Editing Frequentative

{{Short description|Grammatical aspect that indicates repeated action over multiple occasions or places}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=February 2014}}
{{Globalize|1=article|2=the [[Western world]]|date=June 2023}}
}}
{{Wiktionary|frequentative}}
In [[grammar]], a '''frequentative form''' ([[list of glossing abbreviations|abbreviated]] '''{{sc|freq}}''' or '''{{sc|fr}}''') of a word indicates repeated action but is not to be confused with [[iterative aspect]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bhat|first=D.N.S.|title=The prominence of tense, aspect and mood|publisher=John Benjamins|year=1999|pages=53–56|isbn= 9781556199356|oclc=909078918}}</ref> The frequentative form can be considered a separate but not completely independent word called a '''frequentative'''. The frequentative is no longer [[productivity (linguistics)|productive]] in English, unlike in some language groups, such as [[Finno-Ugric]], [[Balto-Slavic]], and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]].

== English ==
English has ''-le'' and -''er'' as frequentative [[suffix]]es. Some frequentative verbs surviving in [[English language|English]], and their parent verbs are listed below.  Additionally, some frequentative verbs are formed by [[reduplication]] of a monosyllable (e.g., ''coo-cooing'', ''cf.'' Latin ''murmur'').  Frequentative nouns are often formed by combining two different [[apophony|vowel grades]] of the same word (as in ''teeter-totter'', ''pitter-patter'', ''chitchat''.)

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! frequentative || original || suffix
|-
| [[:wikt:blabber|blabber]] || [[:wikt:blab|blab]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:bobble|bobble]] || [[:wikt:bob|bob]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:clamber|clamber]] || [[:wikt:climb|climb]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:clutter|clutter]] || [[:wikt:clot|clot]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:crackle|crackle]] || [[:wikt:crack|crack]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:crumble|crumble]] || [[:wikt:crumb|crumb]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:cuddle|cuddle]] || [[:wikt:couth|couth]] (ME. cudde, cuþþed, OE. cúð)|| -le
|-
| [[:wikt:curdle|curdle]] || [[:wikt:curd|curd]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:dabble|dabble]] || [[:wikt:dab|dab]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:dribble|dribble]] || [[:wikt:drip|drip]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:draggle|draggle]], [[:wikt:bedraggled|bedraggled]]  || [[:wikt:drag|drag]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:dazzle|dazzle]] || [[:wikt:daze|daze]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:fizzle|fizzle]] || [[:wikt:fizz|fizz]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:flitter|flitter]] || [[:wikt:flit|flit]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:flutter|flutter]] || [[:wikt:float|float]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:fondle|fondle]] || [[:wikt:fond|fond]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:glimmer|glimmer]] || [[:wikt:gleam|gleam]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:gobble|gobble]] || [[:wikt:gob|gob]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:gruntle|gruntle]], [[:wikt:disgruntled|disgruntled]]  || [[:wikt:grunt|grunt]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:haggle|haggle]] || [[:wikt:hag|hag]] = hew, hack || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:jiggle|jiggle]] || [[:wikt:jig|jig]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:jostle|jostle]] || [[:wikt:joust|joust]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:muddle|muddle]] || [[:wikt:mud|mud]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:nestle|nestle]] || [[:wikt:nest|nest]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:nuzzle|nuzzle]] || [[:wikt:nose|nose]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:paddle|paddle]] || [[:wikt:pad|pad]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:patter|patter]] || [[:wikt:pat|pat]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:prattle|prattle]] || [[:wikt:prate|prate]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:prickle|prickle]] || [[:wikt:prick|prick]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:pucker|pucker]] || [[:wikt:pock|pock]], [[wikt:poke|poke]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:putter|putter]] || [[:wikt:put|put]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:scuffle|scuffle]] || [[:wikt:scuff|scuff]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:scuttle|scuttle]] || [[:wikt:scud|scud]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:slither|slither]] || [[:wikt:slide|slide]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:sniffle|sniffle]] || [[:wikt:sniff|sniff]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:snuffle|snuffle]] || [[:wikt:snuff|snuff]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:snuggle|snuggle]] || [[:wikt:snug|snug]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:sparkle|sparkle]] || [[:wikt:spark|spark]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:spatter|spatter]] || [[:wikt:spit|spit]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:speckle|speckle]] || [[:wikt:speck|speck]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:straddle|straddle]] || [[:wikt:stride|stride]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:suckle|suckle]] || [[:wikt:suck|suck]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:swaddle|swaddle]] || [[:wikt:swathe|swathe]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:swagger|swagger]] || [[:wikt:swag|swag]] || -er
|-
| [[:wikt:swindle|swindle]] || [[:wikt:swindan|swindan]] (OE. cognate, 'to waste away') || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:tickle|tickle]] || [[:wikt:tick|tick]] || -le
|- 
| [[:wikt:topple|topple]] || [[:wikt:top|top]] || -le 
|-
| [[:wikt:tousle|tousle]] || [[:wikt:tease|tease]] (apart) || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:trample|trample]] || [[:wikt:tramp|tramp]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:toggle|toggle]] || [[:wikt:tug|tug]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:tumble|tumble]] || [[:wikt:tumben|tumben]] (Middle English) || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:twinkle|twinkle]] || [[:wikt:twink|twink]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:waddle|waddle]] || [[:wikt:wade|wade]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:waggle|waggle]] || [[:wikt:wag|wag]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:wrangle|wrangle]] || [[:wikt:wring|wring]] || -le
|-
| [[:wikt:wrestle|wrestle]] || [[:wikt:wrest|wrest]] || -le
|}

==Finnish==
In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], a frequentative [[verb]] signifies a single action repeated, "around the place" both spatially and temporally. The complete translation would be "go — around aimlessly". There is a large array of different frequentatives, indicated by lexical agglutinative markers. In general, one frequentative is ''-:i-'', and another ''-ele-'', but it is almost always combined with something else. Some forms:
* ''sataa — sa<u>del</u>la — sat<u>ele</u>e'' "to rain — to rain occasionally — it rains occasionally"
* ''ampua — ammu<u>skella</u> — ammu<u>skele</u>n'' "to shoot — go shooting around — I go shooting around"
* ''juosta — juokse<u>nnella</u> — juokse<u>ntele</u>n '' "to run — to run around (to and fro) — I run around"
* ''kirjoittaa — kirjoi<u>tella</u> — kirjoi<u>ttele</u>n'' "to write — to write (something short) occasionally — I write "around""
* ''järjestää — järje<u>stellä</u> — järje<u>stele</u>n'' "to put in order — to arrange continuously, to play around — I play around (with them) in order to put them in order"
* ''heittää — heitt<u>elehti</u>ä — heitt<u>elehdi</u>t'' "to throw — to swerve — you swerve"
* ''loikata — loik<u>ki</u>a — loik<u>i</u>n'' "to jump once — to jump (again and again) — I jump (again and again)"
* ''istua — istu<u>ksi</u>a — istu<u>ksi</u>t'' "to sit — to sit (randomly somewhere), loiter — you loiter there by sitting"

There are several frequentative morphemes, underlined above; these are affected by [[consonant gradation]] as indicated. Their meanings are slightly different; see the list, arranged ''infinitive''~''personal'':
*''-ella''~''-ele-'': bare frequentative.
*''-skella''~''-skele-'': frequentative [[unergative verb]], where the action is wanton (arbitrary)
*''-stella''~''-stele-'': frequentative [[causative]], where the subject causes something indicated in the root, as "order" vs. "to continuously try to put something in order".
*''-nnella''~''-ntele-'': a frequentative, where an actor is required. The marker ''-nt-'' indicates a continuing effort, therefore ''-ntele-'' indicates a series of such efforts.
*''-elehtia''~''-elehdi-'': movement that is random and compulsive, as in under pain, e.g. ''vääntelehtiä'' "writhe in pain", or ''heittelehtiä'' "to swerve"
*''-:ia-''~''-i-'': a continuing action definitely at a point in time, where the action or effort is repeated.
*''-ksia''~''-ksi-'': same as ''-i-'', but wanton, cf. ''-skella''

Frequentatives may be combined with [[momentane]]s, that is, to indicate the repetition of a short, sudden action. The momentane ''-ahta-'' can be prefixed with the frequentative ''-ele-'' to produce the morpheme ''-ahtele-'', as in ''täristä'' "to shake (continuously)" → ''tärähtää'' "to shake suddenly once" → ''tärähdellä'' "to shake, such that a single, sudden shaking is repeated". For example, the contrast between these is that ground shakes (''maa tärisee'') continuously when a large truck goes by, the ground shakes once (''maa tärähtää'') when a cannon fires, and the ground shakes suddenly but repeatedly (''maa tärähtelee'') when a battery of cannons is firing.

Since the frequentative is a lexical, not a grammatical contrast, considerable [[semantic drift]] may have occurred.

For a list of different real and hypothetical forms, see:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/~lcarlson/02-03/ctl104/ctl104h03facit.html |title=ctl104mh.shtml |publisher=Ling.helsinki.fi |access-date=2019-09-12 |archive-date=2005-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051212142820/http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/~lcarlson/02-03/ctl104/ctl104h03facit.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Loanword]]s are put into the frequentative form, if the action is such. If the action can be nothing else but frequentative, the "basic form" doesn't even exist, such as with "to go shopping".

* ''surffata — surffailla'' "to surf — to surf (around in the net)"
* ''*shopata — shoppailla'' "*to shop once — to go shopping"

Adjectives can similarly receive frequentative markers: ''iso — isotella'' "big — to talk big", or ''feikkailla'' < English ''fake'' "to be fake, blatantly and consistently".

==Greek==
In [[Homer]] and [[Herodotus]], there is a past frequentative, usually called "past iterative", with an additional -sk- suffix before the endings.<ref>Greek Grammar, par. 495: iterative imperfects and aorists.</ref>
*{{LSJ|e)/xw|ékhe-sk-on}} "I used to have" (imperfect ''ékh-on'')

The same suffix is used in [[inchoative verb]]s in both [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Latin]].

The infix may occur in the forms -σκ-, -ασκ-, and -εσκ-. Homer regularly omits the augment. The iterative occurs most often in the imperfect, but also in the aorist.

== Hungarian ==
In [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] it is quite common and everyday to use frequentative.

Frequentative verbs are formed with the suffix ''–gat'' (''–get'' after a front vowel; see [[vowel harmony]]).  Also there is a so-called Template rule, which forces another vowel in between the base verb and the affix resulting in a word containing at least three syllables. Verbal prefixes (coverbs) do not count as a syllable.

Some verbs' frequentative forms have acquired an independent non-frequentative meaning. In these cases the three syllables rule is not applied as the form is not considered a frequentative. These words can be affixed with ''–gat'' again to create a frequentative meaning.

In rare cases non-verbs can be affixed by ''–gat'' to give them similar modification in meaning as to verbs. In most cases these non-verbs are obviously related to some actions, like a typical outcome or object. The resulting word basically has the same meaning as if the related verb were affixed with ''–gat''.

The change in meaning of a frequentative compared to the base can be different depending on the base: The ''–gat'' affix can modify the occurrences or the intensity or both of an action. Occasionally it produces a specific meaning which is related but distinct from the original form's.

Examples:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! frequentative || root || translation of root || translation of ''–gat'' form || explanation
|-
| fizetget || fizet || to pay || paying for a longer period with probably less intensity || the vowel harmony forced -GAT to take form of -get 
|-
| kéreget || kér || to ask || begging for a living || because the resulting word must be at least three syllables long a new vowel is added to the word: kér-e-get
|-
| kiütöget || (ki)üt || hit (out) || hit out sg. multiple times || the prefixed coverb "ki" (out) doesn't count as a syllable so an extra vowel is added: (ki)üt-ö-get
|-
| hallgatgat || hallgat || to listen || to listen multiple times but with possibly less intensity || the original verb "hallgat" (to listen) is a syntactically imperfect frequentative form of "hall" (to hear)
|-
| rángat || ránt || to hitch || to tousle || this one is kind of an exception for the three syllable rule, however "rántogat" (ránt-o-gat) is uncommon but valid, and has a slightly bigger emphasis on the separate nature of each pull rather than a continuous shaking as in "rángat"
|- 
| jajgat || jaj || ouch (a shout) || to shout "jaj" multiple times, probably because of pain || the original word is not a verb, so the three syllable rule is not applied
|-
| béget || bee || baa ([[onomatopoeia]] for a sheep) || to shout baa multiple times || same as above
|-
| mosogat || mos || to wash || to do the dishes || the frequentative form (mos-o-gat) has its own non-frequentative meaning
|-
| mosogatgat || mosogat || to do the dishes || to do the dishes slowly and effortlessly || as the frequentative "mosogat" has a non-frequentative meaning, it can be affixed by -GAT to make it frequentative
|-
| dolgozgat || dolgozik || to work || to work with less effort and intensity, as in: "Ők fizet'''get'''nek, én dolgoz'''gat'''ok" (They pretend to pay me, I pretend to work.) || the "-ik" at the end of "dolgozik" is an irregular ending which is only effective in [[third person singular]], so -GAT sticks to "dolgoz" which is the root of the word
|}

==Latin==
In [[Latin language|Latin]], frequentative verbs indicate repeated or intense action.<ref>B. L. Gildersleeve and Gonzalez Lodge (1895), ''Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar'', §191 A.</ref> They are usually formed from the [[supine]] stem with ''-āre'' added.
*cantāre, ‘(continue to) sing’ (< canere, ‘sing a song’). (This frequentative form was used often enough that it displaced and drove the basal form into extinction in modern Romance languages.)
*cursāre ‘run around’ (< currere, ‘run’)
*dictāre ‘dictate’ (< dīcere, ‘speak, say’)
*dormītāre 'be drowsy, fall asleep' (< dormīre, 'sleep')
*iactāre, ‘shake, disturb’ (< iacere, ‘throw, cast’)
*pulsāre, ‘beat’ (< pellere, ‘push’)
*saltāre, 'dance, jump' (< salīre, 'leap')
*spectāre, 'watch' (< specere, more usually aspicere, 'take a look at')
*versāre, ‘turn often, keep turning’ (< vertere, ‘turn’)

The following, exceptionally, is 3rd conjugation:
*vīsere, 'look at attentively, visit' (< vidēre, 'see')

Occasionally, however, they are formed not from the supine but from the present stem with ''-itāre''.
*agitāre, ‘put into motion’ (< agere, ‘do, drive’)
*clāmitāre, 'keep shouting' (< clāmāre, 'shout')
*habitāre, 'reside, dwell (somewhere)' (< habēre, 'have', in pre-classical times it also had a meaning of reside, dwell<ref>WEBER, CLIFFORD. "Three Notes on Habeo and Ac in the "Itinerarium Egeriae"." Illinois Classical Studies 10, no. 2 (1985): 285-94. Accessed March 6, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23062550.</ref> )
*minitārī, 'keep threatening' (< minārī, 'threaten')
*vocitāre, 'be wont to call' / 'keep calling' (< vocāre, 'call')

The following is irregular since the supine of ''nāre'' is ''nātum'' with a long ā:
*natāre, 'swim, float' (< nāre, 'swim, float')

A frequentative verb can be made doubly frequentative by adding -''itāre'' to a supine:
*cursitāre ‘run here and there’ (< currere, ‘run’)
*dictitāre ‘say often or emphatically’ (< dīcere, ‘speak, say’)
*ventitāre, ‘come frequently or repeatedly’ (< venīre, ‘come’; see [[:s:la:Carmina (Catullus)/8|Catullus 8]], line 4)
*vīsitāre, 'visit' (< vidēre, 'see')

Some frequentative verbs have no simple form:
*gustāre, 'taste'
*hortārī, 'exhort'

== Lithuanian ==
[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] has a past frequentative (or iterative), which serves to express a single action repeated in the past. Starting from the [[infinitive]] without {{lang|lt|–ti}}, it is formed by adding the invariant morpheme {{lang|lt|–dav–}} followed by the regular past tense suffix of the first conjugation. For instance, {{lang|lt|dirb·'''ti'''}} ("to work", a first-conjugation verb), whose plain past tense is {{lang|lt|dirb·'''au'''}} ("I worked" or "I have worked"), has a past iterative of {{lang|lt|dirb·'''dav'''·'''au'''}} ("I used to work"). The six intersections of person and number map onto five distinct frequentative endings; there is no morphological distinction of number in the third person, nor of conjugation class in general.

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=2|
! {{lang|lt|dirbti}} {{nobold|("to work")}}
! {{lang|lt|norėti}} {{nobold|("to want")}}
! {{lang|lt|skaityti}} {{nobold|("to read")}}
|-
!rowspan=2|1st person
!{{small|singular}}
|{{lang|lt|dirb·'''dav'''·'''au'''}}
|{{lang|lt|norė·'''dav'''·'''au'''}}
|{{lang|lt|skaity·'''dav'''·'''au'''}}
|-
!{{small|plural}}
|{{lang|lt|dirb·'''dav'''·'''ome'''}}
|{{lang|lt|norė·'''dav'''·'''ome'''}}
|{{lang|lt|skaity·'''dav'''·'''ome'''}}
|-
!rowspan=2|2nd person
!{{small|singular}}
|{{lang|lt|dirb·'''dav'''·'''ai'''}}
|{{lang|lt|norė·'''dav'''·'''ai'''}}
|{{lang|lt|skaity·'''dav'''·'''ai'''}}
|-
!{{small|plural}}
|{{lang|lt|dirb·'''dav'''·'''ote'''}}
|{{lang|lt|norė·'''dav'''·'''ote'''}}
|{{lang|lt|skaity·'''dav'''·'''ote'''}}
|-
!colspan=2|3rd person
|{{lang|lt|dirb·'''dav'''·o}}
|{{lang|lt|norė·'''dav'''·o}}
|{{lang|lt|skaity·'''dav'''·o}}
|}

The closest relative of Lithuanian, [[Latvian language|Latvian]], as well as the [[Samogitian dialect]] of the language, has no separate past tense to mark iterative aspect; in its place, however, both may express it by means of [[periphrasis]]. An auxiliary verb – {{lang|lv|mēgt}} in Latvian and {{lang|sgs|liuobėti}} in Samogitian – will then occupy the syntactic centre of the verb phrase (subject to conjugation), relegating the main verb to trail it as an (invariant) infinitive complement.

Consider the following three translations of the English sentence "We used to read a lot."
* Lithuanian: {{lang|lt|Mes daug '''skaitydavome'''.}}
* Samogitian: {{lang|sgs|Mes '''liuobiam''' daug '''skaitītė'''.}}
* Latvian: {{lang|lv|Mēs '''mēdzām''' daudz '''lasīt'''.}}

==Polish==

In the [[Polish language]], certain [[Imperfective aspect|imperfective verbs]] ending in ''-ać'' denote repeated or habitual action.
* ''jeść'' (to eat) → ''jadać'' (to eat habitually)
* ''iść'' (to walk) → ''chadzać''. 
* ''widzieć'' (to see) → ''widywać''
* ''pisać'' (to write) → ''pisywać''
* ''czytać'' (to read) → ''czytywać''

The interfix ''-yw-'' used to form many frequentative verbs has a different function for prefixed [[Perfective aspect|perfective verbs]]: it serves to create their imperfective equivalents. For instance, ''rozczytywać'' (to try to read something barely legible) is simply an imperfective equivalent of ''rozczytać'' (to succeed at reading something barely legible).

==Russian==

In the [[Russian language]], the frequentative form of verbs to denote a repeated or customary action is produced by inserting suffixes -ива-/-ыва-, -ва- or -а́-, often accompanied with a change in the [[root (linguistics)|root]] of the word ([[vowel alternation]], change of the last root consonant) and stress shift.
* ви́деть (to see) → ви́дывать (to see repeatedly)
* сиде́ть (to sit)  → си́живать
* ходи́ть (to walk) → ха́живать
* носи́ть (to wear) → на́шивать
* гла́дить (to stroke) → погла́живать
* знать (to know) → знава́ть
* есть (to eat) → еда́ть
* писа́ть (to write) → попи́сывать

An interesting example is with the word ''брать'' (to take); an archaic usage recorded among [[hunter]]s, normally used in the past tense, in hunter's boasting: бирал, бирывал meaning "used to take (quite a few) trophies".

==Reduplication==
The simplest way to produce a frequentative is [[reduplication]], either of the entire word or of one of its phonemes. This is common in [[Austronesian languages]] such as [[Niuean language#Reduplication|Niuean]], although reduplication also serves to pluralize and intensify nouns and adjectives.

==See also==
*[[Continuous and progressive aspects]]
*[[Inchoative verb]]

==References==
<references />

==Sources==
*{{cite book | author=Gildersleeve, B. L.| title=Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar| publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci| year=1895 | isbn=0-86516-477-0}}

{{Grammatical aspects}}
{{lexical categories|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Grammatical aspects]]
[[Category:Verb types]]
[[Category:Lithuanian grammar]]
[[Category:Finnish grammar]]
[[Category:Turkish grammar]]