Editing Fraxinus excelsior

{{Short description|Species of deciduous tree}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{speciesbox
| name = European ash
| image = Fraxinus excelsior.jpg
| image_caption = Foliage and immature fruit
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="Oldfield-2018">{{cite iucn |author=Khela, S. |author2=Oldfield, S. |date=2018 |title=''Fraxinus excelsior'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T203367A67807718 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T203367A67807718.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Fraxinus
| species = excelsior
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| range_map = Fraxinus excelsior range.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution map
}}

'''''Fraxinus excelsior''''', known as the '''ash''', or '''European ash''' or '''common ash''' to distinguish it from other types of [[Fraxinus|ash]], is a [[flowering plant]] species in the [[olive]] family [[Oleaceae]]. It is native throughout mainland Europe<ref name="Thomas-2016"/> east to the [[Caucasus]] and [[Alborz]] mountains, and west to [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]], the latter determining its western boundary. The northernmost location is in the [[Trondheimsfjord]] region of [[Norway]].<ref name="Rushforth-1999">Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. Collins {{ISBN|0-00-220013-9}}.</ref> The species is widely cultivated and reportedly [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] in [[New Zealand]] and in scattered locales in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref name=POWO>{{cite POWO |id= urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:609009-1|title= Fraxinus excelsior L.|access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref><ref name="KewChecklist">[https://web.archive.org/web/20220928102334/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=369664 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families,  ''Fraxinus excelsior'']</ref><ref>[http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Fraxinus%20excelsior.png Biota of North America Program,  ''Fraxinus excelsior'']</ref><ref>[http://luirig.altervista.org/schedenam/fnam.php?taxon=Fraxinus+excelsior Altervista Flora of the United States and Canada, ''Fraxinus excelsior'']</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Ash flower.JPG|thumb|left|Male flowers]]
[[File:Fraxinus excelsior 4560.jpg|thumb|[[Seed]]s of ''Fraxinus excelsior'', popularly known as "keys" or "helicopter seeds", are a type of [[fruit]] known as a [[samara (fruit)|samara]].]]
It is a large [[deciduous]] [[tree]] growing to {{convert|12|–|18|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (exceptionally to {{convert|43|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) tall with a trunk up to {{convert|2|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} (exceptionally to {{convert|3.5|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) diameter, with a tall, narrow crown.<ref name="Thomas-2016">{{cite journal |first=Peter A. |last=Thomas |title=Biological Flora of the British Isles: ''Fraxinus excelsior'' |date=2016 |journal=Journal of Ecology |doi=10.1111/1365-2745.12566 |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=1158–1209|s2cid=86930831 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016JEcol.104.1158T }}</ref> The [[Bark (botany)|bark]] is smooth and pale grey on young trees, becoming thick and vertically fissured on old trees. The shoots are stout, greenish-grey, with [[jet (gemstone)|jet]]-black [[bud]]s (which distinguish it from most other ash species, which have grey or brown buds). The [[leaf|leaves]] are opposite, {{convert|20|–|35|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, pinnately compound, with 7–13 [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] with coarsely [[serrated]] margins, elliptic to narrowly elliptic, {{convert|3|–|12|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|0.8|–|3|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad and sessile on the leaf [[rachis]].<ref name="Thomas-2016"/> There are no [[stipule]]s.<ref name="Thomas-2016"/> These features distinguish ash from mountain ash (''[[Sorbus aucuparia]]'') in which the leaves are alternate with paired stipules. The leaves are often among the last to open in spring, and the first to fall in autumn if an early frost strikes; they often fall dull green or develop a bright yellow autumn colour. The [[flower]]s are borne in short [[panicle]]s, open before the leaves, and have no [[perianth]]. The female flowers are somewhat longer than the male flowers, dark purple, without petals, and are wind-pollinated. Both male and female flowers can occur on the same tree, but it is more common to find all male and all female trees. A tree that is all male one year can produce female flowers the next, and similarly a female tree can become male.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} The [[fruit]] is a [[samara (fruit)|samara]] {{convert|2.5|-|4.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|5|–|8|mm|in|abbr=on}} broad, often hanging in bunches through the winter;<ref>Kilbracken, J.1983. ''Larousse Easy way guide Trees.'' Larousse. {{ISBN|0-7523-0027 X}}</ref> they are often called 'ash keys'.<ref name="Rushforth-1999"/><ref name="Mitchell-1974">Mitchell, A. F. (1974). ''A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe''. Collins {{ISBN|0-00-212035-6}}</ref><ref name="Mitchell-1982">Mitchell, A. F. (1982). ''The Trees of Britain and Northern Europe''. Collins {{ISBN|0-00-219037-0}}</ref> If the fruit is gathered and planted when it is still green and not fully ripe, it will germinate straight away, however once the fruit is brown and fully ripe, it will not germinate until 18 months after sowing (i.e. not until two winters have passed).<ref>{{cite book |series=Forestry Commission booklet 20 |last=Edlin |first=H. L. |title=Broadleaves |publisher=HMSO |year=1985 |page=36 |isbn=9780117100398}}</ref>

European ash rarely exceeds 250 years of age. However, there are numerous specimens estimated between 200 and 250 years old and there are a few over 250. The largest is in [[Clapton Court]], England, and is  {{convert|9|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} in girth. There are several examples over {{convert|4.5|m|ft|1}} in [[Derbyshire]] alone.

==Distribution==
''Fraxinus excelsior'' is native to [[Europe]] from northern [[Spain]] to [[Russia]], and from southern [[Fennoscandia]] to northern [[Greece]].<ref name="Thomas-2016"/> It is also considered native in southwestern [[Asia]] from northern [[Turkey]] east to the [[Caucasus]] and [[Alborz]] mountains. The northernmost naturally occurring location is in the [[Trondheimsfjord]] region of [[Norway]], though they are planted further north.<ref name="Rushforth-1999"/> The species is widely cultivated and reportedly naturalized in [[New Zealand]] and in scattered locales in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] including [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Quebec]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Maryland]], [[Ontario]], [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]] and [[British Columbia]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

It is native throughout Britain and Ireland, particularly on limestone, as in northern Scotland, where the most northerly native ashwood in Britain occurs on limestone at [[Ardarroch|Rassal Ashwood]].<ref name="Stiven-2004"/> It is widely planted elsewhere.<ref name="BRC_BSBI">{{cite web |title=Online atlas of the British and Irish Flora, ''Fraxinus excelsior'' (Ash) |url=https://www.brc.ac.uk/plantatlas/index.php?q=plant/fraxinus-excelsior |publisher=Biological Records Centre and Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201165946/https://www.brc.ac.uk/plantatlas/index.php?q=plant/fraxinus-excelsior| archive-date=1 December 2021 }}</ref>

==Ecology==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) Wales 160730 (Tony Holkham).jpg
| width1 = 140
| alt1 = 
| caption1 = 
| image2 = Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) Wales 190310 (Tony Holkham).jpg
| width2 = 133
| alt2 = 
| caption2 = 
| footer = Ash tree (~20m tall) in [[Wales]] at 185 m asl in July (l) and March (r), showing branch structure
}}
Ash occurs on a wide range of [[soil]] types, but is particularly associated with basic soils on calcareous substrates. The most northerly ashwood in Britain is on limestone at Rassal, [[Wester Ross]], latitude 57.4278 N.<ref name="SNH">{{cite web |title=Wood Pasture: Rassal Ashwood National Nature Reserve |url=http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/heritagemanagement/woodpasture/RassalAshwood.asp |publisher=Scottish Natural Heritage|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906153044/http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/heritagemanagement/woodpasture/RassalAshwood.asp|archive-date=2013-09-06 }}</ref> Ash prefers moister soil types and is commonly limited by temperature and so not found at the higher colder altitudes in much of Europe, though in Iran, it may reach 2000 m asl. As a young seedling, it is shade tolerant, but older trees are light-demanding. It is an early-[[Ecological succession|succession]] species and may well outcompete beech and oak, which are later-succession species.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A review of European ash (''Fraxinus excelsior'' L.): implications for silviculture Forestry |author1=Dorota Dobrowolska |author2=Sebastian Hein |author3=Anne Oosterbaan |author4=Sven Wagner |author5=Jo Clark |author6=Jens Peter Skovsgaard |date=April 2011 |journal=Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=133–148 |doi=10.1093/forestry/cpr001 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

''F. excelsior'' mycorrhizae are of the internal [[arbuscular mycorrhiza]]l type, in which the fungus grows within the tissues of the root and forms branched, tree-like structures within the cells of the root cortex. Unlike other ''Fraxinus'' species, ''F. excelsior'' does not form [[ectomycorrhiza]]e.<ref name="Thomas-2016"/>

The [[Biological Records Centre]] of the UK records 111 species of insects and mites using ash as a food plant, of which 29 are specific to ash. A further six are specific to ash and its [[Oleaceae]] relative wild privet (''[[Ligustrum vulgare]]'').<ref name="Rackham-2014">{{cite book|last1=Rackham|first1=Oliver|author-link1=Oliver Rackham|title=The Ash Tree|date=2014|publisher=Little Toller Books|location=Toller Fratrum, Dorset|isbn=978-1-908213-14-3 |pages=25–6}}</ref> A number of [[Lepidoptera]] species use the species as a food source.<ref>{{cite web |title=Invertebrates associated with Ash |url=http://www.buglife.org.uk/Resources/Buglife/Invertebrates%20associated%20with%20Ash%20.pdf |access-date=2015-02-28 |author=Alan Stubbs |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903163200/http://www.buglife.org.uk/Resources/Buglife/Invertebrates%20associated%20with%20Ash%20.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2013}}</ref> One example of an ash-specific feeding moth is the centre-barred sallow (''[[Atethmia centrago]]''). The larvae burrow into the buds when newly hatched and later feed on the flowers and leaves.<ref>{{cite web|title=Centre-barred Sallow Atethmia centrago |url=http://www.ukmoths.org.uk/species/atethmia-centrago|website=UKmoths|access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref> A common moth which causes the browning of ash leaves, as well as [[garden privet]] and [[lilac]], is ''[[Gracillaria syringella]]''. The usually gregarious larvae form an epidermal gallery (i.e. feed within the leaf) which leads to a [[Leaf miner|brown blotch]] with black [[frass]]. Later, two successive cones are formed by folding the tip of a leaf downwards.<ref>{{cite web|title=15.014 Gracillaria syringella (Fabricius, 1794)|url=http://www.leafmines.co.uk/html/Lepidoptera/C.syringella.htm|website=British leafminers|access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref>

In Britain, 14 [[galls]] have been recorded on ash. The [[British Plant Gall Society]] defines a gall as "... an abnormal growth produced by a plant under the influence of another organism".<ref name="Redfern-2011">{{cite book|last1=Redfern|first1=Margaret|last2=Shirley|first2=Peter|last3=Bloxham|first3=Michael|title=British Plant Galls|date=2011|publisher=FSC Publications|location=Shrewsbury|isbn=978-1-85153-284-1|edition=Second}}</ref>
<!-- The following galls are formed on ash. 
* ''[[Nectria galligena]]'' 
* ''[[Meloidogyne ardenensis]]''
* ''[[Aceria fraxinivora]]''
* ''[[Contarinia marchali]]''
* ''[[Prociphilus fraxini]]''
* ''[[Prociphilus bumeliae]]''
* ''[[Dasineura acrophila]]''
* ''[[Dasineura fraxini]]''
* ''[[Aculus fraxini]]''
* ''[[Psyllopsis fraxini]]''
* ''[[Psyllopsos fraxinicola]]''
* ''[[Dasineura fraxinea]]''
* ''[[Aceria fraxinicilla]]''
* ''[[Aculus epiphyllus]]''
-->

===Ash dieback===
Ash dieback is caused by the [[fungus]] ''[[Hymenoscyphus fraxineus]]'' which was previously known as ''[[Chalara fraxinea]].''
Research into the genetics of the resistance of ash (''Fraxinus excelsior'') has shown that resistance does occur in European populations, but at least for the samples tested, it is neither common nor strong.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Clonal differences in susceptibility to the dieback of ''Fraxinus excelsior'' in southern Sweden |vauthors=Stener LG |year=2012 |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research |doi=10.1080/02827581.2012.735699 |volume=28 |issue = 3|pages=205–216|s2cid=85292870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Adaptive potential of ash (''Fraxinus excelsior'') populations against the novel emerging pathogen ''Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus''|vauthors=Kjær ED |year=2012 |journal=Evolutionary Applications |display-authors=etal |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00222.x |pmid=25568043 |pmc=3353348 |volume=5 |issue = 3|pages=219–228|bibcode=2012EvApp...5..219K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Presence of natural genetic resistance in ''Fraxinus excelsior'' (Oleraceae) to ''Chalara fraxinea'' (Ascomycota): an emerging infectious disease|vauthors=McKinney LV |year=2011 |journal=Heredity|display-authors=etal |volume=106 |issue=5|doi=10.1038/hdy.2010.119 |pmid=20823903|pages=788–797|pmc=3186218|bibcode=2011Hered.106..788M }}</ref><ref name="Pliūra-2011">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pliūra A, Lygis V, Suchockas V, Bartkevičius E |year=2011 |title=Performance of twenty four European ''Fraxinus excelsior'' populations in three Lithuanian progeny trials with a special emphasis on resistance to ''Chlara fraxinea'' |journal=Baltic Forestry |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=17–34 |url=http://www.balticforestry.mi.lt/bf/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=267:pliura-a-lygis-v-suchockas-v-and-bartkevicius-e-2011-performance-of-twenty-four-european-fraxinus-excelsior-populations-in-three-lithuanian-progeny-trials-with-a-special-emphasis-on-resistance-to-chlara-fraxinea-baltic-forestry-17-1-17-34&catid=33:baltic-forestry-2011-17-1 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142745/http://www.balticforestry.mi.lt/bf/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=267:pliura-a-lygis-v-suchockas-v-and-bartkevicius-e-2011-performance-of-twenty-four-european-fraxinus-excelsior-populations-in-three-lithuanian-progeny-trials-with-a-special-emphasis-on-resistance-to-chlara-fraxinea-baltic-forestry-17-1-17-34&catid=33:baltic-forestry-2011-17-1|archive-date=2015-04-02 }}</ref> Due to the importance of ''F. excelsior'' as a host, Jönsson and Thor 2012 find that rare/threatened [[lichen]]s face an unusually high (0.38) [[coextinction risk probability]] ''vis-a-vis'' the host tree in the [[wooded meadow]]s of [[Gotland]], Sweden.<ref name="Oliva-2020">{{cite journal | last1=Oliva | first1=Jonàs | last2=Redondo | first2=Miguel Ángel | last3=Stenlid | first3=Jan | title=Functional Ecology of Forest Disease | journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=58 | issue=1 | date=2020-08-25 | issn=0066-4286 | doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-050028 | pages=343–361| pmid=32396761 | bibcode=2020AnRvP..58..343O | s2cid=218618105 }}</ref>

==Genome==
The genome of ''Fraxinus excelsior'' is being sequenced by two groups of scientists in the United Kingdom. A group at [[Queen Mary, University of London|Queen Mary University of London]] led by Richard Buggs are sequencing the self-pollinated offspring of a tree from [[Worcestershire]], held by the [[Earth Trust]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ashgenome.org|title=Welcome to Ash tree genomes – Ash Tree Genomes|website=ashgenome.org}}</ref> A group at the [[John Innes Centre]] and [[The Genome Analysis Centre]] led by Allan Downie are sequencing "Tree 35" from [[Denmark]], discovered by Erik Kjær, which has survived 8 years of ash dieback.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22913111|title=Ash genome reveals fungus resistance|first=Tom|last=Heap|date=16 June 2013|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>

==Uses==
[[File:Esche gemeine Holz.JPG|left|thumb|Veneer of common ash wood]]
[[File:Jakobframe.jpg|right|thumb|Replica of the body frame from the [[Volvo ÖV 4]] car, made primarily from ash wood]]

The resilience and rapid growth made it an important resource for smallholders and farmers. It was probably the most versatile wood in the countryside with wide-ranging uses. Until [[World War II]], the trees were often [[coppicing|coppiced]] on a 10-year cycle to provide a sustainable source of timber for fuel and poles for building and woodworking.<ref name="Mabey1996">Mabey, R. (1996). ''Flora Britannica''. [[Sinclair-Stevenson Ltd]] {{ISBN|1-85619-377-2}}.</ref> The colour of the wood ranges from creamy white to light brown, and the heart wood may be a darker olive-brown. Ash timber is hard, tough and very hard-wearing, with a coarse, open grain and a density of 710&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ash |website=Niche Timbers |url=http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/native-hardwood/ash/ |access-date=2009-08-19}}</ref> It lacks [[oak]]'s natural resistance to decay, and is not as suitable for posts buried in the ground. Because of its high flexibility, shock resistance, and resistance to splitting, ash wood is the traditional material for bows, tool handles, especially for [[hammer]]s and [[axe]]s, [[tennis racket]]s, and [[snooker]] [[cue stick]]s,<ref>Petrică Tudor M, Ingrid Agnes M, Szilard B. 2011. Study of Physical Characteristics, Mechanical and Technological Properties of Wood Species from the ''Fraxinus'' Genus Encountered in Romania Compared to Other Main Forestry Species. Natural Resources and Sustainable Development [http://protmed.uoradea.ro/facultate/publicatii/natural_resources/2011/papers/32.%20Motiu%20Tudor.pdf].</ref> and it was extensively used in the construction of early aircraft. Ash was commonly used green for making chair frames which would be seated with another timber or with woven [[Juncaceae|rush]] (e.g. those made by [[Philip Clissett]], see also ''The English Regional Chair''<ref>{{cite book|last=Cotton|first=Bernard D.|title=The English Regional Chair|year=1990 |publisher=Antiques Collectors Club|location=Woodbridge, Suffolk|isbn=1-85149-023-X}}</ref>). The parts were turned on a [[pole lathe]] or shaped with a [[drawknife]]. The practice essentially died out in the early 20th century, but has seen a revival in recent years.

Ash is an important constituent of [[wood pasture]], a European management system in which open woodland provided shelter and forage for grazing animals.<ref name="Stiven-2004">{{cite book |title=Wood Pasture |first1=Roland |last1=Stiven |first2=Kate |last2=Holl |date=2004 |publisher=Scottish Natural Heritage |location=Perth, UK |isbn=978-1853973864 |url=https://archive.org/details/woodpasture0000stiv |url-access=registration}}</ref> Ash was coppiced and [[pollarding|pollarded]], often in hedgerows, and evidence in the form of some huge boles with multiple trunks emerging at head height can still be seen in parts of Britain. The Glen Lyon ash is a notable example of a pollarded ash which at about 400–500 years of age achieved a girth of {{convert|6|m|||abbr=on}}.<ref name="Stiven-2004" /> In [[Northumberland]], [[crab]] and [[Lobster trap|lobster pots]] (traps) sometimes known as 'creeves' by local people are still made from ash sticks.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} Because of its [[Elasticity (physics)|elasticity]] European ash wood was commonly used for [[Assistive cane|walking sticks]]. Poles were cut from a [[coppicing|coppice]] and the ends heated in steam. The wood could then be bent in a curved [[Vise (tool)|vise]] to form the handle of the walking stick. The light colour and attractive grain of ash wood make it popular in modern furniture such as chairs, dining tables, doors, and other architectural features and [[wood flooring]].

Ash is the only wood used for the manufacture of [[hurley (stick)|hurleys]], referred to as hurls in parts of [[Leinster]] and known as a {{Lang|ga|camán}} in Irish, the timber sticks used in the game of [[hurling]] in [[Ireland]]. Hurleys are manufactured from the butt log (bottom 1.5-m of the stem) and from trees ideally of a diameter at breast height around {{convert|25-30|cm|||abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. Only fast-grown, straight, and knot-free ash can be used for this purpose. Due to the lack of available ash in Ireland, over 75% of the timber needed to produce the 350,000 hurleys required for the game annually must be imported, mostly from Eastern European countries.<ref>{{cite report |editor1=John Whiriskey |editor2=Paul McCarthy |date=May 2006 |series=Fact Sheet No. 35 |url=http://www.teagasc.ie/advisory/alternatives/200001/pdfs_060626/35_ASHFORHURLEY.pdf |title=Ash For Hurleys |publisher=Teagasc – The Agriculture and Food Development Authority |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071122040621/http://www.teagasc.ie/advisory/alternatives/200001/pdfs_060626/35_ASHFORHURLEY.pdf |archive-date=2007-11-22 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The importance of ash timber to the game of hurling is reflected in the fact that the game is referred to all over Ireland as "The Clash of the Ash".

Ash is valuable as firewood because it burns well even when 'green' (freshly cut).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/hqdocs/facts/pdfs/fs315001.pdf |title=The burning properties of wood |access-date=1 November 2010 |publisher=The Scout Association |year=1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223202805/http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/hqdocs/facts/pdfs/fs315001.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Ash bark and leaves are used in modern herbal medicine for its astringent and laxative properties.<ref>{{cite report|author1=Pliûra, A. |author2=Heuertz, M. |title=Common ash – ''Fraxinus excelsior'': Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use |url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/Technical_guidelines_Fraxinus_excelsior.pdf |date=2003 |publisher=[[EUFORGEN]]}}</ref>

==Mythology==
[[File:Om Yggdrasil by Frølich.jpg|thumb|The world tree of [[Norse mythology]], [[Yggdrasil]]—seen here depicted by [[Lorenz Frølich]]—is typically described as an ash tree.]]
In the 13th-century [[Edda]] and other writing relating to [[Norse mythology]], the vast ash tree [[Yggdrasil]] ("the steed ([[gallows]]) of [[Odin]]"), watered by three magical springs, serves as [[axis mundi]], sustaining the nine worlds of the [[cosmos]] in its roots and branches.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simek |first=Rudolf |author-link=Rudolf Simek|year=2007|translator=Angela Hall|title=Dictionary of Northern Mythology|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|D.S. Brewer]] |isbn=978-0-85991-513-7}}</ref>

==Folklore==
On the [[Isle of Bute]] in Scotland, lovers reportedly used to eat leaves of an ash tree known as the "Dreamin' Tree" that grew near the church of St Blane, and the pleasant dreams they then experienced revealed their actual spouses and intended fates.<ref>Downie, R. Angus (1934). ''Bute and the Cumbraes'' Glasgow & London: Blackwood & Son Ltd. p. 83</ref>

==Cultivars==
[[File:Ash mast at Eglinton.JPG|right|thumb|Ash saplings from a [[Mast (botany)#Mast seeding|mast year]]]]
Its many [[cultivar]]s include;

*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Aurea', the traditional, slow-growing golden ash ─ not to be confused with 'Jaspidea'
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Aurea Pendula' (weeping golden ash)
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Autumn Blaze'
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Autumn Purple'
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Crispa'
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Diversifolia' (one-leaved ash)
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Erosa'
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Jaspidea' a modern, vigorous golden ash
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Monophylla'
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Nana'
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Pendula' (weeping ash), one of the best-known cultivars, widely planted during the [[Victorian era]], grows vigorously forming an attractive small to medium-sized tree with mounds of weeping branches
*''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Skyline'

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Fused Ash Trees.JPG|Two ash trees fused together
Le Roeulx AR9JPG.jpg|Tree 46 m tall, Château des princes de Croÿ, Le Roeulx, [[Belgium]]
Fraxinus excelsior - Ardenne 1b.JPG|Old tree, [[Belgium]]
EurAshLeaf.jpg|Leaf and shoot, showing black bud
Fraxinus excelsior 'Pendula'.JPG|Weeping ash ''Fraxinus excelsior'' 'Pendula', [[Knightshayes Court]], England
Buds of Fraxinus excelsior 03.jpg|Buds
Fraxinus excelsior(01).jpg|Bark
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* ''[https://www.euforgen.org/species/fraxinus-excelsior/ Fraxinus excelsior]'' – distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources. [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN)
* ''[https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/british-trees/a-z-of-british-trees/ash/ Fraxinus excelsior] –'' Ash info, images and video at [[Woodland Trust]]

{{Woodworking|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q156907}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fraxinus excelsior| ]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]
[[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]]
[[Category:Trees of Europe]]
[[Category:Flora of Western Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of the Pyrenees]]
[[Category:Flora of Italy]]
[[Category:Flora of Spain]]
[[Category:Flora of Turkey]]
[[Category:Flora of Iran]]
[[Category:Flora of Iraq]]
[[Category:Flora of Russia]]
[[Category:Flora of France]]
[[Category:Flora of Germany]]
[[Category:Flora of Poland]]
[[Category:Flora of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Least concern plants]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Europe]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Fraxinus|excelsior]]