 425–450&nbsp;AD) is on the [[Bergakker inscription|sword scabbard of Bergakker]] which is either a direct attestation of the Old Franconian language or the earliest attestation of Old Low Franconian (Old Dutch) language. Another early sentence from the early 6th century AD (that is also described as the earliest sentence in [[Old Dutch]] as well) is found in the [[Salic law|Lex Salica]]. This phrase was used to free a [[serfdom|serf]]:

:"Maltho thi afrio lito"
:(I say, I free you, half-free.)

These are the earliest sentences yet found of Old Franconian.

[[File:Les Francs en Belgique romaine.svg|thumb|300px|The location of the Franks around 475. "Les Francs rhénans" is the French term for "Ripuarian Franks".]]
During this early period, the Franks were divided politically and geographically into two groups: the [[Salian Franks]] and the [[Ripuarian Franks]]. The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Salian Franks during this period is sometimes referred to as early "Old Low Franconian", and consisted of two groups: "Old West Low Franconian" and "Old East Low Franconian". The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the [[Ripuarian Franks]] are referred to just as Old Franconian dialects (or, by some, as Old Frankish dialects).

However, as already stated above, it may be more accurate to think of these dialects not as early Old Franconian but as Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic.

=== Frankish Empire (5th–10th centuries) ===
[[Image:Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg|thumb|300px|The Frankish conquests between 481 and 814]]

At around the 5th century, the Franks probably spoke a range of related dialects and languages rather than a single uniform dialect or language.<ref name=Green19>M. Springer in: {{cite book |title=The Continental Saxons from the Migration Period to the Tenth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective |editor-first=Dennis H. |editor-last=Green |editor2=Frank Siegmund |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=[[Woodbridge, Suffolk]] |year=2003 |series=Studies in historical archaeoethnology, v.6 |page=19 |quote=There has never been such a thing as one Frankish language. The Franks spoke different languages.<br/> The linguists distinguish Old Low Franconian from the other Franconian dialects, e. g., Rhenish Franconian.}}</ref> The language of both government and the Church was Latin.<ref>{{cite book |title=Chapter 18: The Franks |pages=4 |url=https://www.cdschools.org/cms/lib04/PA09000075/Centricity/Domain/232/chap18.pdf |access-date=August 18, 2024}}</ref>

==Area==

===Austrasia===
[[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|thumb|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
{{legend|#ff0000|'''[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]'''}}
{{legend|#ff9933|'''[[w:Old East Norse|Old East Norse]]'''}}
{{legend|#ff00ff|'''[[w:Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]'''}}
{{legend|#ffff00|'''[[w:Old English|Old English]]''' ([[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]])}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Continental West Germanic languages ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old Dutch]], [[Old High German]], Old High Frankish).}}
{{legend|#0000ff|'''[[w:Crimean Gothic|Crimean Gothic]]''' ([[w:East Germanic|East Germanic]])}}]]
During the expansion into France and Germany, many Frankish people remained in the original core Frankish territories in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders, a small part of northern France, and the adjoining area in Germany centered on Cologne). The Franks united as a single group under Salian Frank leadership around 500&nbsp;AD. Politically, the Ripuarian Franks existed as a separate group only until about 500&nbsp;AD, after which they were subsumed into the Salian Franks. The Franks were united, but the various Frankish groups must have continued to live in the same areas that they had lived in before unification, and to speak the same dialects as before.

There must have been a close relationship between the various Franconian dialects. There was also a close relationship between Old Low Franconian (i.e. Old Dutch) and its neighboring [[Old Saxon]] and [[Old Frisian]] languages and dialects to the north and northeast, as well as the related [[Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon) dialects spoken in southern and eastern Britain.

A widening cultural divide grew between the Franks remaining in the north and the rulers far to the south.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18">Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" in J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts ''History of the Low Countries'', pp. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}.</ref> Franks continued to reside in their original territories and to speak their original dialects and languages. It is not known what they called their language, but it is possible that they always called it "[[Diets]]" (i.e. "the people's language") or something similar. The word Diets is cognate with the Old English word þēodisc which, likewise, meant both nation and speech.

Philologists think of [[Old Dutch]] and [[Old West Low Franconian]] as being the same language. However, sometimes reference is made to a transition from the language spoken by the Salian Franks to [[Old Dutch]]. The language spoken by the Salian Franks must have developed significantly during the seven centuries from 200 to 900&nbsp;AD. At some point, the language spoken by the Franks must have become identifiably Dutch. Because Franconian texts are almost non-existent and [[Old Dutch]] texts scarce and fragmentary, it is difficult to determine when such a transition occurred, but it is thought to have happened by the end of the 9th century and perhaps earlier. By 900&nbsp;AD the language spoken was recognizably an early form of Dutch, but that might also have been the case earlier.<ref name="Verhaal">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27. On page 25: "''…Een groot deel van het noorden van Frankrijk was in die tijd tweetalig Germaans-Romaans, en gedurende een paar eeuwen handhaafde het Germaans zich er. Maar in de zevende eeuw begon er opnieuw een romaniseringsbeweging en door de versmelting van beide volken werd de naam Franken voortaan ook gebezigd voor de Romanen ten noordern van de Loire. Frankisch of François werd de naam de (Romaanse) taal. De nieuwe naam voor de Germaanse volkstaal hield hiermee verband: Diets of Duits, dat wil zeggen "volks", "volkstaal".'' [At that time a large part of the north of France was bilingual Germanic/Romance, and for a couple of centuries Germanic held its own. But in the seventh century a wave of romanisation began anew and because of the merging of the two peoples the name for the Franks was used for the Romance speakers north of the Loire. "Frankonian/Frankish" or "François" became the name of the (Romance) language. The new name for the Germanic vernacular was related to this: "Diets"" or "Duits", i.e. "of the people", "the people's language"]. Page 27: "''…Aan het einde van de negende eeuw kan er zeker van Nederlands gesproken worden; hoe long daarvoor dat ook het geval was, kan niet met zekerheid worden uitgemaakt.''" [It can be said with certainty that Dutch was being spoken at the end of the 9th century; how long that might have been the case before that cannot be determined with certainty.]</ref> [[Old Dutch]] made the transition to [[Middle Dutch]] around 1150. A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence (but this was originally south of where it is today).<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18"/><ref name="Verhaal"/>

===Gaul===
The Franks expanded south into [[Gaul]] as the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century. Although the Franks would eventually conquer almost all of Gaul, speakers of Old Franconian expanded only into northern Gaul in numbers sufficient to have a linguistic effect. For several centuries, northern Gaul was a bilingual territory ([[Vulgar Latin|Latin]] and Franconian). The language used in writing, in government and by the Church was Latin. Eventually, the Franks who had settled more to the south of this area in northern Gaul started adopting the common Latin of the local population. This [[Vulgar Latin|Colloquial Latin]] language acquired the name of the people who came to speak it (Frankish or ''Français''); north of the French-Dutch language boundary, the language was no longer referred to as "Frankish" (if it ever was referred to as such) but rather came to be referred to as "[[Diets]]", i.e. the "people's language".<ref name="Verhaal"/> [[Urban T. Holmes, Jr.|Urban T. Holmes]] has proposed that a Germanic language continued to be spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western [[Austrasia]] and [[Neustria]] as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions only during the 10th century.<ref>[[Urban T. Holmes, Jr.|U. T. Holmes]], A. H. Schutz (1938), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjX4ebc2lsC&pg=PA29 A History of the French Language]'', p. 29, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, {{ISBN|0-8196-0191-8}}</ref>

===German Franconia===
{{Further|Franconia}}
The Franks also expanded their rule southeast into parts of Germany. Their language had some influence on local dialects, especially for terms relating to warfare. 
However, since the language of both the administration and the Church was Latin, this unification did not lead to the development of a supra-regional variety of Franconian nor a standardized German language. At the same time that the Franks were expanding southeast into what is now southern Germany, there were linguistic changes taking place in the region. The [[High German consonant shift]] (or [[second Germanic consonant shift]]) was a phonological development ([[sound change]]) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases, probably beginning between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD, and was almost complete before the earliest written records in the High German language were made in the 9th century. The resulting language, [[Old High German]], can be neatly contrasted with [[Low Franconian]], which for the most part did not experience the shift.

==''Frankish'' in linguistic terminology ==
{{main|Franconian (linguistics)}}
The term ''Frankish'' or ''Franconian'' ([[Standard German|Standard High German]]: ''{{lang|de|Fränkisch}}'', Dutch: ''{{lang|nl|Frankisch}}'') is a modern linguistic category first introduced by the German linguist [[Wilhelm Braune]] (1850–1926) to designate historical West Germanic texts which he could not readily classify as belonging to either [[Low German|Low Saxon]], [[Alemanic German|Alemannic]] or [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]].<ref name="Historisches Lexikon Bayerns">Alfred Klepsch: [http://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Fränkische_Dialekte ''Fränkische Dialekte''], published on 19 October 2009; in: [https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Startseite Historisches Lexikon Bayerns] (accessed 21 November 2020)</ref> In contemporary linguistic terminology the term Franconian is used to describe a residual, non-homogeneous category of related dialects within the larger (historical) West Germanic [[dialect continuum]]. The various dialects conventionally grouped as Franconian have no common [[language typology|typological features]] which apply to all the various dialects included within the group. 

Although the practice of alluding to tribal names from the [[Migration Period]] when naming dialect groups during the early stages of [[Germanic Philology]] was common as the linguistic borders of historical ancestor dialects were, at the time, thought to closely mirror the supposed [[Stem duchy|tribal duchies]] of the [[Frankish Empire]] at the start of the [[Early Middle Ages]], for many of the varieties grouped under ''Franconian'', the [[historical linguistics|diachronical connection]] to the actual Frankish language remains unclear.<ref>{{cite journal | first=R.E. | last=Keller | title=The Language of the Franks | journal= Bulletin of the John Rylands Library| volume=47 |number=1 | year=1964 | pages=101–122, esp. 122| doi=10.7227/BJRL.47.1.6 }}</ref>

The [[High German consonant shift|Second Germanic consonant shift]], with [[Low Franconian]] (including [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Afrikaans]]) not participating whereas the [[Central Franconian languages|Central Franconian]] (which includes [[Luxembourgish]]) did, to varying degrees, is typically the main isoglos used to divide the varieties having received the epithet ''Franconian''.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Germanic Languages |first=Wayne Eugene |last=Harbert |location=Cambridge / New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2007 |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |pages=15–17}}</ref>

==Influence on Old French and Middle English==
Most [[List of French words of Germanic origin|French words of Germanic origin]] came from Frankish, often replacing the [[Latin]] word which would have been used. It is estimated that modern French took approximately 1000 stem words from Old Franconian.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508379/Romance-languages/74738/Vocabulary-variations?anchor=ref603727 |title=Romance languages &#124; Description, Origin, Characteristics, Map, & Facts |access-date=2011-05-23 |archive-date=2013-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309102134/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508379/Romance-languages/74738/Vocabulary-variations?anchor=ref603727 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many of these words were concerned with agriculture (e.g. {{langx|fr|jardin}} 'garden'), war (e.g. {{langx|fr|guerre}} 'war') or social organization (e.g. {{langx|fr|baron}} 'baron'). Old Franconian has introduced the modern French word for the nation, [[France]] ([[Francia]]), meaning 'land of the Franks'. According to one hypothesis, the name for the Paris region, [[Île-de-France]], was also given by the Franks.<ref>BFM (2017) Pourquoi l’Île-de-France s’appelle-t-elle l’Îe de France ?, https://www.bfmtv.com/culture/pourquoi-l-ile-de-france-s-appelle-t-elle-l-ile-de-france-1311110.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427182409/https://www.bfmtv.com/culture/pourquoi-l-ile-de-france-s-appelle-t-elle-l-ile-de-france-1311110.html |date=2019-04-27 }}</ref> 

The influence of Franconian on French is decisive for the birth of the early ''[[langues d'oïl]]'' compared to the other [[Romance languages]], that appeared later such as [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], etc., because its influence was greater than the respective influence of [[Gothic language|Visigothic]] and [[Lombardic language|Lombardic]] (both [[Germanic languages]]) on both Occitan and the Ibero-Romance languages, and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Not all of these loanwords have been retained in modern French. French has also passed on words of Franconian origin to other Romance languages, and to English.

Old Franconian has also left many [[Etymon|etyma]] in the different northern ''[[langues d'oïl]]'' such as [[Burgundian language (Oïl)|Burgundian]], [[Champenois]], [[Lorrain language|Lorrain]], Northern [[Norman language|Norman]], [[Picard language|Picard]] and [[Walloon language|Walloon]], more than in Standard French, and not always the same ones.<ref>[[:wa:Etimolodjeye francike#Djivêye di mots walons d' etimolodjeye francike|See a list of Walloon names derived from Old Franconian]].</ref>

Below is a non-exhaustive list of French words of Frankish origin. An asterisk prefixing a term indicates a [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed form]] of the Frankish word. Most Franconian words with the phoneme ''w'' changed it to ''gu'' when entering Old French and other [[Romance languages]]; however, the northern ''[[langues d'oil]]'' such as Picard, Northern Norman, Walloon, Burgundian, Champenois and Lorrain retained the /w/ or turned it into /v/. Perhaps the best known example is the Franconian *''werra'' ('war' < Old Northern French ''werre'', compare Old High German {{Lang|goh|werre}} 'quarrel'), which entered modern French as {{Lang|fr|guerre}} and ''guerra'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. Other examples include ''gant'' ('gauntlet', from *''want'') and ''garder'' ('to guard', from *''wardōn''). Franconian words starting with ''s'' before another consonant developed it into ''es''- (e.g. Franconian ''skirm'' and Old French {{Lang|fro|escremie}} > Old Italian ''scrimia'' > Modern French {{Lang|fr|escrime}}).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/escrime |title=CNRTL, "escrime" |access-date=2012-09-13 |archive-date=2013-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426024812/http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/escrime |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Current French word
! Old Franconian
! Dutch or other Germanic cognates
! Latin/Romance
|-
| ''affranchir'' "to free"
| *''frank'' "freeborn; unsubjugated, answering to no one", nasalized variant of *''frāki'' "rash, untamed, impudent"
| Du ''frank'' "unforced, sincere, frank", ''vrank'' "carefree, brazen", Du ''frank en vrij'' (idiom) "free as air"<ref>http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/cali003nieu01_01/cali003nieu01_01_0025.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081759/http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/cali003nieu01_01/cali003nieu01_01_0025.php |date=2014-10-06 }} (entry: Vrank)</ref> Du ''Frankrijk'' "France", Du ''vrek'' "miser", OHG ''franko'' "free man" {{langx|no|frekk}} "rude"
| L ''līberāre''
|-
| ''alêne'' "awl" ([[Spanish language|Sp]] ''alesna'', [[Italian language|It]] ''lesina'')
| *''alisna''
| [[Middle Dutch|MDu]] ''elsene, else'', [[Dutch language|Du]] ''els''
| [[Latin language|L]] ''sūbula''
|-
| ''alise'' "whitebeam berry" ([[Old French|OFr]] ''alis, alie'' "whitebeam")
| *''alísō'' "alder"<ref>Because the expected outcome of *''aliso'' is *''ause'', this word is sometimes erroneously attributed to a Celtic cognate, despite the fact that the outcome would have been similar. However, while a cognate is seen in [[Gaulish]] ''Alisanos'' "alder god", a comparison with the treatment of ''alis-'' in ''alène'' above and ''-isa'' in ''tamis'' below should show that the expected form is not realistic. Furthermore, the form is likely to have originally been dialectal, hence dialectal forms like ''allie, allouche, alosse'', [[Berrichon]] ''aluge'', {{langx|wa|al'hî}}, some of which clearly point to variants like Gmc *''alūsó'' which gave MHG ''alze'' (G ''Else'' "whitebeam").</ref>
| MDu ''elze'', Du ''els'' "alder" (vs. [[German language|G]] ''Erle'' "alder"); Du ''elsbes'' "whitebeam", G ''Else'' "id."
| non-native to the Mediterranean
|-
| ''baron''
| *''baro'' "freeman", "bare of duties"{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
| MDu ''baren'' "to give birth", Du ''bar'' "gravely", "bare", OHG ''baro'' "freeman", OE ''beorn'' "noble"
| Germanic cultural import<br>Late, Vulgar, and Medieval Latin ''*baro''
|-
| ''bâtard'' "bastard" ([[Franco-Provençal language|FrProv]] ''bâsco'')
| *''bāst'' "marriage"<ref>''Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language'', s.v. "bastard" (NY: Gramercy Books, 1996), 175: "[…] perhaps from [[Ingvaeonic]] *''bāst-'', presumed variant of *''bōst-'' marriage + OF[r] ''-ard'', taken as signifying the offspring of a polygynous marriage to a woman of lower status, a pagan tradition not sanctioned by the church; cf. OFris ''bost'' marriage […]". Further, MDu had a related expression ''basture'' "whore, prostitute". However, the mainstream view sees this word as a formation built off of OFr ''fils de bast'' "bastard, lit. son conceived on a packsaddle", very much like OFr ''coitart'' "conceived on a blanket", G ''Bankert, Bänkling'' "bench child", LG ''Mantelkind'' "mantle child", and ON ''hrísungr'' "conceived in the brushwood". ''Bât'' is itself sometimes misidentified as deriving from a reflex of Germanic *''banstis'' "barn"; cf. Goth ''bansts'', MDu ''banste'', LG dial. ''Banse'', (Jutland) ''Bende'' "stall in a cow shed", ON ''báss'' "cow stall", OE ''bōsig'' "feed crib", E ''boose'' "cattle shed", and OFris ''bōs-'' (and its loans: MLG ''bos'', Du ''boes'' "cow stall", dial. ([[Zeeland]]) ''boest'' "barn"); yet, this connection is false.</ref>
|MDu ''bast'' "lust, heat, [[reproductive season]]", [[West Frisian language|WFris]] ''boaste, boask'' "marriage"
| L ''nothus''
|-
| ''bâtir'' "to build" (OFr ''bastir'' "to baste, tie together")<br>''bâtiment'' "building"<br>''bastille'' "fortress"<br>''bastion'' "fortress"
| *''bastian'' "to bind with bast string"
| MDu ''besten'' "to sew up, to connect", OHG ''bestan'' "to mend, patch", G ''basteln'' "to tinker"; MDu ''best'' "liaison" (Du gemene''best'' "commonwealth")
| L ''construere'' (It ''costruire'')
|-
|''bêche'' "spade"
|*becca/bicca "pickaxe/spade"
|
|L ''becca''
|-
| ''bière'' "beer"
| *''bera''
| Du ''bier''
| L ''cervisia'' (Celtic)
|-
| ''blanc, blanche'' "white"
| *''blank''
| Du ''blinken'' "to shine", ''blank'' "white, shining"
| L ''albus''
|-
| ''bleu'' "blue" (OFr ''blou, bleve'')
| *''blao''
| MDu ''blā, blau, blaeuw'', Du ''blauw''
| L ''caeruleus'' "light blue", ''lividus'' "dark blue"
|-
| ''bois'' "wood, forest"
| *''busk'' "bush, underbrush"
| MDu ''bosch, busch'', Du ''bos'' "forest", "bush"
| L ''silva'' "forest" (OFr ''selve''), L ''lignum'' "wood" (OFr ''lein'')<ref>ML ''boscus'' "wood, timber" has many descendants in Romance languages, such as Sp and It ''boscoso'' "wooded." This is clearly the origin of Fr ''bois'' as well, but the source of this Medieval Latin word is unclear.</ref>
|-
| ''bourg'' "town/city"
| *''burg'' or *''burc'' "fortified settlement"
| [[Old Dutch|ODu]] ''burg'', MDu ''burcht'' [[Gothic language|Got.]] ''baurg'' OHG ''burg'' OE ''burh'', [[Old Saxon|OLG]] ''burg'', [[Old Norse|ON]] ''borg''
| L ''urbs'' "fortified city" 
|-
| ''broder'' "to embroider" (OFr ''brosder, broisder'')
| *''brosdōn'', blend of *''borst'' "bristle" and *''brordōn'' "to embroider"
| G ''Borste'' "boar bristle", Du ''borstel'' "bristle"; OS ''brordōn'' "to embroider, decorate", ''brord'' "needle"
| L ''pingere'' "to paint; embroider" (Fr ''peindre'' "to paint")
|-
| ''broyer'' "to grind, crush" (OFr ''brier'')
| *''brekan'' "to break"
| Du ''breken'' "to break",
| [[Late Latin|LL]] ''tritāre'' ([[Occitan language|Occ]] ''trissar'' "to grind", but Fr ''trier'' "to sort"), LL ''pistāre'' (It ''pestare'' "to pound, crush", OFr ''pester''), L ''machīnare'' ([[Dalmatian language|Dalm]] ''maknur'' "to grind", [[Romanian language|Rom]] ''măşina'', It ''maşinare'')
|-
| ''brun'' "brown"
| *''brūn''
| MDu ''brun'' and Du ''bruin'' "brown" <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/bruin |title=etymologiebank.nl "bruin" |access-date=2013-01-08 |archive-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522022758/http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/bruin |url-status=live }}</ref>
|L ''fuscus''. This Latin adjective means “dark”, “dusky”, or “brown”.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stearn |first=William T. |title=Botanical Latin: history, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary |date=1996 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-321-6 |edition=4. |location=Portland, Or}}</ref>
|-
| ''choquer'' "to shock"
| *''skukjan''
| Du ''schokken'' "to shock, to shake"
|
|-
| ''choisir'' "to choose"
| *''kiosan''
| MDu ''kiesen'', Du ''kiezen'', ''keuze''
| L ''ēligere'' (Fr ''élire'' "to elect"), [[Vulgar Latin|VL]] ''exēligere'' (cf. It ''scegliere''), ''excolligere'' ([[Catalan language|Cat]] ''escollir'', Sp ''escoger'', [[Portuguese language|Pg]] ''escolher'')
|-
| ''chouette'' "barn owl" (OFr ''çuete'', dim. of ''choë, choue'' "jackdaw")
| *''kōwa, kāwa'' "chough, jackdaw"
| MDu ''couwe'' "rook", Du ''kauw, kaauw'' "chough"
| not distinguished in Latin: L ''būbō'' "owl", ''ōtus'' "eared owl", ''ulula'' "screech owl", ''ulucus'' likewise "screech owl" (cf. Sp ''loco'' "crazy"), ''noctua'' "night owl"
|-
|''crampe'' "cramp"
|*krampa
|MDu ''crampe,'' G ''Krampf,'' [[Scots language|ModSc]] ''cramp,'' ME ''cramp''
|[[Middle French|MF]] crampe, [[Spanish language|Sp]] ''calambre,'' [[Norman language|NF]] ''crampe''
|-
| ''cresson'' "watercress"
| *''kresso''
| MDu ''kersse, korsse'', Du ''kers'', dial. ''kors''
| L ''nasturtium'', LL ''berula'' (but Fr ''berle'' "water parsnip")
|-
| ''danser'' "to dance" (OFr ''dancier'')
| *''dansōn''<ref>Rev. Walter W. Skeat, ''The Concise Dictionary of English Etymology'', s.v. "dance" (NY: Harper, 1898), 108. A number of other fanciful origins are sometimes erroneously attributed to this word, such as VL *''deantiare'' or the clumsy phonetic match OLFrk *''dintjan'' "to stir up" (cf. Fris ''dintje'' "to quiver", Icel ''dynta'' "to convulse").</ref>
| OHG ''dansōn'' "to drag along, trail"; further to MDu ''densen, deinsen'' "to shrink back", Du ''deinzen'' "to stir; move away, back up", OHG ''dinsan'' "to pull, stretch"
| LL ''ballare'' (OFr ''baller'', It ''ballare'', Pg ''bailar'')
|-
| ''début'' "begin"
|*''but'' "stump, log"
|[[Old Norse|ON]] ''bútr'' "log, stump, butt", [[Old English|OE]] ''butt'' "tree stump"
|MF ''desbuter'' "move, begin", OF ''but'' "aim, goal, target" or ''butte'' "mound, knoll, target"
|-
| ''déchirer'' "to rip, tear" (OFr ''escirer'')
| *''skerian'' "to cut, shear"
| MDu ''scēren'', Du ''scheren'' "to shave, shear", ''scheuren'' "to tear"
| VL ''extractiāre'' (Prov ''estraçar'', It ''stracciare''), VL ''exquartiare'' "to rip into fours" (It ''squarciare'', but Fr ''écarter'' "to move apart, distance"), ''exquintiare'' "to rip into five" (Cat/Occ ''esquinçar'')
|-
| ''dérober'' "to steal, reave" (OFr ''rober'', Sp ''robar'')
| *''rōbon'' "to steal"
| MDu ''rōven'', Du ''roven'' "to rob"
| VL ''furicare'' "to steal" (It ''frugare'')
|-
| ''écang'' "swingle-dag, tool for beating fibrous stems"
| *''swank'' "bat, rod"
| MDu ''swanc'' "wand, rod", Du (dial. Holland) ''zwang'' "rod"
| L ''pistillum'' (Fr dial. ''pesselle'' "swingle-dag")
|-
| ''écran'' "screen" (OFr ''escran'')
| *''skrank''<ref>''Webster's Encyclopedic'', s.v. "screen", 1721. This term is often erroneously attached to *''skermo'' (cf. Du ''scherm'' "screen"), but neither the vowel nor the ''m'' and vowel/''r'' order match. Instead, *skermo gave OFr ''eskirmir'' "to fence", from *''skirmjan'' (cf. [[Old Dutch|OLFrk]] be''scirman'', Du be''schermen'' "to protect", comp. Du ''schermen'' "to fence").</ref>
| MDu ''schrank'' "chassis"; G ''Schrank'' "cupboard", ''Schranke'' "fence"
| L ''obex''
|-
| ''écrevisse'' "crayfish" (OFr ''crevice'')
| *''krebit''
| Du ''kreeft'' "crayfish, lobster"
| L ''cammārus'' "crayfish" (cf. Occ ''chambre'', It ''gambero'', Pg ''camarão'')
|-
| ''éperon'' "spur" (OFr ''esporon'')
| *''sporo''
| MDu ''spōre'', Du ''spoor''
| L ''calcar''
|-
|''épier'' "to watch" <br> Old French ''espie'' "male spy"<br>, Modern French ''espion'' is from Italian
| *''spehōn'' "to spy"
| Du ''spieden'', ''bespieden'' "to spy", HG ''spähen'' "to peer, to peek, to scout", 
|
|-
| ''escrime'' "fencing" < Old Italian ''scrimia'' < OFr ''escremie'' from ''escremir'' "fight"
| *''skirm'' "to protect"
| Du ''schermen'' "to fence", ''scherm'' "(protective) screen", ''bescherming'' "protection", ''afscherming'' "shielding"
|
|-
| ''étrier'' "stirrup" (OFr ''estrieu, estrief'')
| *''stīgarēp'', from ''stīgan'' "to go up, to mount" and ''rēp'' "band"
| MDu ''steegereep'', Du ''stijgreep'', ''stijgen'' "to rise", ''steigeren''
| LL ''stapia'' (later ML ''stapēs''), ML ''saltatorium'' (cf. MFr ''saultoir'')
|-
| ''flèche'' "arrow"
| *''fliukka''
| Du ''vliek'' "arrow feather", MDu ''vliecke'', OS ''fliuca'' ([[Middle Low German|MLG]] ''fliecke'' "long arrow")
| L ''sagitta'' (OFr ''saete'', It ''saetta'', Pg ''seta'')
|-
| ''frais'' "fresh" (OFr ''freis'', ''fresche'')
| *''friska'' "fresh"
| Du ''vers'' "fresh", ''fris'' "cold", German ''[[wikt:frisch#German|frisch]]''
|
|-
| ''franc'' "free, exempt; straightforward, without hassle" (LL ''francus'' "freeborn, freedman")<br>''France'' "France" (OFr ''Francia'')<br>''franchement'' "frankly"
| *''frank'' "freeborn; unsubjugated, answering to no one", nasalized variant of *''frāki'' "rash, untamed, impudent"
| MDu ''vrec'' "insolent", Du ''frank'' "unforced, sincere, frank", ''vrank'' "carefree, brazen",<ref>[http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/cali003nieu01_01/cali003nieu01_01_0025.php Nieuw woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081759/http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/cali003nieu01_01/cali003nieu01_01_0025.php |date=2014-10-06 }} By I.M. Calisch and N.S. Calisch.</ref> Du ''Frankrijk'' "France", Du ''vrek'' "miser", OHG ''franko'' "free man"
| L ''ingenuus'' "freeborn"<br>L ''Gallia''<ref>unsure etymology, debatable. The word ''frank'' as "sincere", "daring" is attested very late, after the Middle Ages. The word does not occur as such in Old Dutch or OHG. "Frank" was used in a decree of king Childeric III in the sense of free man as opposed to the native Gauls who were not free. The meaning 'free' is therefore debatable.</ref>
|-
| ''frapper'' "to hit, strike" (OFr ''fraper'')
| *''hrapan'' "to jerk, snatch"<ref>''Le Maxidico : dictionnaire encyclopédique de la langue française'', s.v. "frapper" (Paris: La Connaissance, 1996), 498. This is worth noting since most dictionaries continue to list this word's etymology as "obscure".</ref>
| Du ''rapen'' "gather up, collect", G ''raffen'' "to grab"
| L ''ferire'' (OFr ''ferir'')
|-
| ''frelon'' "hornet" (OFr ''furlone'', ML ''fursleone'')
| *''hurslo''
| MDu ''horsel'', Du ''horzel''
| L ''crābrō'' (cf. It ''calabrone'')
|-
| ''freux'' "rook" (OFr ''frox, fru'')
| *''hrōk''
| MDu ''roec'', Du ''roek''
| not distinguished in Latin
|-
| ''galoper'' "to gallop"
| *''wala hlaupan'' "to run well"
| Du ''wel'' "good, well" + ''lopen'' "to run"
|
|-
| ''garder'' "to guard"
| *''wardōn''
| MDu ''waerden'' "to defend", OS ''wardōn''
| L ''cavere'', ''servare''
|-
| ''gant'' "gauntlet"
| *''want''
| Du ''want'' "glove"
|
|-
| ''givre'' "frost (substance)"
| *''gibara'' "drool, slobber"
| EFris ''gever'', LG ''Geiber'', G ''Geifer'' "drool, slobber"
| L ''gelū'' (cf. Fr ''gel'' "frost (event); freezing")
|-
| ''glisser'' "to slip" (OFr ''glier'')
| *''glīdan'' "to glide"
| MDu ''glīden'', Du ''glijden'' "to glide"; Du ''glis'' "skid"; G ''gleiten'', ''Gleis'' "track"
| ML ''planare''
|-
| ''grappe'' "bunch (of grapes)" (OFr ''crape, grape'' "hook, grape stalk")
| *''krāppa'' "hook"
| MDu ''crappe'' "hook", Du (dial. Holland) ''krap'' "krank", G ''Krapfe'' "hook", (dial. [[West Central German|Franconian]]) ''Krape'' "torture clamp, vice"
| L ''racemus'' (Prov ''rasim'' "bunch", Cat ''raïm'', Sp ''racimo'', but Fr ''raisin'' "grape")
|-
| ''gris'' "grey"
| *''grîs'' "grey"
| Du ''grijs'' "grey"
| L ''cinereus'' "ash-coloured, grey"
|-
| ''guenchir'' "to turn aside, avoid"
| *''wenkjan''
| Du ''wenken'' "to beckon", OS ''wenkian'' "to defect, become unfaithful", OHG ''wenchen'' "to bend, buckle, warp"
|
|-
| ''guérir'' "to heal, cure" (OFr ''garir'' "to defend")<br>''guérison'' "healing" (OFr ''garrison'' "healing")
| *''warjan'' "to protect, defend"
| MDu ''weeren'', Du ''weren'' "to protect, defend", Du be''waren'' "to keep, preserve"
| L ''sānāre'' (Sard ''sanare'', Sp/Pg ''sanar'', OFr ''saner''), ''medicāre'' (Dalm ''medcuar'' "to heal")
|-
| ''guerre'' "war"
| *''werra'' "war"
| Du ''war''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/war |title="etymologiebank.nl" ,s.v. "war" "chaos" |access-date=2013-01-08 |archive-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522024118/http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/war |url-status=live }}</ref> or ''wirwar'' "tangle",<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/wirwar |title="etymologiebank.nl" ,s.v. "wirwar" |access-date=2013-01-08 |archive-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522023353/http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/wirwar |url-status=live }}</ref> ''verwarren'' "to confuse"
| L ''bellum''
|-
| ''guider "to guide"; guide'' "guide"
| *''wītan'' 
| Du ''weten'' "to know"
| L ''dērigere''
|-
| ''guigne'' "heart cherry" (OFr ''guisne'')
| *''wīksina''<ref>''Gran Diccionari de la llengua catalana'', s.v. "guinda", [http://ec.grec.net/lexicx.jsp?GECART=0072144] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603202519/http://ec.grec.net/lexicx.jsp?GECART=0072144|date=2008-06-03}}.</ref>
| G ''Weichsel'' "sour cherry", (dial. [[Rhine Franconian]]) ''Waingsl'', (dial. [[East Franconian German|East Franconian]]) ''Wassen, Wachsen''
| non-native to the Mediterranean
|-
| ''haïr'' "to hate" (OFr ''hadir'' "to hate")<br>''haine'' "hatred" (OFr ''haïne'' "hatred")
| *''hatjan''
| Du ''haten'' "to hate", ''haat'' "hatred"
| L ''[[wikt:odi#Latin|ōdī]]'' "to hate", ''odium'' "hatred"
|-
| ''hanneton'' "cockchafer"
| *''hāno'' "rooster" + ''-eto'' (diminutive suffix) with sense of "beetle, weevil"
| Du ''haan'' "rooster", lelie''haantje'' "lily beetle", blad''haantje'' "leaf beetle", G ''Hahn'' "rooster", (dial. Rhine Franconian) ''Hahn'' "sloe bug, shield bug", Lilien''hähnchen'' "lily beetle"
| LL ''bruchus'' "chafer" (cf. Fr dial. ''brgue, beùrgne, brégue''), ''cossus'' (cf. [[Romansh language|SwRom]] ''coss'', OFr ''cosson'' "weevil")
|-
| ''haubert'' "[[hauberk]]"
| *''halsberg'' "neck-cover"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=hauberk |title=Hauberk &#124; Search Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=2021-01-29 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070353/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=hauberk |url-status=live }}</ref>
| Du ''hals'' "neck" + ''berg'' "cover" (cf Du ''herberg'' "hostel")
| L ''lorica''
|-
| ''héron'' "heron"
| *''heigero'', variant of *''hraigro''
| MDu ''heiger'' "heron", Du ''reiger'' "heron"
| L ''ardea''
|-
| ''houx'' "holly"
| *''hulis''
| MDu ''huls'', Du ''hulst''
| L ''aquifolium'' (Sp ''acebo''), later VL ''acrifolium'' (Occ ''grefuèlh, agreu'', Cat ''grèvol'', It ''agrifoglio'')
|-
| ''jardin'' "garden" (VL ''hortus gardinus'' "enclosed garden", Ofr ''jardin'', ''jart'')<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=garden&searchmode=none |title=Garden &#124; Search Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=2011-08-24 |archive-date=2012-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301234039/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=garden&searchmode=none |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/gaard1 |title=Zoekresultaten |access-date=2011-08-24 |archive-date=2011-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115172521/http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/gaard1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| *''gardo'' "garden"
| Du ''gaard'' "garden", ''boomgaard'' "orchard"; OS ''gardo'' "garden"
| L ''hortus''
|-
| ''lécher'' "to lick" (OFr ''lechier'' "to live in debauchery")
| *''leccōn'' "to lick"
| MDu ''lecken'', Du ''likken'' "to lick"
| L ''lingere'' (Sard ''línghere''), ''lambere'' (Sp ''lamer'', Pg ''lamber'')
|-
| ''maçon'' "bricklayer" (OFr ''masson, machun'')
| *''mattio'' "mason"<ref>C.T. Onions, ed., ''Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology'', s.v. "mason" (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 559. This word is often erroneously attributed to *''makjo'' "maker", based on Isidore of Seville's rendering ''machio'' (c. 7th c.), while ignoring the Reichenau Glosses citing ''matio'' (c. 8th c.). This confusion is likely due to hesitation on how to represent what must have been the palatalized sound [ts].</ref>
| Du ''metsen'' "to mason", ''metselaar'' "masoner"; OHG ''mezzo'' "stonemason", ''meizan'' "to beat, cut", G ''Metz, Steinmetz'' "mason"
| VL ''murator'' (Occ ''murador'', Sard ''muradore'', It ''muratóre'')
|-
| ''maint'' "many" (OFr ''maint'', ''meint'' "many")
| *''menigþa'' "many"
| Du ''menig'' "many", ''menigte'' "group of people"
|
|-
| ''marais'' "marsh, swamp"
| *''marisk'' "marsh"
| MDu ''marasch, meresch, maersc'', Du ''meers'' "wet grassland", (dial. Holland) ''mars''
| L ''paludem'' (Occ ''palun'', It ''palude'')
|-
| ''maréchal'' "marshal" <br>''maréchaussée'' "military police"
| *''marh-skalk'' "horse-servant"
| ODu ''marscalk'' "horse-servant" (''marchi'' "mare" + ''skalk'' "servant"); MDu ''marscalc'' "horse-servant, royal servant" (''mare'' "mare" + ''skalk'' "serf"); Du ''maarschalk'' "marshal" (''merrie'' "mare" + ''schalk'' "comic", ''schalks'' "teasingly")
|
|-
| ''nord'' "north"
| *''Nortgouue'' (790–793 A.D.) "north" + "frankish district" (Du ''gouw'', Deu ''Gau'', Fri/LSax ''Go'')
| Du ''noord'' or ''noorden'' "north",<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/noord |title=etymologiebank.nl ''noord'' |access-date=2013-01-08 |archive-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522023250/http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/noord |url-status=live }}</ref> Du ''Henegouwen'' (province of [[Hainaut (province)|Hainaut]]) <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://gtb.inl.nl/iWDB/search?wdb=VMNW&actie=article&id=ID56872 |title=''Henegouwen'' |access-date=2017-08-29 |archive-date=2017-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829202950/http://gtb.inl.nl/iWDB/search?wdb=VMNW&actie=article&id=ID56872 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| L ''septemtrio(nes) / septentrio(nes)'' "north, north wind, northern regions, (pl.) seven stars near the north pole", ''boreas'' "north wind, north", ''aquilo'' "stormy wind, north wind, north", ''aquilonium'' "northerly regions, north"
|-
| ''osier'' "osier (basket willow); [[withy]]" (OFr ''osière'', ML ''auseria'')
| *''halster''<ref>Jean Dubois, Henri Mitterrand, and Albert Dauzat, ''Dictionnaire étymologique et historique du français'', s.v. "osier" (Paris: Larousse, 2007).</ref>
| MDu ''halster'', LG dial. ''Halster, Hilster'' "bay willow"
| L ''vīmen'' "withy" (It ''vimine'' "withy", Sp ''mimbre, vimbre'' "osier", Pg ''vimeiro'', Cat ''vímet'' "withy"), ''vinculum'' (It ''vinco'' "osier", dial. ''vinchio'', Friul ''venc'')
|-
| ''patte'' "paw"
| *''pata'' "foot sole"
| Du ''poot'' "paw",<ref name="etymologiebank.nl poot">{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/poot1 |title=etymologiebank.nl "poot" |access-date=2013-01-08 |archive-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522031046/http://www.etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/poot1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Du ''pets'' "strike"; LG ''Pad'' "sole of the foot";<ref>Onions, ''op. cit.'', s.v. "pad", 640.</ref> further to G ''Patsche'' "instrument for striking the hand", ''Patsch''fuss "web foot", ''patschen'' "to dabble", (dial. [[Austro-Bavarian|Bavarian]]) ''patzen'' "to blot, pat, stain"<ref>Skeat, ''op. cit.'', s.v. "patois", 335.</ref>
| LL ''branca'' "paw" (Sard ''brànca'', It ''brince'', Rom ''brîncă'', Prov ''branca'', [[Romansh language|Romansh]] ''franka'', but Fr ''branche'' "treelimb"), see also Deu ''Pranke''
|-
| ''poche'' "[[pocket]]"
| *''poka'' "[[bag|pouch]]"
| MDu ''poke'', G dial. ''Pfoch'' "pouch, change purse"
| L ''bulga'' "leather bag" (Fr ''bouge'' "bulge"), LL ''bursa'' "[[coin purse]]" (Fr ''bourse'' "[[money pouch]], purse", It ''bórsa'', Sp/Pg ''bolsa'')
|-
|''riche'' "[[Wealth|rich]]"
|*''rīkī'' "rich"
| MDu ''rike'', Du ''rijk'' "kingdom", "rich"
| L ''[[wikt:dives#Latin|dives]]''
|-
| ''sale'' "[[dirty]]"
| *''salo'' "[[wikt:pale|pale]], sallow"
| MDu ''salu, saluwe'' "discolored, dirty", Du (old) ''zaluw'' "tawny"
| L ''succidus'' (cf. It ''sudicio'', Sp ''sucio'', Pg ''sujo'', [[Ladin language|Ladin]] ''scich'', [[Friulian language|Friul]] ''soç'')
|-
| ''salle'' "room"
| *''sala'' "hall, room"
| ODu ''zele'' "house made with sawn beams", Many place names: "Melsele", "Broeksele" (Brussels) etc.
|
|-
| ''saule'' "[[willow]]"
| *''salha'' "sallow, [[pussy willow]]"
| OHG ''salaha'', G ''Sal''weide "pussy willow", OE ''sealh''
| L ''salix'' "willow" (OFr ''sauz, sausse'')
|-
| ''saisir'' "to [[wikt:seize|seize]], [[wikt:snatch|snatch]]; bring suit, vest a court" (ML ''sacīre'' "to lay claim to, appropriate")
| *''sakan'' "to take legal action"<ref>Onions, ''op. cit.'', s.v. "seize", 807.</ref>
| Du ''zeiken'' "to nag, to quarrel", ''zaak'' "court case", OS ''sakan'' "to accuse", OHG ''sahhan'' "to strive, [[Quarrel (projectile)|quarrel]], rebuke", [[Old english|OE]] ''sacan'' "to quarrel, claim by law, accuse";
| VL ''aderigere'' (OFr ''aerdre'' "to seize")
|-
| ''standard'' "standard" (OFr ''estandart'' "standard")
| *''standhard'' "stand hard, stand firm"
| Du ''staan'' (to stand) + ''hard'' "hard"
|
|-
| ''tamis'' "[[sieve]]" (It ''tamigio'')
| *''tamisa''
| MDu ''temse, teemse'', obs. Du ''teems'' "[[sifter]]"
| L ''crībrum'' (Fr ''crible'' "[[riddle]], sift")
|-
| ''tomber'' "to fall" (OFr ''tumer'' "to [[somersault]]")
| *''tūmōn'' "to [[wikt:tumble|tumble]]"
| Du ''tuimelen'' "to tumble", OS/OHG ''tūmōn'' "to tumble",
| L ''cadere'' (archaic Fr ''choir'', Fr ''chute'' (a fall) )
|-
| ''trêve'' "truce"
|*''treuwa'' "loyalty, agreement"
| Du ''trouw'' "faithfulness, loyalty"
|L ''pausa'' (Fr ''pause'')
|-
| ''troène'' "privet" (dialectal ''truèle'', [[Medieval Latin|ML]] ''trūlla'')
| *''trugil'' "hard wood; small [[wikt:trough|trough]]"
| OHG ''trugilboum, harttrugil'' "[[dogwood]]; privet", G ''Hartriegel'' "dogwood", dialectally "privet", (dial. Eastern) ''Trögel'', archaic (dial. Swabian) ''Trügel'' "small trough, [[wikt:trunk|trunk]], [[wikt:basin|basin]]"
| L ''ligustrum''
|-
| ''tuyau'' "[[pipe (fluid conveyance)|pipe]], [[hose]]" (OFr ''tuiel, tuel'')
| *''þūta''
| MDu ''tūte'' "[[nipple]]; pipe", Du ''tuit'' "[[wikt:spout|spout]], [[nozzle]]", OE ''þēote'' "channel; [[canal]]"
| L ''canna'' "[[reed (instrument)|reed]]; pipe" (It/SwRom/FrProv ''cana'' "pipe")
|}

===Old French===
Franconian speech habits are also responsible{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} for the replacement of Latin {{Lang|la|cum}} ("with") with ''[[wikt:od#Old French|od]]'' ← ''apud'' "at", then with ''[[wikt:avuec#Old French|avuec]]'' ← ''apud hoc'' "at it" ≠ Italian, Spanish ''con'') in Old French (Modern French {{Lang|fr|avec}}), and for the preservation of Latin nominative {{Lang|la|homo}} "man" as an impersonal pronoun: cf. ''homme'' ← ''hominem'' "man (accusative)" and Old French {{Lang|fro|hum, hom, om}} → modern ''on'', "[[One (pronoun)|one]]" (compare Dutch {{Lang|nl|man}} "man" and {{Lang|nl|men}}, "one").

===Middle English===
[[Middle English]] also adopted many words with Franconian roots from Old French; e.g. ''random'' (via Old French {{Lang|fro|randon}}, Old French verb {{Lang|fro|randir}}, from ''*rant'' "a running"), ''standard'' (via Old French {{Lang|fro|estandart}}, from ''*standhard'' "stand firm"), ''scabbard'' (via Anglo-French *''escauberc'', from *''skar-berg''), ''grape'', ''stale'', ''[[marches|march]]'' (via Old French {{Lang|fro|marche}}, from *''marka'') among others. Certain words with Franconian roots were borrowed twice, once from [[Old Norman]] via [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] and once from Parisian Old French, creating [[doublet (linguistics)|doublet]]s like ''warranty'' (via Anglo-Norman ''warrantie'') and ''guarantee'' (via Old French ''guarantie''), both ultimately from Franconian ''*warjan'', "to ward off, defend against".

== See also ==
{{portal|Germany|Language|Middle Ages}}
* [[Franconian languages]]
* [[History of French]]
* [[List of French words of Germanic origin]]
* [[List of Portuguese words of Germanic origin#Frankish|List of Portuguese words of Franconian origin]]
* [[List of Spanish words of Germanic origin#Frankish|List of Spanish words of Franconian origin]]
* [[Low Franconian languages]]
* [[Old High German]]
* [[List of English Latinates of Germanic origin]]

==Endnotes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301601710_The_Origin_of_the_Bergakker_Scabbard_Mount_-_A_Linguistic_Analysis A linguistic analysis of the Bergakker scabbard.]

{{Germanic languages}}
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